/ . Embryol. exp. Morph. Vol. 65, pp. 89-103, 1981
Printed in Great Britain © Company of Biologists Limited 1981
go,
Influence of the entoderm on mesodermal
expansion in the area vasculosa of the chick
By J.M.AUGUSTINE 1
From the Department of Anatomy, Hahnemann Medical College
SUMMARY
To determine whether expansion of the splanchnic mesoderm of the area vasculosa is
influenced by the entodermal substratum on which it occurs, entoderm was separated from
a small area of splanchnic mesoderm. The splanchnic mesoderm then contracted and
thickened, decreasing to 7 % of its original area in 16 h. By then entoderm had reattached to
most of it, and it expanded, reaching 11 % of its original area by 24 h. It was concluded that
attachment to entoderm may be required for expansion of the splanchnic mesoderm, but the
small amount of expansion obtained made this conclusion tentative.
For technical reasons subsequent investigation was done on mesodermal transplants, which
attached to the host's entoderm in 6 h, by which time they had contracted to 15% of their
original area. They then expanded, reaching 30% by 16 h and 49% by 24 h. The onset of
their expansion was also accompanied by the formation of connexions between their blood
vessels and those of the host, and by the resumption of blood flow in them. To see whether
their expansion was due to resumption of blood flow or to attachment to entoderm, other
transplants were made in which the middle one-third was separated from the host's entoderm
by a piece of Millipore filter. This portion failed to expand although it became connected to
the host's blood vessels and flow of blood resumed in it, while the two lateral thirds, which
regained attachment to entoderm, expanded. Transplants were also rotated so that their
splanchnic mesoderm attached to ectoderm instead of entoderm. These transplants also
formed connexions with the host's vessels and blood flow resumed in them, but they expanded only slightly compared to non-rotated controls, in which the splanchnic mesoderm
attached to entoderm.
It was concluded that while flow of blood undoubtedly promotes splanchnic mesodermal
expansion as others have shown, attachment of the splanchnic mesoderm to entoderm is
also important, and without it the promotive effect of blood flow does not occur. Evidence
was also obtained that attachment to entoderm maintains the thinness of the splanchnic
mesoderm, and that a vascular growth stimulus may be produced by the unvascularized
entoderm distal to the mesoderm.
INTRODUCTION
The yolk sac of the chicken embryo is initially avascular, consisting of two
epithelial layers, the ectoderm and entoderm. Blood vessels develop in the mesoderm, which spreads into the yolk sac from the body of the embryo between the
ectoderm and entoderm, separating them as it advances. The expanding region
occupied by this mesoderm is the area vasculosa, and that into which it spreads
1
Author's address: Department of Anatomy, Hahnemann Medical College, 230, North
Broad St., Philadelphia, PA 19102 U.S.A.
90
J. M. AUGUSTINE
Area vasculosa
ect
bm.
Albumen
Yolk
Area vitellina
Fig. 1. (A) Yolk sphere with stage-18 to -20 embryo. Dotted line indicates area of
entoderm separation. Circle at lower right corner indicates hole in ectoderm through
which forceps and probe are inserted. (B) Section through region of circle in (A)
to show separation of entoderm from splanchnic mesoderm. bm, Basement membrane; ec, edge cells; ect, ectoderm; ent, entoderm; som, somatic mesoderm; spl,
splanchnic mesoderm; st, sinus terminalis.
is the area vitellina (Fig. 1 A). Previously attention has been given to the role
which the ectoderm might play as a substratum for this mesodermal expansion,
and to a group of cells at the edge of the mesoderm which adhere to the ectoderm and move outward in contact with it (Augustine, 1970, 1977 a; Mayer
& Packard, 1978; Mayer, Hay & Hynes, 1981). The present report concerns the
role of the entoderm in mesodermal expansion.
During the formation and early expansion of the mesoderm interactions occur
between it and the entoderm which affect the development of both. Differentiation of mesenchyme into endothelium and erythrocytes is promoted by its
association with the entoderm (Wilt, 1965; Mato, Aikawa & Kishi, 1964). This
interaction is transmissible through a Millipore filter separating the two layers
and preventing intercellular contact between them (Miura & Wilt, 1969). In
the reverse direction, as the mesoderm moves outward it acts on the subjacent
entoderm, promoting the formation by it of a columnar epithelium from a
dispersed arrangement of cells (Bremer, 1960; Bellairs, 1963; Bennett, 1973;
Milos, Zalek & Phillips, 1979) and the synthesis in it of the enzyme cysteine
lyase (Bennett, 1973).
The present work has been done on embryos of 3£ days of incubation (Stage
18-20 of Hamburger & Hamilton, 1951). By this time the mesoderm has split
into two layers, somatic, lining the ectoderm, and splanchnic, lining the entoderm and containing the blood vessels (Fig. 1B). The two layers remain joined
at their edge and at scattered points proximal to the edge, and they continue to
expand as a unit, but they are largely separated by the coelomic space. In the
splanchnic mesoderm a pattern of large and small vessels is present which has
developed from an earlier capillary network. Both arteries and veins are present,
but their walls are relatively undifferentiated, consisting of endothelium surrounded by mesenchyme. Mesenchyme also fills the spaces between vessels as
Entodermal effect on expansion of area vasculosa of chick
91
o o eo
Donor
Fig. 2. Transplantation of mesoderm. Donor: ectoderm has been removed from its
basement membrane, and entoderm from splanchnic mesoderm, in area vasculosa.
A piece of the remaining tissues indicated by dotted lines, is then excised and transferred to host. Host: mesodermal transplant has been placed between entoderm and
basement membrane of ectoderm in area vitellina.
a thin layer laying on the entoderm. The interactions between entoderm and mesoderm described at earlier stages may still be occurring, since the processes
affected by them are apparently continuing: in the mesoderm erythropoiesis
continues, especially in distal regions (Houser, Ackerman & Knouff, 1961),
and differentiation of mesenchyme into endothelium may still be occurring at
stages as late as this (Sabin, 1922; Hughes, 1937). In the entoderm formation
of a columnar epithelium in response to overpassage by the mesoderm continues. In addition, changes in entodermal intracellular yolk drops suggest
that yolk digestion has begun and that absorption of the resulting nutrients into
the overlying bloodstream in the mesoderm is occurring (Bellairs, 1963).
These reports indicate that a close relationship exists between the entoderm
and splanchnic mesoderm. Interactions occurring between them may be part of
the mechanism by which the mesoderm expands, as well as differentiates. To
investigate this possibility changes in area of the mesoderm have been observed
following its separation from the entoderm in portions of the area vasculosa.
The effects of reassociating the two layers and of replacing the entoderm with
other substrata have also been observed. The results indicate that the entoderm
plays an important role in the mechanism of mesodermal expansion. An abstract
of part of this work has been published previously (Augustine, 1911 b).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
White Leghorn eggs having embryos at stage 18-20 were windowed and part
of the albumen was removed as described previously (Augustine, 1970). A portion
of the area vasculosa between 10 and 25 mm2 in area extending from the edge
proximally was photographed. Entoderm was then peeled from the splanchnic
mesoderm in this portion with watchmaker's forceps and a dental probe
92
J.M.AUGUSTINE
(Fig. 1B) as done somewhat similarly by Thomas (1934). The separation was also
extended distally about 1 mm into the area vitellina separating the entoderm
from the basement membrane of the ectoderm. The whole separation took
20-40 min. Upon completion this portion was again photographed, and the
egg was sealed with cellophane tape and returned to the incubator. It was photographed at subsequent intervals of 6, 16 and 24 h.
In other experiments, after being photographed in situ a. piece of mesoderm
was taken from the distal one-third of the area vasculosa of a donor embryo
and transplanted to the area vitellina of a host. To obtain this mesoderm the
donor ectoderm was first removed from its basement membrane as described
previously (Augustine, 1970). The entoderm was then separated from the
splanchnic mesoderm of the same portion, leaving splanchnic and somatic
mesoderm, with ectodermal basement membrane attached to the latter (Fig. 2).
A piece of this preparation having its distal edge approximately 1 mm proximal
to the sinus terminalis was then cut out with scissors and transferred to the host.
The area vasculosa edge with its special cells which project distally into the area
vitellina was thus absent from the transplants. A space for reception of the
transplant was then made in the host's area vitellina by separating the entoderm
from the basement membrane of the ectoderm. The transplant was pushed by
probe into this space and pressed firmly against the ectodermal basement
membrane, where it tended to adhere. The host's vitelline membrane was then
torn away completely, resulting in an immediate expansion of the yolk sphere.
This tended to flatten out the sagging entoderm of the host, hastening its attachment to the splanchnic mesoderm of the transplant. The ectodermal basement
membrane was not removed from the transplant because it appeared to adhere
to the ectodermal basement membrane of the host; its removal from earlier
transplants frequently resulted in their failing to adhere and rolling up. The
transplant was photographed immediately after completing this procedure and
subsequently at 6, 16 and 24 h. In a third series a piece of Milliporefilter(TH)
having average pore size 0-45 [im and thickness of approximately 25 ptm was
inserted between the host's entoderm and the middle one-third of a transplant
prepared in the same way. The transplant had been marked with carbon particles
in four places, designating three approximately equal portions, by rubbing it
between two probes, one of which was coated with dried India ink. The piece
of filter was positioned directly under the middle two marks (Fig. 6 A). The area
of transplants and of regions of entoderm removal was measured by tracing
their outline in the photographs taken at each interval and counting the number
of squares the outline contained when placed on graph paper.
All incubation was at 38 °C. Tissues were fixed in Bouin's fluid, sectioned at
10 fim and stained with PAS and haematoxylin.
Entodermal effect on expansion of area vasculosa of chick
93
'(A.B)
1mm
Fig. 3. Contraction and thickening of splanchnic mesoderm after separation from
entoderm. (A) Portion of area vasculosa before separation of entoderm from
splanchnic mesoderm. Upper two arrows point to same positions on sinus terminalis
as those in B, and lower two arrows point to same branches as those in B. (B) Same
portion of area vasculosa 6 h after separation. (C) Section of area vasculosa fixed
6 h after separation of entoderm from splanchnic mesoderm. Entoderm has not
yet reattached. Ectoderm and somatic mesoderm have been wrinkled by contraction
of splanchnic mesoderm, which is thicker than normal (compare Fig. 5 B). (D) Section
of area vasculosa fixed 24 h after separation. Entoderm has reattached, but
splanchnic mesoderm is greatly thickened and architecturally rearranged, with blood
vessels present throughout its thickness, ect, Ectoderm; ent, entoderm; som,
somatic mesoderm; spl, splanchnic mesoderm.
RESULTS
Results are given as the mean and standard error of the mean.
Group 1. Separation of entoderm from splanchnic mesoderm
Entoderm was separated from splanchnic mesoderm in nine embryos. Rapid
contraction and thickening of the splanchnic mesoderm resulted (Fig. 3). Within
1 min small vessels began to constrict and shorten, and circulation of blood in
them stopped. By the time entoderm had been separated from the entire 1025 mm2 region (20-40 m) the mean area of the region had decreased to 35-5 ±
4
EMB 65
94
J. M. AUGUSTINE
Group 1
Group 2
Time (h)
Fig. 4. Area changes in Groups 1 and 2. Group 1, area of mesoderm before and at
intervals after separation from entoderm. Group 2, area of mesodermal transplants
before separation from entoderm and at intervals after separation, excision and
transplantation. Arrows in both groups indicate time by which entoderm had reattached to most or all of the splanchnic mesoderm; they also indicate change from
period of contraction to one of expansion.
2-7% of its original size; by 6 h it had decreased to 10-2 ±0-9% (Fig. 3B, C),
and by 16 h to 7-4 ± 0-8 %. Sections of tissue from embryos fixed at 6 h showed
that the splanchnic mesoderm was still entoderm-free, but at 16 h entoderm
had reattached to most of the splanchnic mesoderm, which was greatly thickened.
Circulation had also resumed at this time. From 16 to 24 h the splanchnic
mesoderm expanded to 11-0 ± 1-4% of its original area. In sections of tissue
fixed at 24 h entoderm had reattached to all of the splanchnic mesoderm which
nevertheless remained greatly thickened (Fig. 3D).
These results suggest that attachment of splanchnic mesoderm to entoderm
is necessary for its expansion since following its separation from entoderm it
stopped expanding and contracted, and as entoderm reattached to it, it stopped
contracting and expanded. However, this expansion was slight, and the fact that
it followed entoderm reattachment may have been fortuitous (Fig. 4). Also, the
greatly thickened, architecturally rearranged tissue in which it occurred (Fig.
3D) suggests that the processes producing it may have differed from the normal
ones. Attempts to make reattachment occur earlier, before the mesoderm became greatly thickened, were not successful. However, it was found that pieces
of mesoderm transplanted from the area vasculosa of donor embryos to the
area vitellina of hosts attached to the host's entoderm sooner, before much
Entodermal effect on expansion of area vasculosa of chick
95
D
100Mm
•(B)
1mm
Fig. 5. Mesodermal transplant. (A) 6 h after transplantation. (B) Section of a similar
transplant fixed 6 h after transplantation. Entoderm of host has attached to
splanchnic mesoderm of transplant, which is slightly thicker than normal. (C) 16 h
after transplantation. (D) 24 h after transplantation.
thickening occurred in them, and then expanded rapidly. Such transplants were
therefore used for further study of entodermal influence on mesodermal
expansion.
Group 2. Mesodermal transplants
Fourteen transplants were made. By the time their transplantation to the host
was completed (40-60 m) they had contracted to a mean area 22-8 ± 1-1 % of
their original size, and by 6 h to 15-1 ± 1-4 % (Figs 4, 5 A). Sections of transplants
fixed at 6 h showed that the host's entoderm had attached to the splanchnic
mesoderm of the transplants, the thickness of which was only slightly greater
than normal (Fig. 5B). By 16 h the advancing edge of the host's area vasculosa
had reached the transplants, connexions between host and transplant vessels
were present, circulation of blood had resumed in the transplant vessels, and
the transplants had expanded to 30-0 ±2-7% of their original size (Fig. 5C).
Most of their original vascular pattern had been replaced by a capillary plexus.
By 24 h they had expanded to 49-0 ± 3-6 % of their original size (Fig. 5D).
In this experiment attachment of entoderm to splanchnic mesoderm occurred
earlier than in Group 1, resulting in an earlier resumption of expansion (Fig. 4)
and cessation of thickening. Expansion also progressed much further, and the
mesoderm in which it occurred was approximately normal in thickness and
4-2
96
J. M. AUGUSTINE
1mm
100pm
Fig. 6. Mesodermal transplant with its middle one-third separated from host's entoderm by a piece of Millipore filter. (A) Immediately after transplantation. (B) 6 h
after transplantation. (C) 24 h after transplantation. Mean distance between middle
two marks for the group of ten transplants was 84-7 ± 4-4 % of the distance at 0 h;
between left middle and left lateral marks 145-2+ 12-6%; between right middle and
right lateral 166-3 + 10-7%. (D) Section through middle portion of transplant fixed
24 h after transplantation, ent, Host's entoderm; fil, filter.
architecture. These results therefore further indicate an entodermal promotive
effect on mesodermal expansion.
On the other hand, by the time expansion of the transplants was observed
(16 h) they had become incorporated into the expanding area vasculosa of the
host, and circulation of blood had resumed in them. Their expansion may have
been caused by these events rather than by reattachment of entoderm to them,
since expansion of the area vasculosa has been shown to be markedly promoted
by the presence of the circulation in it (Chapman, 1918; Grodzinski, 1934;
Patterson, 1909). To test this possibility transplants were made with a separator
inserted between their middle one-third and the host's entoderm to prevent
reattachment of entoderm to splanchnic mesoderm in this portion while permitting its reattachment in the two lateral thirds.
Group 3. Separation of entoderm from mesoderm by a filter
After a number of materials had been tried as separators, pieces of Millipore
filter proved satisfactory and were used in a group often transplants. The result
of one of these, typical of the group, is shown in Fig. 6. As indicated by the
change in distance between the carbon marks, the middle third of the transplant,
separated from the entoderm by the filter, contracted slightly in 24 h while the
two lateral thirds expanded. In both middle and lateral thirds connexions with
Entodermal effect on expansion of area vasculosa of chick
97
(A) Oh
(B) 24 h
(C) 48 h
Fig. 7. Diagrams of mesodermal transplants rotated 180° around their radial axis.
(A) 0 h: transplant has been inserted between ectodermal basement membrane and
entoderm of host; vessels of the transplant face the host's ectoderm. (B) 24 h after
transplantation. Rotated transplant is incorporated into host's area vasculosa.
Vessels of the transplant line the host's ectoderm and have grown a short distance
inward on the host's entoderm from both edges of the transplant. (C) 48 h after
transplantation. Host's ectoderm and entoderm are both completely vascularized.
Small outgrowth from distal edge of transplant is solid tissue having vessels but no
coelom; this was seen in 8 of the 10 rotated transplants at 48 h.
the host's area vasculosa were present and circulation of blood had resumed at
16 h as in Group 2, and circulation in a new pattern of vessels was present at
24 h in all three thirds. In sections of the transplants fixed at 24 h the splanchnic
mesoderm in the two lateral thirds had reattached to entoderm but that in the
middle third remained separated from entoderm by the filter. These results thus
indicate that attachment of the splanchnic mesoderm to entoderm is important
for its expansion, and the promotive effect of the circulation does not occur
without it.
In addition to contracting the splanchnic mesoderm in the middle third also
thickened (Fig. 6D). However, it did not contract or thicken as much as that
in Group 1 (Fig. 3D). This might indicate a partial transmission through the
filter of an entodermal effect; however, extensive regions were present in which
either the entoderm or mesoderm was not closely applied to the filter surface
but was separated from it by several microns. It seems unlikely that an interaction between the two tissues could be transmitted across such gaps. An alternative possibility is that the mesoderm got caught on the corners or edges of the
filter or adhered to part of its surface and was thereby prevented from contracting and thickening more fully.
98
J. M. AUGUSTINE
D
1 mm
Fig. 8. Rotated and control transplants. Edges have been marked with carbon in
several places. (A) Control transplant immediately after transplantation (0 h). (B)
Control transplant 24 h after transplantation. (C) Rotated transplant immediately
after transplantation. (D) Rotated transplant 24 h after transplantation.
Group 4. Rotated mesodermal transplants
The effect of attachment to entoderm on splanchnic mesodermal expansion
was tested in another way by rotating the transplant 180° around its radial axis
(i.e. a line from the embryo body to the sinus terminalis) so that its splanchnic
side faced the host's ectoderm instead of entoderm, while its proximal and distal
edges remained proximal and distal. In such a transplant the splanchnic
mesoderm is separated from the host's entoderm by the transplant's coelomic
space, somatic mesoderm and ectodermal basement membrane, and it attaches
to the basement membrane of the host's ectoderm (Fig. 7 A). Ten such transplants were made, and each was accompanied by a control transplant which
was not rotated. Experimental and control transplants were taken from the
same donor and placed side by side in the same host. After 24 h the mean area
of the rotated transplants was 130-9±9-8% of their mean area at Oh, while
that of the controls was 339-5 ± 62-0% (Fig. 8). Both rotated and control transplants had become incorporated into the host's area vasculosa and circulation
was present in both. Since expansion was much greater in the splanchnic mesoderm of the controls attached to entoderm, than in that of the rotated transplants attached to ectoderm, the results again indicate the importance of
entoderm to splanchnic mesodermal expansion and to the promotive effect
which circulation has on expansion.
In sections of the rotated transplants fixed at 24 h the thickness of the
splanchnic mesoderm attached to the host's ectoderm was somewhat greater
than normal in some cases, but normal in others. This was also true of the
splanchnic mesoderm in the controls, attached to the host's entoderm. Thus
attachment to ectoderm maintains the thinness of the splanchnic mesoderm as
Entodermal effect on expansion of area vasculosa of chick
99
100 Mm
Fig. 9. Section through distal edge of rotated transplant fixed 24 h after transplantation. Vessels line the ectodermal side of the coelom and have grown a short
distance proximally from the sinus terminalis on the entodermal side. Thickening
of basement membrane above sinus terminalis resembles that normally present at
the area vasculosa edge and, together with normal appearing edge cells, was found at
the distal edge of both rotated and control transplants fixed 24 h after transplantation.
Since all transplants were taken from regions proximal to edge in donors, sinus
terminalis and associated edge features apparently regenerate, bm, Basement membrane; ect, ectoderm; ent, entoderm; st, sinus terminalis.
effectively as attachment to entoderm even though it promotes expansion much
less effectively.
In the same sections it was also noted that blood vessels were present in the
proximal and distal portions of the somatic mesoderm of the rotated transplants, attached to the host's entoderm (Fig. 7B). The vessels had apparently
grown a short distance inward from the edges of the overlying splanchnic
mesoderm (Fig. 9). In some cases vessels also extended across the coelom from
splanchnic mesoderm somewhat inward from the edges of the transplant. To
see if more of the entodermal side of rotated transplants would become vascularized if given more time, and if the transplants would expand more, ten more
rotated transplants were made and incubated for 48 h. Seven of them were
accompanied by non-rotated controls as before. At 48 h the mean area of these
seven rotated transplants was 134-6 ±27-5% of their size at 0 h, while that of
the controls was 745-7 ± 182-4%. In sections of the rotated transplants both
somatic and splanchnic sides were completely vascularized in nine of the ten
cases (Fig. 7C); in one case a portion of the somatic side near the centre of the
transplant lacked vessels. This spreading of vessels in the rotated transplants
from the side attached to ectoderm to cover the entire entodermal side is another
indication of the promotive effect of the entoderm: vessels did not spread in
the opposite direction-from entodermal to ectodermal side-in the control
transplants.
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J.M.AUGUSTINE
DISCUSSION
The aim of the present work was to investigate the role of the entoderm in the
expansion of the mesoderm in the area vasculosa. The following results indicate
that the association of the splanchnic mesoderm with entoderm is important
for its expansion: (1) expansion stopped and contraction and thickening occurred
in splanchnic mesoderm separated from entoderm in Group 1, while contraction
stopped and expansion resumed when attachment to the entoderm was regained.
(2) In the mesodermal transplants of Group 2, in which splanchnic mesoderm
regained attachment to entoderm earlier than in Group 1, expansion also
resumed earlier. (3) In Group 3 portions of splanchnic mesoderm separated
from entoderm by a Millipore filter contracted, while adjacent portions attached
to entoderm expanded. (4) In the rotated transplants of Group 4, in which the
splanchnic mesoderm was separated from entoderm by the coelom, somatic
mesoderm and ectodermal basement membrane of the transplant, much less
expansion occurred than in the control transplants, in which the splanchnic
mesoderm was attached to entoderm.
The promotive effect of the entoderm on splanchnic mesodermal expansion
may be due to a number of factors. One of these may be the effect of the entoderm on the flow of blood in the splanchnic mesoderm, since cessation of blood
flow occurred when entoderm was removed and resumed following entodermal
reattachment. The absence of blood flow has been shown to retard expansion
of the area vasculosa in embryos without a circulation (Patterson, 1909; Chapman, 1918; Grodzinski, 1934). However, in the present work expansion was
not merely retarded but stopped completely and replaced by contraction. Therefore, other factors in addition to blood flow must be involved. This is also
evident from the results of Groups 3 and 4, in which portions of mesodermal
transplants separated from entoderm contracted, or expanded less than those
attached to entoderm even though flow of blood was present in them.
Flow of materials through the walls of vessels to or from their lumen has also
been proposed as a factor causing their growth (Clark & Clark, 1939). Passage
of nutrients from the yolk into the blood stream involves such a flow and is
probably dependent on the entoderm for absorption from the yolk. Such flow
would then be absent in splanchnic mesoderm separated from entoderm. This
might account for the curtailment of expansion in the mesodermal transplants
separated from entoderm in Groups 3 and 4, even though flow of blood was
present in the lumina of their vessels.
Some of the material passing from the entoderm into the splanchnic mesoderm may remain there instead of entering the blood stream, causing an increase
in the volume of the splanchnic mesoderm partly expressed as outward expansion. Bremer (1960) has reported a decrease in the volume of entoderm cells
when they are overpassed by the mesoderm, and an almost equal increase in
the volume of the overlying mesoderm. He considers that these changes are due
Entodermal effect on expansion of area vasculosa of chick
101
to a transfer of entodermal contents to the mesoderm in a process involving
active transport of ions by the mesoderm, and he reports rinding evidence of an
electric potential difference in support of this possibility. He suggests that the
transferred material is derived from entodermal yolk inclusions and is used by
the mesoderm in the production of new vasculature and colom (coelomic mesoderm?). While his measurements were done on earlier embryos (5-19 somites)
than those used in the present work, Bremer notes that these changes increase
with the age of the embryo. Interference with such a process by separation of
entoderm from splanchnic mesoderm may be another factor contributing to the
loss of mesodermal expansion in the present work.
The extended state and thinness of the splanchnic mesoderm under normal
conditions may be a response of its cells to surface properties of the entoderm
on which it spreads. The rapidity with which it contracts and thickens upon
separation from entoderm resembles that of cells separated from their substratum
in tissue culture, where such properties play an important role in determining
the shape and arrangement of attached cells (Martin & Rubin, 1974; Bard &
Hay, 1975). That the splanchnic mesoderm is responsive in this way to surface
properties was suggested by the possibility that its decreased contraction and
thickening on the surface of a Millipore filter in Group 3 may have occurred
in response to the surface properties of the filter rather than to something transmitted through the filter from the entoderm on the other side. Miura & Wilt
(1969) reported a tendency of area vasculosa ectomesoderm to move and flatten
out on the surface of a Millipore filter when no entoderm was present on the
other side. An abstract of some experiments testing this possibility has
appeared previously (Augustine, 1978). The thinness of the splanchnic mesoderm
is important for its rapid expansion because it maximizes the area covered by
an increase in its volume, and maintenance of this thinness by its attachment
to entoderm is therefore a component of the entodermal promotive effect on
splanchnic mesodermal expansion. That other components are important also
is indicated by the fact that thinness was maintained equally well in splanchnic
mesoderm associated with ectoderm in Group 4, yet it expanded much less
than that associated with ectoderm.
The splanchnic mesoderm of the area vasculosa spreads by growth of all of
its parts, from center to edge, rather than by sprouting of vessels at its edge
(Grodzinski, 1934). A stimulus for its growth has therefore been sought in the
entoderm subjacent to it rather than in the unvascularized entoderm of the area
vitellina distal to it. However, in the rotated transplants of Group 4 vessels spread
from the edges of the transplant, and from across the coelom, to the unvascularized entoderm beneath them. This raises the possibility that a growth stimulus
from the unvascularized entoderm may be still another component of the entodermal promotive effect, and one not shared by the ectoderm, which did not
become vascularized in this way in the controls. Such a stimulus has been proposed
in vascularizationofotherembryonic tissues and organs (Evans, 1909; Sims, 1964).
102
J.M.AUGUSTINE
Although not of direct relevance to the present subject, the lability of the
patterns formed by area vasculosa blood vessels was strikingly demonstrated in
the transplants, in which, following the resumption of circulation the original
pattern of large and small vessels rapidly changed to a capillary plexus (Fig.
5 A, C), in which a new pattern of large and small vessels subsequently formed.
In contrast, Ausprunk, Knighton & Folkman (1975) have reported that in pieces
of chick chorioallantoic membrane transplanted to the chorioallantois of hosts these changes apparently do not occur, the original vascular pattern of the
transplant remaining intact except in restricted loci.
Three other instances of mesodermal contraction resulting from separation
from an epithelium or other membrane in the chick may be of interest in relation to the present work: (1) When ectoderm is removed from the apex or dorsal
surface of the limb bud the subjacent mesoblast immediately contracts (Saunders,
1948). (2) When ectoderm is removed from its basement membrane in the area
vasculosa the subjacent mesoderm undergoes a gradual contraction during the
subsequent 16 h (Augustine, 1970). (3) When the splanchnic mesoderm of the
allantois is prevented from attaching to the chorion in the formation of the
chorioallantoic membrane by removal of the chorion its expansion slows and
stops and is followed by contraction during the subsequent three days (Schnitzer,
1970; Symons, 1974). Whether the mechanisms in these three instances and that
involved in the present work have anything in common is not known.
Part of this work was supported by NSF Grant GU 3683 to Hahnemann Medical College
and Hospital.
REFERENCES
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(Received 4 September 1980, revised 1 May 1981)