California State University, Northridge
DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION FOR THE
MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
OF THE LEAVES OF PLANTS UNDER VARIOUS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND STIMULI
A graduate project submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Engineering
by
Hrair Aintablian
June, 1972
~----------------------------,--~--------------------
The graduate project of Hrair Aintablian is approved:
Committee Chairman
California State University, Northridge
June, 1972
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Edmond S. Gillespie
for his encouragement and help throughout this work.
Many thanks to
the people in the Engineering workshop for their valuable help in
various stages of this project.
Also, many thanks go to Shirley-Anne
for typing this work.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements
iii
Table of Contents
iv
List of tables
v
List of figures
vi
List of symbols
vii
ABSTRACT
viii
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
II.
DESIGN OF APPARATUS
3
III. PROCEDURE AND CALIBRATION
13
IV.
18
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
64
BIBLIOGRAPHY
65
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1
The relationship between Re and Rx for
different values of R1
8
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1
The Wheatstone bridge •••••••••••••••••••••••••
2
The cross section view of the electrodes
interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
3
5
The equivalent circuit of the Wheatstone
= 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
7
4
The circuit of the amplifier ••••••••••••••••••
8
5
The output circuit ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
9
6
The schematics of the apparatus •••••••••••••••
11
7
A two pair or double electrode ••••••••••••••••
12
8
The proposed surface electrodes set up ••••••••
12
9
The set up for measuring the resistance of
plants' leaves inside the screen room •••••••••
14
10
The block diagram of the experiment set up ••••
14
11
The position of the marker of the de recorder
for different known value input resistors •••••
15
The schematics of a resistance box for
calibrating the outputs of a de recorder ••••••
17
13
The picture of color light experiment set up ••
19
14-38
Experimental results ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
22-63
bridge when Vo
12
Vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
E
=
the de voltage source
Re
=
the resistance of a plant leaf
Rp
the resistance of potentiometer
I
=
=
=
direct current
de
=
direct current
Jl
=
micro
A
""
current in ampere
n
=
ohms
K
=
kilo
Re(M)
Re in mega-ohms
mm
=
=
=
=
=
Meg. n
=
mega-ohms
s
=
seconds
w
=
watts
Vab
m
c
f
the voltage between mod a and b
= 10-6
mili
capacitor
farad
milimeter
Vii
ABSTRACT
DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION FOR THE
MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
OF THE LEAVES OF PLANTS UNDER VARIOUS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND STIMULI
By
Hrair Aintablian
Master of Science in Engineering
June, 1972
Instrumentation has been developed to measure the electrical resistance of plants' leaves under various environmental conditions and
stimuli.
From the results of the experiments performed en various
leaves, it was found that the resistance of the leaves varies in
time.
The variations could be categorized into two major groups;
short term, or fast fluctuations, and long term, or slow fluctuations.
The short term charges vary in magnitude and in duration.
tion of the fast jumps was between 0.1 and 10 seconds.
The dura-
Some of the
long term changes were sinusoidal in nature.
The results of the experimental findings are tabulated extensively.
No attempt has been made to interpret the results.
viii
I.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the
study of various activities of living organisms; thus, there is a
growing demand for development of bio-physiological instrumentation.
One of the living organisms under investigation is the plant, whose
internal activities are not well known.
In this work, appropriate instrumentation is developed to detect
and record the changes that take place inside the leaves of plants
under different enviornmental conditions and stimuli.
One of the
variables in a plant leaf is its resistance to electrical current
flow.
The assumption is that if there is any change or activity with-
in the leaf, it will cause a corresponding change is resistance to
current flow.
The instruments consist of an apparatus, appropriate electrodes,
and instrument for calibration.
The apparatus is similar to the ones
proposed by L. G. Lawrence [1,2].
It consists of a Wheatstone bridge
which acts as a transducer converting the changes in leaf resistance
to corresponding output voltage.
This voltage is amplified by an
operational amplifier with appropriate feedback to give stability to
the circuit and proper gain.
RC filter.
changes.
The amplified signal is filtered by an
A proper range ammeter is used for visual display of the
It has an outlet for recording the changes on a de recorder,
or display it on oscilloscope CRT.
Surface electrodes were used with appropriate surface area.
The metal that was used for constructing the electrodes was pure
silver.
The electrodes were designed such that the effects of their
1
2
polarization be reduced.
A resistance box with proper range in values is used for
calibrating the output of a de recorder for finding the resistance
of the leaf.
During the time when experiments were being performed to determine the resistance of various leaves, a paper was published by
Barbara Gillespie Pickard [3].
Her work dealt with spontaneous
electrical activity in shoots of Ipomoea, Pisum, and Xanthium.
Some
of the results of her experiments were similar to the ones found in
this work.
Her work gives some assurance that the findings in this
work were not simply due to noise or drift voltage, but the result
of some electrical and/or other activities inside the leaves of plants.
3
II.
DESIGN OF THE APPARATUS
The main objective of this project is to develop proper instrumentation for the measurement of the changes in electrical resistance
of plants' leaves under various environmental conditions.
The
hypothesis is that any internal change of a leaf will cause a change
in resistance to electric current flow.
The apparatus that is designed and constructed to measure the
changes in resistance is similar to the ones proposed by L. G.
Lawrence [1,2].
It consists of a Wheatstone bridge which acts as a
transducer converting the changes of resistance of the leaf into a
voltage.
This voltage is amplified by an operational amplifier with
appropriate feedback to give stability to the circuit and desired
gain.
A pair of surface electrodes with appropriate surface area are
used to detect the changes.
of the bridge terminals.
filter.
These electrodes are connected across one
The amplified signal is filtered by an RC
An ammeter with the proper scale range is used for visual
display of the changes.
An outlet is provided for de recorder.
Fig. 1 gives the circuit of the Wheatstone bridge.
A
B
Fig. 1 The Wheatstone bridge
4
where
E is the bridge operating de voltage source
Re is the resistance of a plant leaf
Rp is a potentiometer with proper resistance
The principle of operation of the Wheatstone bridge is as
follows:
when the electrodes are connected to the plant's leaf and
the potentiometer Rp is properly adjusted, no net current flows
between points D and E.
comes zero.
In other words, the output voltage Vo be-
Any change in the leaf causes a corresponding change in
Re which in turn produces an offset current flow.
This current flow
results an output voltage Vo.
When the bridge resistors are adjusted such that the output
voltage is zero,
Vab
= Vad
•
Vbc = Vdc •
.. .
....
. . . . . . . . . (1)
. .. ....... ....
(2)
E = Vab + Vbc
= Vad + Vdc
Therefore,
Let Rx be the value of resistance between nodes A and D, then
Rdc = Rp - Rx ••
.. ............. .. •
• (3)
By use of Ohm's law Eq. (1) can be written as
11 R1 = 12 Rx • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (4)
Eqs. (2) and (3) gives
I1 Re = 12 [Rp - Rx]
. .... ............
(5)
from which
1
Re + 2 [Rp - Rx] • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (6)
5
By use of Eqs. (4) and (6),
Re
= R1
[Rp - Rx]
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (7)
Rx
Eq. (7) gives the relationship between Re, the leaf's resistance at
null point, and the other branch resistors of the bridge.
The choice of values for R1, Rp and E depends on several factors.
Two major factors limit the current 1 3 flowing through the leaf.
First, the flow of current must not damage or destroy the leaf.
It
has been found that strong electric current flowing through a plant
cell can damage or even destroy it [2].
Second, the higher the
current flow, the greater is the effect of polarization.
Electric current flow within the electrodes is in the form of
electron flow, whereas within the leaf, which can be considered as an
electrolyte, it is ion movement.
chemical reaction takes place.
At the junction, therefore, some
Fig. 2 gives a cross-section view of
the leaf electrodes interface.
c
Fig. 2 The cross section view of the leaf
electrodes interface
At junction B, electrons are absorbed by the electrolyte, and at
junction A, electrons are freed from the electrolyte.
flow is low, the chemical reaction is not extensive.
If the current
On the other
hand, when the current flow is high the charged electrolyte cannot
diffuse away into the solution.
They may accumulate near the elec-
trodes and thus prevent the flow of current from one electrode to
6
the other.
This process of charge accumulation at the electrodes is
called polarization of the electrodes.
To prevent the leaves from electrical current injury and to reduce the effect of polarization, the choice of one micro ampere
maximum current flow per square centimeter of the leaf is made, i.e.,
r 3 max= l~A/cm 2 •
This choice is based on experiments performed on various plants'
leaves.
It was found that it is possible to obtain useful results
by restricting the flow of current to less than one micro-ampere per
square centimeter of the leaves without causing injury to them.
Since the experimental findings were not definitive, the choice is an
arbitrary one.
The next factor which enters into the choice of values for the
bridge resistors is the magnitude and the range of changes in
resistance of the leaves themselves.
This factor depends on the area
size of the electrodes employed, which in turn depends on the area
size and nature of the leaves chosen for the experiment.
The area of the leaves were larger than five square centimeters.
It was experimentally found that evergreen outdoor plants' leaves
have a much higher resistance than those of deciduous plants.
It
was also found that the changes in resistance of the tested evergreen
plants' leaves were much smaller than those of deciduous ones.
Another important experimental finding was that under different
environmental conditions, the resistance of the leaves of the same
plant vary drastically in time.
This finding is discussed in more
detail in a later section.
The size of the leaves used for this experiment and their average
7
r--------------------------------------------------------------1
resistance led to the choice of four square centimeters as the area of
the electrodes.
Again, this choice is based on experiments performed
on several leaves.
It is found that the larger the electrodes, the
more difficult it is to use them without injuring the leaves,
especially those with large veins.
By use of electrodes with a surface area of about four square
centimeters, it was found that the resistance of the leaves examined
varied from 150K 0 to more than 4 Meg. 0.
A 9 volt battery is used to power the bridge.
Fig. 3 gives the
equivalent circuit of the bridge when Vo = 0.
~
R1
E_;_
\
< Il
S
~
Iz
Rp
Re?
;>
Fig. 3 The equivalent circuit of the Wheatstone
bridge when Vo = 0.
The value of r 1 can be found from Eq. (6) and by use of Ohm's
law;
I1
= _E_
ReRp
[Rp - Rx]
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • (8)
"" _E;;;;.__
R1+Re
To limit the current flow in Re, the value of (Rp-Rx) must be
small, and the value of R1 must be relatively large.
Rp
of
= 350K n is made and experimentally
Rp = 500K n could also be used, but
The choice of
found satisfactory.
The value
one with 1 Meg. 0 resistance
was found to be too large and one with lOOK
n was
found too small to
8
Finally, the value of R1 must be chosen to complete the bridge
design.
The value of Re is directly proportional to R1.
of changes in value of Re is limited by R1 •
The range
Table 1 gives the re-
lations hip between Re and Rx for different values of R1•
Table I
Rl
lOOK
200K
300K
400K
25K
1.3
2.6
3.9
5.2
Rx-+-
Re(M)
Re(M)
Re(M)
Re(M)
SOK
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
Since Re is greater than 150K
n and
lOOK
0.25
0.5
.75
1
200K
0.075
0.15
0.225
0.3
300K
0.0166
0.033
0.05
0.066
n,
less than 5 Meg.
the choic
of R1 = 390K n is made and experimentally found satisfactory.
Fig. 4 gives the basic circuit of the amplifier.
Vout
Fig. 4
The circuit of the amplifier
The resistors R2, R3 , R4, and R5 are for gain control.
The
operational amplifier has high gain, a very high input and a very low
output resistance.
zero.
The current flow at the input is assumed to be
A Fairchild pA741 operational amplifier is used.
It has a
gain, A = 100,000.
Let Vi be the voltage at the input of the operational amplifier,
then
L----------------------------------------------------~-----------d
9
~---------------------------~-----------------------------,
Io
= Vo
- Vi = Vi - Vout
Rz
Rt. + R5
• • • • • • • • • • • • • (9)
from which
- Vout
Vo =Vi
R2
• • • • • • • • • • • • (10)
R4+Rs
when R2 << R4+R5, the coefficient of Vi approaches to one.
Therefore,
Voltage gain = Vout
Vi-Vo
= R4+R5
• • • • • • • • • • • • • (11)
R2
if Vi = 0, Eq. (11) becomes
Voltage gain
. . . . . . . . . . . . (12)
=
The choice of R2 = R3
= lK n is
control the input voltage.
made to have a balanced input and to
Also R4
= 240K
n and R5 = 1 Meg. n
potentiometer is used and experimentally found satisfactory.
Fig. 5 gives the output circuit.
Vout
To
c
de recorder
Fig. 5 The output circuit
An RC low pass filter is used to filter out any high frequency
ac signals.
To filter out the signals of frequency higher than
1 cps, the choice of R7
= 3.3K n and
C
= 50
p£ is made.
An ammeter is used for visual display of any changes.
It was
found that an ammeter between 500 pA to 1 mA range is needed to be
able to see the total range of changes in output current flow.
10
Two lOOn resistors, as Fig. 5 shows, connect the two terminals
of the ammeter to an outlet for recording the changes on a de recorder, or display it on oscilloscope
c~.
Fig. 6 gives the final schematic of the apparatus which was constructed and used to obtain the subsequent results.
A capacitor c
= 0.01
~f
was connected across the output terminals
of the bridge to filter out any possible high frequency noise or components of the input.
A switch was connected at the electrode termi-
nals of the bridge to change the polarity of the electrodes during
experimentation; thus, help reduce polarization effects.
It was previously stated that the area of electrodes used in this
experiment must not be greater than four square centimeters.
It has
been found that an electrode offset potential is produced at an
electrode-electrolyte interface when electric current flows through
ite
This potential is unstable and unpredictable, producing long
term and short term changes [4].
The long term changes appear
as baseline drift and short term changes appear as noise on the trace
of a de-coupled oscilloscope provided it is connected directly to the
electrodes.
Short term changes in electrode offset potential are referred to
as electrode noise.
It has been found that silver electrodes are
relatively noise free [4].
So, the electrodes employed for this
study were constructed from pure silver.
To reduce the effects of electrode polarization and offset
potential at the electrodes, a double or two pair electrodes were
used.
Fig. 7 shows the top and cross-section views of double
electrodes.
R4 = 240 K
R5
~~
II
~
J
;: l:l '"~ . .
I
Kz = n
1~"":
2
1
<
II
~
R3
=1 K
1
;~s 3 \_ J
~
l ~l
= 1 Meg.
J.tA471
s2
>l_
0\
II
-
J
~
R6= !OK
~
0
0_
~I
II
u
OCl
~
~
!
~
To plant electrodes
Fig. 6 The schematic of the apparatus.
0
0
M
II
To de recorder
._.
._.
12
(b)
(a)
Fig. 7 A two pair or double electrode
(a) The top view
(b) The cross-section view
One could further reduce the effect of polarization and offset
potential by using the following electrode design scheme shown in
Fig. 8.
+
+
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8 The proposed surface electrodes set up.
(a) The top view
(b) The Cross-section view
It was experimentally found that a thin electrode makes better
contact because of being flexible and causes less physical damage to
the leaf.
A 0.1 mm thick silver electrode can be used without
causing physical damage to the leaf.
13
III.
PROCEDURE AND CALIBRATION
Fig. 9 gives a picture of the experimental setup.
Most of the
experiments were performed inside the screen room of the School of
Engineering where the external noise was negligible.
Fig. 10 gives
the block diagram of the setup.
The experiment procedure for measuring the resistance of leaves
is as follows:
1.
Connect the appropriate electrodes to the selected leaf.
2.
Turn on the switch S1, then S2•
3.
Adjust the potentiometer Rp and the gain control switch R5 to
get a positive reading on the ammeter.
4.
Turn on the de recorder which is connected to the output of the
apparatus and adjust the position of the pen and the scale of
recorder so that all the changes lie inside the recording
limits.
5.
After recording the useful result, stop the recorder and remove
the electrodes.
6.
Connect the electrodes to the terminals of the resistance box
for calibration.
7.
Make a scale from the known resistance marked lines.
8.
Use this scale for measuring the resistance of the leaf at any
recorded time interval.
It was experimentally determined that the relationship between
the resistance of a leaf and the output recorded waveform is not
linear.
Fig. 11 shows the position of the marker for different known
resistors connected between the electrodes.
14
DC RECORDER
APPARATUS
_..,-- VOM
Fig. 9
The set up for measuring the resistance of plants leaves inside the screen rooni
l
-~
I
PLANT
LEAF
"
i
~
I
I
TRANSDUCER
I'-- -
f--7
AMPLIFIER
- -- - - - - - -
~
FILTER
1-r:)
VISUAL
DISPLAY
-- - - -- --
-~.----
II
DC RECORDER
Fig. 10 The block diagram of the experiment set up
•1:
j
i
15
(a)
I
'n~:-:·-:-:
·oc_~--~:-:------=--:---= ·==----:c:--·:-:-:c-:-o-:-:~::----:-----::-:-~r-::-:--·--::-;-:-: ': :<F_-:-:-
-1.1'
,:I:__ : ::-...:.,-- >:- ::. -. ----- -- ,_: - =-- _=--
i·
~~-
- .... ·--
-·
-=-- -
:= : - --- --- ·--
.
k__ ·:-
-
-.
- ---
. -.-1
--------~-
.
-~
____ ___..
___...
___ ::-::·::i:·
--~
----......---~----
... --·
..
·--- -··
---------·-·--·
·'----
'
'
-- _-- - :.---------------.
---. ·-·- --.------.-. ·----
·- ,._ ---- . ----- ---
.
------
' - · :--
··::. r··
----.
--- ----r:-:-
------
Fig. 11 Tfle positi~n of the marker of the de recorder for different known
mput resistors.
•
(a) Calibrating scale construction scheme
(b) Note the change of the marker position decreased as the leaf resistance
L-----~-i·ncrea:sect.-----~-------------------~-~--
16
The technique for calibrating the output of a de recorder for
measuring the resistance of a leaf is the use of a resistance box
with appropriate values.
Fig. 12 gives the schematic of such box.
It consists of three eleven-position rotating switches connected in
series.
Across each position of the knob a lOK, lOOK, and 1 Meg.
resistors are connected for
s1 ,
of marking values is between !OK
S2, and
n and
s3 ,
respectively.
11.1 Meg.
o.
n~
The range
R= 10K
R = 100 K
R=1Mg.
n
1-Fig. 12 The schematic of a resistance box for calibrating the outputs of a de recorder.
.....
.......
18
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
By the use of the designed instruments, experiments were performed on various plants' leaves inside a shielded room where external
noise effect was negligible.
Some interesting results were obtained.
These results showed that the leaf resistance changed in time even when
no external stimuli were applied.
magnitude.
These changes varied in time and in
The results also showed that there were short term or fast
fluctuations and long term or slow fluctuations, and that under
different environmental conditions the magnitude and the range of
resistance varied drastically.
It was found that the long term changes in resistance of a
healthy green leaf were sinusoidal in nature.
When the plant was
kept inside a dark room for several days, or when it was placed outside under the sunlight for several hours, the resistance of the
leaf increased somewhat exponentially.
The resistance of a young,
light green, leaf was found to be low and the short term changes were
low too.
It was also found that at certain times there were random
but similar jumps or fast fluctuations.
These jumps varied in magni-
tude and duration.
Experiments were performed under different colors of light.
Fig. 13 gives a picture of the set-up.
It was found that under green
light, the leaf resistance decreased, while under red light, it increased.
The surface electrodes were placed in different positions on the
leaf.
Most of the results were obtained when they were placed across
the leaf.
Experiments were performed having the electrodes on the
19
SHIELDING
CAGE
THE APPARATUS
DC RECORDER
THE
PLANT
(A)
Color light experiment set up
(B) Close view of the plant inside the shielding cage
Fig. 13 The picture of color light experiment set up.
L__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___J
20
same side of the leaf.
.
The results were similar to those above.
.
It was interesting to find out that even when the electrodes were
placed on different leaves of the same plant. there were short term
and long term fluctuations, but it took about one minute for those
fluctuations to appear on the recorder.
When light was turned on or off. the leaf resistance changed
drastically and after a certain time interval it jumped back as Fig.
37 shows.
The jumps decreased and even disappeared when light was
turned on and off several times in a given period.
Similar results
were obtained when the plant was watered several times as Fig. 36
shows.
tics.
It seems that plants have some kind of adaptive characterisMore experiments are needed to determine the cause.
Extensive results are given in subsequent pages.
The conditions
and observations for each experiment are given, but no attempt has
been made to determine the cause of those changes.
the interested botanist to find the answers.
It is left to
21
Figure 14
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 1, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Very young leaf.
The plant was left outside the building for over
the night.
When it was picked, there were drops
of water on the leaves.
Observation:
Outside temp. 56° F.
The resistance of a young leaf was very low.
The short term changes were very low.
After
about 25 minutes, it drastically increased.
22
v.J
N
0
0
N
0
N
Vl
0
0
..J:>.
0
0
Vl
0
0
RinKQ
23
Figure
15
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 2, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The leaf was dark green.
Observations:
Two almost identical sinusoidal nature about 4
minutes duration curves; one about 3 minutes and
the second about 43 minutes after the experiment
started.
The short-term changes were moderate.
24
"'
(I)
"""'
;:l
I::
·g
.s
(I)
s
-~
0
V'l
0
~
0
!"(")
0
N
0
,...;
0
0
00
0
0
1:'-
0
0
\0
0
0
trl
0
0
'<~""
0
0
m
25
Figure
16
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 4, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The swith
s 3 was moved back and forth several
times before experiment started.
placed outside for overnight.
The plant was
Outside was cloudy
and at 57° F.
Observations:
The resistance of the leaf was low.
There were
both long term and short term changes.
The long
term changes were sinusoidal in nature and the
short term changes were moderate.
26
r----------------------------------~·------------------------------------~
.8
<!)
s
·~
0
N
0
.....-!
0
0
VI
0
0
'<:!-
0
0
N'>
0
0
N
0
0
.....-!
27
Figure
17
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 3, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The leaf was young, light green.
Observations:
The resistance of a young leaf was found to be
low.
There were both long and short term changes.
The long term changes were sinusoidal in nature,
and the short term changes were low.
28
.s
<1.1
s
~
0
N
0
..-I
0
0
~0
0
0
lJ")
0
0
"'""
0
0
m
0
0
N
29
Figure
18
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 23, 1972, at 12 noon.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The plant was placed outside the building for
overnight.
Observations:
Long term changes were sinusoidal in nature.
Short term changes were moderate.
30
en
Ql
......
:J
c:
.E
1.0
N
c:
Ql
E
·.p
0
N
1.0
0
1.0
31
Figure
19
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 22, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The plant was kept inside the building for
several days without watering.
The leaf was dark green.
Observations:
Resistance of the leaf was high.
short term changes were high.
The long and
There were
several similar but random curves having width
about one second.
U)
Q.l
.....
;j
c
E
c
Q.l
E
.....
~
(V)
32
33
Figure
20
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 16, 1972, at 12 noon.
Conditions:
Temp. 77 0 F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The plant was left inside the building for 1 day.
The leaf was dark green.
Observation:
Resistance of the leaf was low.
changes were very low.
Short term
Vl
~
l-'
;:j
!=:
......
s
!=:
......
~
~
......
E--<
V'\
(".)
0
(".)
0
,...-!
0
0
\Q
0
0
V'\
0
0
..q-
0
0
N'>
0
0
(".)
34
35
-----·---------~-------------------------------------------------.
Figure
21
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 8, 1972, at 10 a.m.
Condition:
Outside temp. about 58
0
F.
Plant was left outside the building for the
weekend.
Double electrodes were used.
The leaf was dark green.
Temp. inside 76° F.
Observations:
A large sinusoidal nature, about 4 minutes
duration curve was recorded followed by a
similar one with smaller magnitude and duration.
Recording started about 15 minutes after experiment started.
moderate.
The short term changes were
There were some sharp rise and drop
curves with duration between 0.5 and 3 seconds.
36
.s
Q)
s
~
0
m
0
N
0
.-i
00
0
00
.-i
.-i
0
37
Figure
22
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 15, 1972, at 9 a.m.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Semi-dark room.
Double electrodes were used.
The leaf was dark green.
Observations:
Short term changes were high.
There were random
but similar curves having width between 2 and 10
seconds almost all of which were in the direction
of reducing resistance.
--··---------~
---------
38
Vl
v
l-J
1=1
·g
.s
v
s
-~
If)
N
0
N
0
..--1
00
\Q
If)
0
0
0
39
Figure
23
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 15, 1972, at 8:20 a.m.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Semi-dark room.
Double electrodes were used.
The polarizing switch
Observations:
s3 was operated.
The resistance of the leaf decreased drastically
5 minutes after the experiment started.
term changes were moderate.
Short
There were many
identical, very short duration jumps.
40
VI
~-------------------------------------------~~======~------------1--;------~
1=:
'§
1=:
......
00
00
0
41
Figure
24
Plant leaf:
Nickodema (small, indoor plant)
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 24, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
Observations:
The changes in resistance were very high.
of the changes were long term.
few short term changes.
Most
There were very
42
00
0
,....;
0\
0
00
\Q
0
0
43
Figure
25
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 24, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The leaf was old.
Observations:
The resistance of the leaf increases drastically
about 5 minutes from the time the experiment
started.
-------·---------
44
o::,
""-'~
0
00
9
\0
f-"
f-"
f-"
f-"
f-"
f-"
f-"
f-"
f-"
f-"
N
f-"
N
U.)
~
N
0
Vl
o-
""-'~
00
\0
0
f-"
N
N
R inMeg.n
45
Figure
26
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
On the roof of Engineering Building.
Time:
May 8, 1972, at 12 noon.
Condition:
Temp. 58° F.
Under shade.
Plant was placed inside a shielding cage.
Double electrodes were used.
Observations:
The plant leaf resistance decreased when placed
outside the building under a shade.
One pos-
sible cause of reduction in leaf resistance was
the low temperature.
When the same experiment
was conducted under the sunlight the resistance
increased.
The long term changes were sinusoidal
in nature, and there were several similar jumps
with duration ranging from 0.2 to 6 seconds.
46
0
N"l
0
N
0
rl
0
rl
00
0
lJ')
rl
0
0
47
Figure
27
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
In Room 106.
Time:
May 24, 1972.
Condition:
Red light from a 500 W Fresnel 6" light source
was directed in the direction of the leaf.
Moved the position of the switch S3 back and
forth several times, causing impulse current
flow.
Observation:
The response was exponential in nature.
term changes were low.
Short
It seems that the short
term changes decreased when red light was used.
Although the light source was placed 5 feet
from the plant, the effect of heat produced by the
light source was not determined.
48
,--------------·--------------------------------Jl-----------,
0
rl
49
Figure
28
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
In Room 106.
Time:
May 24, 1972.
Condition:
Blue and green light from a 500 W Fresnel 6" light
source was pointed in the direction of the
plant from a distance of 6 feet.
Observations:
The resistance of the leaf changed drastically
when the color of light was changed.
The short
term changes under blue light was low, while
under green light there were many random but
similar very high jumps.
~
00
(])
~
.s
~
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
1 - E - - - - - - - - - B L U E LIGHT
<
·
<
0.3
1
2
3
4
5
10
15
Time in minutes
l..n
0
51
Figure
29
Plant leaf:
Mulberry
Place:
Inside the screen room.
Time:
May 18, 1972.
Condition:
Temp. 76° F.
Light on.
Double electrodes were used.
The leaf was picked up from a tree at 9 a.m.
Observations:
The resistance of a cut leaf was found to be very
high and short term changes were negligible.
52
t-'
N
Vl
t-'
0
t-'!
Vl
N
N
N
00
w
0
w
N
w
oo R inMeg.Q
53
Figure
30
Plant leaf:
Ginger Dwarf
Place:
In Room 106.
Time:
May 24, 1972.
Condition:
A 50 W Fresnel 6" light source was pointed in the
direction of the plant from a distance of 6 feet.
Red and green color plastics were used to produce
color light from the light source.
Green-white means both the green light from the
light source and the fluorescent light of the
room were on.
White-white means both the light source and the
fluorescent lights were on.
Observation:
The output wave form varies under different light.
The resistance of the leaf was very high.
?:~-_:,!
.::1
I .•
~
••
54
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55
Figure
31
Recorded output from the leaf of plant Nickodema.
resistance scale is shown.
Note the jumps.
Calibrated
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Xerox copy of the recorded output from the. leaf of plant Nickode~a. (B) .is continuation of (A).
Note the jumps. (C) The calibrated resistance values are drawn to show the changes in resistance
of the jumps.
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33 Under normal conditions the spontaneous changes were recorded in darkness and then under green
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A.
Sinusoidal nature of long term changes.
B.
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result of change of position of the polarizing switch S3.
c. Short term changes. The jumps were in ~he direction of reducing resistance.
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smaller in magnitude and duration. After 2 minutes, water was added and the change was negligible.
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Recorded results after the pol~rizer swifch was moved back and forth several times.
Saturated line when the position of the bridge potentiometer is not adjusted correctly.
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64
REFERENCES
1.
Lawrence, G. L., "Electronics and the Living Plant," Electronics
World, October, 1969, pp. 25-28.
2.
Lawrence, G. L., "More Experiments in Electrocu1ture," Popular
Electronics, June, 1971, pp. 63-68+.
3.
Pickard, G. B., "Spontaneous Electrical Activity in Shoots of
Ipomoea, Pisum, and Xanthiam," Planta, Vol. 102, No. 2,
1972, pp. 91-114.
4.
Strong, P., Biophysical Measurements. Beaverton, Oregon:
Tektronix, Inc., 1970, pp. 219-232.
5.
Bures, J., Electrophysiological Methods in Biological Research.
New York: Academic Press, 1967.
65
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Suckling, E. E., Bioelectricitx.
1961.
New York, N. Y.:
McGraw-Hill,
Rosene, F. H., "Proof of the Principle of Cell E.M.F.'s," Plant
Physiology, Vol. 10, 1935, pp. 209-224.
Scott, H. I., "Electricity in Plants," Scientific American, October,
1962.
Ungar, G., Excitation.
C. C. Thomas, Springfield, Ill., 1963.