CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
DESIGN A PRODUCTION FACILITY,
INCLUDING EQUIPMENTS AND PRODUCTION
PROCESS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
FOR AN EXISTING -COMPANY.
A graduate project submitted in partial
satisfaction of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science in
Engineering
by
Rajesh K Agrawal
August 1986
The Graduate Project of Rajesh K Agrawal is approved:
Pr
Ah Lt j a
California State University, Northridge
i i
PAGE
v
Abstract
1.
Introduction
1.1 Problem
1
1.2 Purpose of the study
1
1.3 Summary of the report
2
2. Background
2.1 Profile of the Company
2.2 Current Manufacturing Process
4
2.3 Manufacturing Process Alternatives
9
2. 3. 1 Board Manufacture
')
..._
•
"':!"
·.J
•
')
.._
Circuit Application
9
10
2.4 The Product Mix
14
') = Installation of Numerical Routing Machine
15
~-..J
3. Decision Situation
3.1 The Decision Makers & How The Decision Will
Be Made
16
3.2 Corporate Objectives
16
3.3 Decision Process
18-
4. Evaluation Model
4.1 Evaluation Approach
4.1.1 Develop hierarchy of values
20
22
4.1.2 Define criteria & scales of measurement 24
4.1.3 Develop utility. functions
25
4.1.4 Total relative score
31
i i i
5. Analysis and Evaluation
5.1 Sources of Data
33
5.2 Computation of Probability Distributions
of the-Criteria
35
5.3 Decision on Product Mix, N.C. Machine &
Equipment
41
6. Summary of results
42
6.1 Conclusion and Recommendations
43
44
7. References
45
7.1 Appendix
iv
DESIGN A PRODUCTION FACILITY,
INCLUDING EQUIPMENTS & PRODUCTION
PROCESS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
FOR AN EXISTING COMPANY.
by
Rajesh K Agrawal
Master of Science in Engineering
The manufacturing process for printed circuit boards was
selected from the following candidates:
1. Dry film process
2. Wet film process
3. Machine screening process
4. Hand screening process
Return on investment, quality (percentage of
..
rejects>, and annual sales growth were the three criteria
used for evaluation.
The utility function associated with each of the
criteria and the probability that each candidate will
achieve specified levels of each criteria were evaluated.
The results of evaluation led to the selection of the
Dry film process.
v
1.
1.1
l~IBQQ!::!~IlQ~
E:BQ!2bst::!
There is an e:-:isting company called "Orange County
Electronics Corporation" which is engaged-in the
manufacture of printed circuit boards. At present it
makes single-sided, double-sided, and multi-layer boards
employing the conventional subtractive process as
described in section 2.3.
It now has plans to set up a
new manufacturing facility which will have the same
product line but will
in~orporate
new technological
developments in the manufacturing process so as to make
better quality products and also to be more cost
competitive.
The choice of manufacturing process and technology
will be guided by company policies, goals and
objectives.
1.2
E:!::!BE:Q§s QE §I!::!Qt
The purposes of this study are to develop information
for rating available technologies and to recommend
manufacturing· process and product mix to optimally
achieve company goals.
This study will consist of:
1. Selecting the manufacturing process.
2. Selecting the product mix.
3. Deciding whether or not to install an NC routing
machine.
2
1.3 §V~~BBY
QE
I~~ B~EQBI
Section 2 presents the background of the company,
section 3 describes the decision situation, section 4
deals with the evaluation model, section 5 discusses the
analysis and evaluation, section 6 summarizes the
results, draws conclusions and makes recommendations,
and lastly, section 7 contains the references and
appendices.
~
---- ---------
~
---
2.
2.1
EBQElb~
OF
~e~t§BQ!:J~Q
I~s ~Q~E6~t
The company is located in the City of Orange, in the
state of California.
It has an annual sales of $3.5
million and employs approximately 45 people.
It has been
in existence since 1967.
The organization chart is as shown below:
PRES I DENT
~~
MAF\LETING CHIEF
J
I
I
ACCOUNTANT ADMINISTRATIVE PRODUCTION F'RODUCT I 01\ QUALITY
OFFICER
MANAGER
PLANNING
ENGINEER
OFFICE
PROCESS
CLERKS
ENGINEER
PLATING SHOP
DRILLING
SUPERVISOR
SUPERVISOR
CONTROL
r-NGINEER
'-
'
MATERIALS INSPECTOR
MANAGER
SCREENING
SUPERVISOR
'
SUBORDINATE
SUBORDINATE
SUBORDINATE
STAFF
STAFF
STAFF
FIGURE 1
3
'
-
~
-~----
------------
4
The company is headed by the President and Marketing
Chief. The Production Manager who reports"to the
President is in charge of all the manufacturing
operations. The other departments, like the accounting,
administrative, production planning and quality, all
help in the smooth functioning of the
manuf~cturing
operations. The manufacturing operation is divided into
three sections, each headed by a supervisor as shown in
Figure 1. Decision making related to manufacturing
operations is done by
th~
three supervisors in
consultation with the production manager.
The
production manager seeks the advice of the President on
important matters.
2.2 ~~BBs~I ~B~~EB~I~Bl~§ EBQ~s§§
The printed circuit
(P.C.) boards are manufactured by
the conventional subtractive process <Section 2.3) using
dry film imaging. Process flow charts for double-sided,
single-sided and multi-layer boards are shown in Figures
2, 3 and 4 respectively. Diagrams of the P.C. boards
ar~
shown in Appendix A and B.
First, the artwork film is inspected by the P.C.
board manufacturer. Then the panels made of copper clad
base material are selected. Holes are drilled and
pierced.
In order to use a numerical control drilling
machine, a program tape is generated. The tape machine
IUC(!Vl
JOG fOil
MANUfACIUflf
AC.i;lt'lllll
l~:.l'lCf
rHtCI'I.
rRtNIS
JIHII'wOHK
IIIJU,I JOH
t:CU'" H
111~11111,
IN"t'lll
lltt'll:OIIH•"'
~o--D--0-
....
AlCfiVl
... AHAIA.L
....
INSI'lCI
WA.IlHIAL
1
... ,..,,
HI II Ow
ltNAl
INS1'(CJ10N
....
lliClltONIC
........ (CTSANU A"-U
SCIIUI:i
SIUII(
lllll".o"•
ltotAHRIAL
~()--[}-0-·
IN~t'ICI
IJIII\111'o1 1
IHIAlliY
1111111
I
H(C.:LIVl
l ll'LI'fiJA8LI
INS,.ICI
SIO!It
(lU'INUAIL(
()l,r(~DAHL(
MAll RIAl
.. All RIAL
MA11RIAL
~o--o--o--
t~
IJI,NIJMIN(LJIIUIIl
IIlii
]loA• " '
Sl.HUN
IN~t'ICI
•"-~!"'..:CT
,,..~rtcr
11111111,. ••
I lUI\~ 1 I Y
,Hoi•
~llllf
iii••'C'IIIJI'
NOMlNtlAIUHl
II MASK
I)AI\l I lit:. I
~I
f...IW~'iUr'\ttTJi"
Alto. Ill
T-r,.,.,,.,.u.. l
t!UAIHJS
rt 11 t'HINF
IN~lS
l~:.¥1lf
•"'511' f
I IU')I
'-'"•)'.
r•r ct
>ll IHJfl
ACClPr OA
R(JlCI
~
tfltofl'ill
'·II
... t't
t~
1•11 111"'f UOI
lAC ANO
lAG
lllilll
IUt'\.1
_J
1-11 .. 1·11'\.
l't((.(
(ll'.llt'JI
I'IN UVII.HII:.O
IN
Tl't \..LAT'\
~lll.tll:.
)'j,.j(
t'll,.,(.ll
tilt'·""'
llXHINlo
!Ill\·~
t'll,.,lltii(HI'•
I CJII t'IN'IIP~I.
~I AI ll:>
ll/1,1 1111 H
t'lltt~.iiii\M
filii~·
CUI ll•l"r - - - - tUIIIIIII l
Ml\IIIIIAI
IIAC.Kiol'
11111111111
lillllllllillt
G-1~]-G
111-10/t
lti:SR'<T
£7~
~AIII-Itoll
M•\•1 1111111
llMt'lAU
DOUBLE SIDED, PLATED THROUGH MANUFACTURE
FIGURE 2
SOURCE: ORANGE COUNTY ELECTRONICS CO. OPERATIONS MANUAL
Ul
-,.---...,.~""''<':~·~-~·"""'~
.. ,
-- ---
-TOIHCO,.tHC
INSI'lCTION
----~
ao.AIIIC.C<>M'LlflO JHROUOH
SICTIOfl 14
P'IN DOAAOS
IN UACkS
INUtcT
(·~
1
I ICII
LAMIH.AU WArt: RIAL MD ()CP(NOAILI
IMT£11;\AU
OIIILL flft11
P'I(Ct
IIIIIIA<.iL
IN:.P~C
I
ACCI" Oft
I'Uj(CI
IHSrfCI
lkSI((J
fiR~ I rllCI
INSI'(CI
',.010 ""'U
Ntt.•tL rl&l(
SlH Ul fll MASK
AAU/0..
~IHCLAJUftl
SoCAtlN
OftiLL ftRU
sue .. of
lkJAHI.JS
Pl" P'RIN'I
SOLO( A .. A.SK
fi""/l(AU
P'lAif
J:LIWI'-!.&1(
lkSrlCJ
DAIUING
OI'(RA.ltOkS )0
fHFI.OVGU H
OUAllfY
DRILL
'""""(
ORDfR
IHsrECI
O"ILLING
OUAllf't
AHhiOH
tk:.rtt..l
iSINUll ,10€01
S~il Ak £ .IICl SS
loCA,JtHIAl f0H
HOVIIN<.i
NOWihiCLAJUflll
SCIUllol
(L(CTHOHIC:
CIACUif
CHICK
OHINlo taJAHO
INSI'lCT A..NO
I OUCH._,.
ro ''"'"'l
,.IHNI
DIMlNSIOH
Al"'l Y I WAG(
I~NCL ( 110( 01
HlWUY( II'U.W:'t
flASH
IIHAL
IHSI'ICJK»>
fUS~AHO
AU LOW
til VII tt ... l;(H
lLIIIIIIINAU
01'1RAIIQIIIS
22 THROUGH 21
SANO ANO
$CAUl
(!loti IA(l 4HI A
4llll.,.UVHIIN4
HIJtl!, ANlJl..Uf
I INI,t H (IIH\All
U'f''o'IA'I':.OlOIS
SCAUI
SINGLE SIDED MANUFACTURE
-------------------'
"':'!"
FIGURE ·-·
SOURCE: ORANGE COUNTY ELECTRONICS CO. OPERATIONS MANUAL
'~
a-
~UN(.H
AfCfiVl LA.UINAJl
AUT I RIAL
100l1'-t. tiUll ~
ININ,...lHL.a.WIN.a.lt lwiAI'L
l10ftl LA.UUIIAII
WATf.I\14L
000-
------:]_
PUNCH 100L lNG H<.ll (S
/NOUUA LAWit'..a.ll
··""·U.
IUI'I11H""'
{! lA~ I
tr.l..a.l'L
,.,, l 1)
IHVlCJ
LAMINAU
Au.UIUAL
fUCIIVI AHD lkSI"tct
lXI'lNOAILl MAJ(IIIIALI
SCIIUI Clt.a.~
INN( A LAiwiiN.a.l(
HC~H.a.l\oll
luk l>HH I IfilL.
....,.,L Y DillY filltlt
lftu.. ''"'"~"
f HlJooloolilll.l'l.
(xros.t. Of:Vll(.W
S'J
lfi<YtCI JIIUT
r1tcl DklliiNG
i0UIS10'1
y
¢
CAOS.S UCJI()f.j
lOA iloi,..lttlA't(R
Ali(,NMLNI &
OHilliN(; 0UALI1Y
C·)
OAill I "'ilA(
OHOI A
JO iJrltCOWIHC
CHO.S.SSlCII~
IHY(Cf lo TOUCH
ut IMAGE A.AlA
ITOfU:
'I' IJAQI
JUCIIY( 'I'ITAOl
1'111 rf't:OI
000-·-l
I
IHSI'ICf
.. 'SJAGI
I
I
LA ... INAf(
,.,. All LA.Ylh)
• b SIAI..ol
TOGI nHH
ITCH IM4Gt
"'(UfiU.lll( ANO
AIN.ll
IN$1'HT10frl
IOM tHliiLI""G
IJUALIIY
(~)
SANO .WAR OS
I
t
I
ijA. .. I lJAl AIL
......
IUWOVI D"Y
'"'"''" "'"'''uvlt..,
L"rlHS
a~tcr
IWA~f
INY'lCJ •LM:II.
OICIO( lill"lloltNT
ARIA
v.u-uH •1 A.SI
>101l)
lll:H HOllS
CllAN
ACC(rl OR
R6..1(CI
CftOSS SICIIOH fOil
fi ... AL 00ALI1Y
~
Cl(AH INHIR.
OVHft LAYlHS
fOIIl.u.tiNAIIOH
_9
llAC" Ollii.JI
lki"T All 1hNIH
LAY(HS
-------- --·-
SCAUI CL lAH
----
---
____)
rROCIIOliWifHAll
rHOCIS.SSUI"S
MULTI-LAYER MANUFACTURE
FIGURE 4
SOURCE: ORANGE COUNTY ELECTRONICS CO. OPERATIONS MANUAL
'../
8
registers the pad
coo~dinates
in the X
& Y directions.
The pads are optically located in the X-Y-directions.
All the holes are located with reference to the pad
centers. This method permits the use of drilling holes·
located directly from the artmaster or film.
The tape is
then loaded onto the computer which will control the
drilling machine. After drilling, the boards are
deburred by sanding.
The boards are sensitized and given an electroless
<that is plating without the use of
cur~ent)
copper
flash to make the holes conductive for electroplating.
Copper is plated with a minimum thickness in the holes,
usually at-least .001 inches.
A plating resist mask is
then applied by screening or photo-printing.
In the silk
screening process, the screen is painted with a red
emulsion. The emulsion is then photographically exposed
through the negative with ultra violet rays. These rays
make the exposed areas of the emulsion harden. The
screen is processed, leaving only the hardened areas
thus producing the image. The panels are then baked in
ovens. After inspection, a second metal is plated over
the copper to act as an etch resist
(usually of tin-
1 ead) .
The screened or photo-printed mask is then
stripped. The background copper is etched off. A solder
mask may be applied,
if specified by the end user. After
9
another inspection, the boards are cut to final size and
shape with a metal template that has been·pre-fabricated
from the fabrication drawing to the outer dimensions of
the P.C. board.
2.3 ~e~~E6~I~Bl~§
EBQGs§§
6~IsB~6Il~s§
2.3.1 BOARD MANUFACTURING
In general, P.C. boards can be manufactured by two
different processes:
(a) Subtractive process
(b)
Additive process
In the subtractive process, the material is raw
epoxy glass laminated with copper on the surface and the
unwanted copper is etched away during the process ..
In the additive process, the material is raw epoxy
glass without the copper laminated to the surface.
It is
specially treated to accept an electroless copper,
applied to the surface and in the holes where etching
never takes place.
Subtractive process would be selected in preference
to the additive process because the former is approved
by MIL-SPECS
<MIL-STD-PC82597)
whereas the later is not
an approved process. Also, the additive process requires
the artwork to be designed specifically for this
purpose. Since the customers tend to design the artwork
in the conventional way, the additive process is
10
difficult to implement.
The additive process can be used for·reducing cost
when the quantity of boards to be manufactured is large.
But then
th~re
appears to be no good market for it now
because of non-approval by MIL-SPECS.
2.3.2 CIRCUIT APPLICATION
The next selection to be made after the board
manufacturing process is the method of applying circuit
to the board surface.
There are several methods that
can be used to apply the-image to the surface of the
board. They are as follows:
(a)
Wet film
(b)
Hand screening
(c)
Machine screening
(d)
Dry film
Wet film is also referred to as photo resist. The
light sensitive material applied to the surface of the
board resists the acids used for etching the circuit.
Then the photo of the circuit is placed over the treated
surface of the board and exposed to the light sensitive
material. Wet film is still very much used in straight
etch work
(copper with no plating requirements), for
example single sided boards only. Thus this plating
requirement is a serious limitation if such a process is
installed since only one type of product can be made and
accounts for just 19% of the total market for PCBs.
11
There are two reasons why wet film is not used with a
plating requirement. The first reason is that it takes
considerable time to achieve an expertise with wet film
to ensure total removal of the resist in areas to be
plated. Should any photo-resist residues be left behind
in the areas to be ¢lated, plating voids would be
evident.
It means that many rejects will be made while
one attempts to gain experience with wet film when a
plating operation is required. The second is the
thickness of the wet film on the surface of the board.
If too little photo resist is applied to the surface of
the board, there will be problems with nodules on the
surface where it has to be etched.
If the photo-resist
is applied too heavily, there will be a problem in
curing down the resist to the board surface thereby
resulting in the resist coming off. The resist, when
cured, is .0002" thick. The wet film process results in
considerable growth of the conductor lines when a
plating process is required. When boards are straight
etched, the line width tolerances can be easily
controlled.
It is conceivable to hold .(2)(2)1" to .002 11
line widths and spacing with proper controls, skills and
thin foil requirements.
Hand screening is an art and is relatively easy.
is also known as silk screen process.
It
It requires very
little investment but is labor intensive. Silk screening
-
-----·
·-
--·-·-· .
12
becomes a problem for dense circuit boards. As packaging
densities increase, it becomes necessary to use a
material with fewer sketch characteristics to hold
~egistration
requirements. Therefore woven stainless
steel meshes are used instead of silk.
If the screen is
properly made, the screen can be registered to the
drilled hole to .004" in a 24 inch long image.
Machine screening has the capability to screen .7
mm.
lines and .7 mm. spacing. This process is similar to
manual screening, except that it is automated and more
e::pensi ve.
Dry film process is the best process to apply
image, since it is most consistently controlled process.
It requires large investment. The prime advantage.of dry
film is line width control of densely packaged boards.
In general, a board that has been dry
~ilmed
will
have line shrinkage characteristics if the proper film
thickness has been selected. A screened board will have
line growth characteristics.
Table 1 shows the image application
p~ocess
for·
various line and space widths and also panel sizes.
The above four processes have to be evaluated in
terms of the cost for equipment, the products that can
be made and hence the market share, and also the quality
of the product that can be obtained.
LINE WIDTH
SPACING WIDTH
IMAGE APPLICATION PROCESS
---
PANEL SIZE
.015" AND
.015"AND
SMALLER
DRY FIU,1
AtJY SIZt
AUTOMATIC SCREF.NihJG
6" X 9" OR
Sr.,r, i·. L I. f 1·:
Sf\~AL
L ER
.01 :,"
.015"
ORDRY~IU\1
0'
.01 S"
.015"
DRY FILM
LAHGH-; THAN
6" X 9''
.015"
.020"
AUT 0 f\1 AT I C SC R E E r'! I N (.J •
OR DRY FILM
UP TO 12" X 18"
.020"
.020"
HAND SCREENING, AUTOMATIC
SCREENING OR DRY FILM
6" X 9" OR
SMALLER
AUTOMATIC SCREENING
OR DRY FILM
LARGER THAN
6" X 9" UP TO
.020"
.020"
12" X 18"
.025"
.020"
HAND SCREENING,.AUTQMATIC
SCREENING OR DRY FILM
UP TO 12" X 18"
.02S"
.025"
HAND SCREENING, AUTOI\1ATIC
SCREENING OR DRY FILM
ANY SIZE TO THE
CAPACITY OF THE
SCREEN PROCESS
IMAGE
-----
APPLICAT!ON FOR
SPACE W!Q!~§
--- VARIOUS
------- LINE
---- &
- ·----- -
-----------
TABLE 1
1-"
c. ~
14
The product mix to be considered for manufacturing would
be three types of boards. They are:
a)
Singl~
sided boards
b)
Double sided boards
c) Multi-layer boards
The manufacturing flow charts for all three types of
boards are shown in figures 1,2 and 3 in section 2.2.
Si~gle
sided boards require the least amount of
equipment for their manufacture whereas the multi-layer
boards require maximum amount of equipment.
Single sided boards do not go through the plating
operation and hence reduce the cost on equipment
expenditure. The cost of a single sided bbard depends on
the density of the circuit lines. Frequently, the cost
of a very dense single sided board can exceed the cost
of a double sided board of the same design. The present
market share of single sided boards is 19/. of the $5.3
I
billion market .
Though the overall P.C.
board demand is
expected to rise overall by 16%, the demand for single
I
sided boards would rise at a lower rate •
Double sided boards undergo the plating operation
in addition to all the operations that single sided
boards undergo.
They command a 40/. market share and are
expected to have a good growth rate.
Multi-layered boards require maximum capital
~
.
15
investment on equipment and they also have the maximum
share of the market
(41%). The growth rat~ for these
boards is expected to be maximum of all the three.
Lamination of various layers is the additional step
involved and it also requires more quality checks and
thus is the most difficult to manufacture.
2.5 l~§IB~~BIIQ~
QE
~~~~ BQ~Il~§ ~6~~1~5
The most common method of bringing the board to size is
through the use of a hand router. This method is
relatively simple but not extremely accurate. the
average total tolerance that can be attained is +.083".
The best tolerance to expect from NC routing is
+. 002"
01~
even less. Alignment is no prob 1 em. Human
errors along with hand·routing error are eliminated by
putting all the information into the program. The only
disadvantage is that of the high cost investment
required to buy an NC fabrication machine.
At present about 10% of the work orders received
require NC fabrication and this must justify the
investment in such a machine.
3. I~~ Q~~l§lQ~ EBQ~~§§
3.1 I~~ Q~~l§lQ~ ~BL~B§ ~ ~Q~ I~~ Qs~l§lQ~ WILL ~s ~BQ~
The decision makers would include the company's
president, the accountant, the production engineer and
the production planning engineer. Basically there are
three things for which a decision has to be made. They
are:
1. The manufacturing process
2. The product mix
~-
installation of N.C. routing machine.
The manufacturing process would be selected by the above
four people.
The selection process would involve
discussions of the various alternatives available, the
advantages and the disadvantages associated with each of
them.
Each alternative would be weighed in terms of
superiority over the other alternatives. This
superiority will form the basis of eliminating
alternatives. The final decision will be made on a
consensus basis.
The main objectives of the company are;
1.
2~%
after tax return on investment
2. Consistent annual sales growth
3. Quality product
(low percentage of rejects).
The company believes that in this highly competitive
16
17
market, a reasonable rate of return should be at-least
20% after income taxes on the investments·made and thus
the policies of the company are formulated with this in
mind.
Th~
company is also on the look out for cost
reduction techniques of production and at the same time
ensuring good quality product. Quality is essential from
the point of having regular customers so that the
satisfied buyers would return with more orders. Also,
the company's aim is to ensure that there is a gradual
increase in the production every year to help it grow
and make it more profitable.
The company has made some prior policy decisions.
They are:
-Total cost of the manufacturing facility should not
e:{ceed $300,000.
-Design a new manufacturing facility.
-Project decision to be made in eight months.
The company believes that it would be highly undesirable
to invest more than $300,000 in a new facility.
This is
because of the limited resources of raising larger
capital.
Eight months is a reasonable amount of time to
complete an evaluation of the manufacturing process, so
that after that they can immediately set up the new
manufacturing facility.
18
3.3 Q~~l§lQ~ EBQ~~§§
The procedure for processing the information for
decision making is represented by the sequence of
activities as shown in figure 5.
It consists of the
following steps:
1. Describe the candidate alternatives.
2. Estimate outcomes for each of the candidate
alternatives in terms of decision criteria.
3. Compute relative ratings.
4. Select course of action.
These steps are discussed in sections 4 and 5.
19
Formulate
candidate
Description of
S~!JQig~:J;_g
~l_:t_gr::.!J£ii~g§
~l.:t.gr::.!J~ii~g§
..
a
'I
a Estimated
t
-
-
Estimate
2
Qh!i£Q!!)g§
9!::!i£Q!!)g§
jANALYSISj
a y =-
=- =
- =
==-
y
.
a y
y
.
i
...,..
....,:.
IEt.)(-;LUA T I ON I
-
EstimC\te
relative
Relative
--------
u
u
r::.~ii!JQ
.
=
=
=
~
Optimization
4
~bgis~
[DECISION!
Choice is a
I
FIGURE 5
I
r::.~ii!JQ2
-
-
Select course
of ~s:t.ig!J
Which is best?
Is it worth doing?
Are there better
alternatives?
4.
g~Bb~BIIQ~ ~QQgb
4.1 g~Bb~BIIQ~ BEEBQB~~
Utility theory has been used here as a basis for
modelling value systems.
It uses the interval scale
which has been constructed by assigning a number to each
of the two reference points.
The rating of candidate technology for P.C. board
manufacturing is accomplished by structuring an
evaluation model to represent management policies, goals
and objectives. the development of this model, based on
Lifson
1.
(1982)
involves four steps:
Develop hierarchy of values.
Define criteria and the scales of measurement.
·-·.
..,..
Develop utility functions .
4.
Formulate objective function.
These steps, together with their respective outputs, are
shown in figure 6. Each of these steps is explained in
the following sections.
20
21
1
DEVELOP HIERARCHY
OF VALUES
Outputs of each activity
s~~l~~tigQ ~gQ~l ~l~~~Qt2
!.Classes and subclasses of
elements of D's value system
2.Set of decision criteria:
<y, ,y2. ' ... ,yj '• •. ,ym~~)
2
DEFINE CRITERIA
AND THEIR SCALES
OF MEASUREMENT
Criteria:definition and
~~~2~~~~~Qt 2~~1~2
Definition and
measurement scale
for each criterion
'>J
3
y 1 ,profit=
y 2 , sales growth=
y ,share of market=
3
,'l.
DEVELOP UTILITY
FUNCTIONS
A utility function
Utility functions [ul<YJ>J
and 2£~liQ9 f~£1Q~2 l~jL
and scaling factor
for each criterion
2
I
uj
0
+----?'----- 'jj
-I
4
,:t
, 'l.
FORMULATE OBJECTIVE
FUNCTION
-2.
.Jma.)(
U· =?E<u· ).
Objective
function
I
FIGURE 6
J :.J
.J
I
22
4.1.1 Qs~s~QE ~lsB6B~~~
QE
~8~Vs§
Hierarchy of values has been used to identify a good set
of decision criteria. The total relative value has been
divided among three criteria (figure 7). They are:
i) Return on investment
<R.O.I.)
ii) Quality (percentage of rejects)
iii) Annual percentage sales growth.
TOTAL RELATIVE VALUE
~lsB8B~~~
QE
~Bli~Bl6
FIGURE 7
These three criteria represent the corporate policies,
goals and objectives as they have been described in
section 3.2.
Return on investment is considered to be the most
important factor in this evaluation and hence the major
criterion. The company believes that the customers who
will buy their products are important because they are
the source of revenue generation and hence it is
essential to supply quality goods.
A satisfied customer
would normCJ.ll y come back with more orders. Hence CfUlal it y
becomes another important criterion. The company's aim
is to grow and be able to capture a large share of the
market every year and hence sales growth is the third
criterion.
All the three criteria represent relatively
independent objectives of company management. This
be illustrated by the following examples.
~an
It may happen
that the cost of the raw materials and other inputs may
g o up c o 11 s i d e r a b 1 y wh i 1 e the s e 1 1 i n g p r i c e cannot be
increased because of severe competition, thereby
reducing the profit margin and hence the return on
investment.
At the same time, however, the overall sales
may be higher than the previous year sales.
case,
In other
it could happen that the raw materials become
cheaper and hence for the same volume of sales as in the
previous year, the return on investment would be higher.
In another case, there might be an improvement in the
manufacturing process thereby improving the quality of
the products without any change in the sales volume.
The return on investment is calculated by taking into
account the following:
a)
Total
initial
investment
b) Total annual operating costs
c) Total annual revenues.
The quality is measured by number of rejects divided by
24
total number produced. The annual sales growth is the
percentage increase in sales over the
pre~ious
year
sales.
The estimation of the criteria is described in
Section 5.2.
Each of the criteria is defined below. These criteria
determine the output expected of the analysis activity.
Criterion
--------- scale
-----
Percent
R.O.I.
Quality<% rejects)
y~
Percent rejects
Annual sales growth
~,
ROI,
is computed by setting the net present worth of
a projected cash flow stream equal to zero:
N
--t
=0
t::c
where NPW=net present worth
NPW=~<CF)t(l+r)
CF is the cash flow
t
is the time period from 0 to N
The parameter r for which NPW=0 is the return on
investment
<y~),
<y
3
(Section 5.2).
quality is the percentage of rejects.
>, sales growth is computed as
25
<y 3 \ = (sal est -sal es~_ 1
!{
100
salest-l
where salest=sales for year t
sal es-t,. 1=sales for year t -1.
4.1.3 Qs~sbQE ~Ilbli~ E~~~IlQ~§
The following procedure was used to produce a utility
function for each criterion.
STEP 1: SPECIFY A RANGE OF INTEREST
For each criterion, lower and upper limits of the range
of interest were specified. For example, in ROI,
10% and
40% were the lower and upper limits selected. This range
includes all reasonable values for return on investment.
The following range of interest was specified for
each of the above mentioned criterion.
bQ~sB
Return on investment
Quality
I. annual
sales growth
bl!:::!II
~EEsB
bl!:::!II
10%
40%
6%
2/.
10/.
50/.
These values were selected by knowledgeable company
personnel.
STEP 2:
IDENTIFY THE THRESHOLD
A threshold point, defined as the point that separates
desirable from undesirable amounts of a criterion, was
specified for each criterion. A relative worth of zero
was assigned to each of threshold so that positive
26
relative worth represents a desirable outcome, an
outcome contributing to achievement of objectives, and
negative worth represents an undesirable outcome, an
outcome
con~ributing
to non-achievement of objectives.
Therefore,
for each criterion Y·.J .
For each criterion the following threshold values
lt'Jere selected.
~Bli~BlQt::!
Return on investment
20/..
Quality
41..
I. annual
sales growth
20/..
STEP 3: DEFINE UTILITY SCALES
To define a cardinal utility scale:
u (y
where
<yrn>J
<ym~
). =1
""J
=most preferred amount of criterion
may occur anywhere within the range of interest
.. ,;..
<ym>j -
~
.
.
'
~..
.. .
...
:
. .. .
.:
the most preferred amount of criterion Yj
is the
same as the upper limit for each criterion as defined in
step 1 above.
STEP 4: DEVELOP THE UTILITY FUNCTIONS
A utility function is a quantitative model of
preferences for various amounts of each criterion. the
27
exponential function which has been found to be a good
model for these purposes 2
is used in this study:
where e=2.7183, the base of the natural logarithms
Aj,Bj,Cj
are constants to be determined for the
utility function of a particular Yj, where j=1,2,3
In compliance with interval scaling theory, two
levels of each criterion are arbitrarily assigned
utility values
2
•
These arbitrary anchor points assigned
are (for each criterion):
A third point in the y-u plane, needed to determine
the three parameters of the utility function,
is
identified by assigning a utility value to the least
desirable point in the range of each criterion:
These relationships were obtained through discussions .. _
with knowledgeable company personnel.
The values of the constants were determined by using
a computer program called "Utility" as shown in Appendi:·:
c.
The values of the constants as obtained for each of
the criterion are:
28
e
~Bli~BlQ~
Retur-n on investment
Quality
-15.8987
-. 1348
.3466
-.5
Sales gr-owth
c
!2
-9.3513
-.1099
1.0723
2.0
1.0384
The pr-efer-ence relationships ar-e shown in figur-es
8, 9 and 10.
-.1348y
u=-15. 899e
--+1. 072
lH
u::
w
::c
\0
w
~0
::>
40
~.,
......
l-
R.o.:r. ( ·1.)
<I:
..J
w -I
u::
-2.
-3
PREFERENCE RELATIONSHIP CURVE
FIGURE 8
,, .
29
.3465y
u=-.5e
+2
.....
H
0::::
w
0
L:
w
/.
:>
REJECTS
H
I<C
-l
_J
w
u::
-2.
...
PREFERENCE RELATIONSHIP CURVE
FIGURE 9
+I
-.1098y
u=-9.3513e
+1.038
1H
u::
w
L:
30
10
40
w
:>
H
1<C
_,
~3,
/. SALES GROWTH
_J
w
u::
-2
PREFERENCE RELATIONSHIP CURVE
FIGURE 10
50
30
Each of the three criteria was assigned a scaling
factor.
The purpose of the scaling
factor~
is to provide
the second relationship needed to assure a common
scaling for the utilities of all the criteria.
Wj=scaling factor assigned to
<Ym~,
where
If
<ym~
is the
most desired amount of the j-th criterion, then each
preliminary utility function
(figures 8,9,10) may be
transformed to an equivalent utility function with the
utility measured on the common scale.
u . ( y . ) =l-1). u. ( y. )
J
J
J
J
J
where y. =a decision criterion
J
Uj <yJ )=preliminary utility function
~=scaling
factor assigned to
for Yj
(y~~
Uj <yJ)=utility function relating amounts of
~
to
a common utility scale.
Each of the three criterion has been assigned the
following scaling factors:
ROI
500
Quality
350
Sales growth
150
These values were assigned in consultation with the
corporate management.
ROI is the single most important
factor in determining the process of manufacture to be
selected and hence has been assigned a high scaling
value. Quality of the product is very important and
hence it has been assigned a scaling value of 350. Sales
31
growth is important, but not as significant as y 1 or
y~,
and hence has been given a lower priority.
Thus the hierarchy of evaluation elements looks like
this:
TOTAL RELATIVE VALUE
10!ZHZI
I
I
I
R.O.I.
QUALITY
SALES GROWTH
v.
y2.
y'3
(500)
(350)
(150)
I
FIGURE 11
4.1.4 IQI6b
B~b6Il~~
§~QB~~
THE OBJECTIVE FUNCTION
An objective function is needed to determine the
relative score for each decision alternative. The
objective function provides the relationship needed to
compute a relative score for the expected output of. each
decision alternative.
Since there is uncertainty in estimates of outcomes,
the objective function includes probabilities. The
computed
re~ative
score for each candidate alternative
is the expected utility.
32
The objective function is:
U·
I
=fw.(~.
j-::l
J
J
(y·) f <y· )· dy.
J
J
I
J
~h.
where WJ=scaling factor
f <yj
i
)i
for~
==probability function over Yj
is chosen.
if alternative
5. 6~6bY§l§ 6~~ ~~6b~6IIQ~
Four different process were identified and they are
listed below:
1. Dry film process.
2. Wet film process.
3. Machine silk screening.
4. Hand silk screening.
These process have been identified in terms of
1. Return on investment.
2. Quality (percentage of rejects>.
3. Annual sales growth.
5.1 §Q~B~~§
QE
~6I6~
Data were obtained from the following companies for the
different processes.
1. DRY FILM PROCESS: Orange County Electronics,
Eleetro-Etch Circuits Inc.,
Industrial Circuits, and
Pacif~c
Photo Circuits,
Transche~.
2. MACHINE SCREENING: Manufacturing Technologies.
Inc., Dibble Electronics Inc., Cosmotronic Corp., Me
Curdy Circuits Inc., and Litronic Industries.
3. WET FILM PROCESS: Global Manufacturing Co., Dirava
Electronics Inc., Trace Manufacturing Inc., National
Technology, and Data Circuits· Inc.
4. HAND SILK SCREENING: Communications Network, Tex
34
Engineering Corp., Microtronics Inc., Kobaway Inc., and
J-Tron Inc.
The data obtained from the above companies are
summarized in Table 2 below:
B.!..Q.!...!.!..l~l.
1. Dry film
/. BsJs~I§
I§Bbs§
§BQ~It! ~
#1
..,:...,:.
"":'"-:r'
.....
..::.
....::.
28
#2
26
2.0
..::.b
#3
29
2.3
..::......J
#4
28
.....
..:_. 1
26
#5
34
2. 1
24
#1
31
2.4
30
#2
31
2.2
27
#3
29
1.7
28
#4
...:•..::.
..,. .....
#5
.
..........
.
.
~
'
2.1'1achi ne
Screening
3.Wet film
3.Hand
Screening
......
...=
.....
..::. 1
26
26
..::..
..::.
27
#1
25
3.5
22
#2
.....,=
.LU
2.9
24
#3
27
3.2
25
#4
22
3.2
24
#5
21
2.9
..::..J
#1
24
"':!"
..... ?_
..::..J
#2
25
2.8
26
#3
27
2.5
28
#4
,..,~
,..:..._.
2.6
26
#5
24
2.8
26
TABLE 2
...=
..... &:::"
@ '
The computation of the R.O.I.
is explained in section
The reject percentage is the number of rejects
divided by the total number produced.
Sales growth is the increase in sales over the
previous year.
5.2
~Q~E~rerrg~
oF
EBQ~e~r~rrx ~l2IBI~~IIQ~2
QE
r~g
~BrrgBre=
The return on investment was calculated by computing the
internal rate of return.· Data of Table 3
<Appendix D>,
were put to a computer program <ECON304), which
calculates the ROI, based on the net-after-tax revenues
for each year and the initial investment. The computer
sheets are attached in Appendix E. Quality and sales
growth data were obtained from the respective companies.
To determine the probability distribution curves,
firstly, for the data shown in table 2, the mean and the
standard deviation 4 were calculated for each of the
process, for each criterion. An assumption was made that
the curves would follow the normal distribution. The
values of the mean and the standard deviation of the
samples is shown in Appendix D-2. Then fot each
criterion, for each process, a probability distribution
curve was plotted with the standard deviation along the
X-axis and the frequency along the Y-axis. These
probability distribution curves are shown in figures 12,
36
13 and 14.
Since, for each process only five sets of data could
be obtained, the sample size is small. For a confidence
level of 90%, a confidence .interval 5
for ~ach process~
for each criterion was calculated using the formula:
where
x=mean of the sample
!-~=confidence
z~~=area
level
to the right of
~=standard
0
1-~
FIGURE A
as shown in Figure A
deviation,
n=sample size, u=population mean.
The confidence interval for each process for each
criterion is tabulated and shown in Appendix J.
Then Simpson's rule~ was applied to compute objective
function
(section 4.1.4).
(The computer program used is
shown in Appendix F). The computation sheets are shown
in Appendix G. The results are summarized in Table 4.
Table 5 in Appendix J shows that there is
considerable overlapping of the confidence interval
among different processes for a given criterion. Though
for the present set of data, the Dry film process comes
out better than the other three processes, a little
variation in data could result in Machine screening
process being better than the other three processes.
37
3
27.8
30.0
32.2
2.'tS
27.6
BQl
BQl
MACHINE SCREENING
DRY FILM
N
N
...
2.1.q
2.4,0
BQl
WET FILM
26.1
4.3.3
BQ.!
HAND SCREENING
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION CURVES FOR
ROI FOR DIFFERENT PROCESSES
(90/. CONFIDENCE INTERVAL>
FIGURE 12
.
'
31.8
38
H
2.03
2.14
2.25
2..05
DRY F ILI'1
2.18
2.31
MACHINE SCREENING
N
3.14~ B£J£~I§
WET FILM
3.35
2.. 78
2.55
t.
B£!Is!;I§
HAND SCREENING
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION CURVES FOR
I. REJECTS FOR DIFFERENT PROCESSES
(9~/. CONFIDENCE INTERVAL)
FIGURE 13
i.Ol
39
2.4.5
2.7.1
2.5.S
DRY FILM
l6.l
2.7.4-
28.7
MACHINE SCREENING
N
3
23.0
L;
2.4.0
§6bs§
2.5.0
§BQ~It!
WET FILM
25.2. 26.'2. '2.7.2.
SALES -----GROWTH
-/. -----
HAND SCREENING
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION CURVES FOR /.
SALES GROWTH FOR DIFFERENT PROCESSES
<90/. CONFIDENCE INTERVAL>
FIGURE 14
-~
WET FILM
MACHINE SCREEN
DRY FILM
u.I
JuJ f ( Yj >dy
fujf<yj)dy
u.I
Juj f ( Yj ) dy
HAND SCREEN.
ui
U·I
ujf<yj)d)
I
I
I
.00988178
4.94 .00935809
4.68 .00219133
1. 10 .00331887 1. 66
I. REJECTS • (2)(2)664384
2.33 .00610796
2. 14 .00518770
1. 82 .00576450 2.02
SALES GR.
0.46 .00407265
0.60 .00214672
12).32 .00411358 0.62
7.73
7.42
3.24
R.O.I.
.00307698
U·I
---~
----
------------
-
-
-
-------
4.30
--
..
Q~J~gii~~ E~~giiQ~ IB~~~6IlQ~
TABLE 4
The value of
Uj
is obtained by multiplying theJulf<yJ>dy term with the
weighting factor
<Section 4.1.3>.
-&:>
s
~~-----·"'''" "''·~---
41
5.3 ~~~l§lQ~ Q~ EBQ~~~I ~1~~ ~g ~B~Hl~~ B~Q ~Q~lE~~~I§~
All of the companies from which data were obtained had a
good product mix.
Most of the companies manufactured all
the th~ee types of P.C. boards -single-sided, double-.
sided and multi-layered. Through discussions with
company personnel, it was determined that the market
demand requires the manufacture of all three types of
boards.
N.C.
routing machine has not been established in any
of these companies.
The reason is that,for very small
production quantities, it is very uneconomical. For
example, the cost of an NC machine is $100,000. The
company, Orange County Electronics, pays $10,000
annually to an outside contractor for getting the NC
routing work done.
It is estimated by the company
personnel that the cost to the outside contractor would
be at least $2,000 towards labor, electricity and other
material cost.
On doing an analysis <Appendix H>, the
rate of return comes out to be 5%.
This rate of return
is substantially lower than that of the company;
therefore, the company management feels it would be
better not to invest in an NC routing machine.
The low rate of return results from a very low
capacity utilization of the NC machine. Hence N.C.
machine should not be installed.
A list of the equipments is shown in Appendix I.
On the basis of evaluation of alternatives it is seen
that Dry film process is slightly better than the
Machine screening process, but far superior to the Wet
film process and the Hand screening process <Table 4,
Section 5.2). A slight variation in the data could have
resulted in the Machine screening process being better
than the Dry film process. Therefore further work should
involve data from a large number of companies and also
evaluate a combination of the two
process~s
-
Dry film
and Machine Screening - which might give better results.
A product mix of single-sided boards, double-sided
boards and multi-layered boards should be made because
the company personnel were of the opinion that the
customers' demand keeps varying and they prefer to have
all the types of boards made at one place.
.:'-!:
Installation of the N.C. machine was not justified
because of the limited use and high investment.
Hence
it would be economical to have it done by an outside
agency.
42
43
On the basis of the above evaluation of the four
processes, it would be best to have the Dry film process
installed for the manufacture of printed circuit boards.
One aspect for further investigation would be
possible advantages of some combination of Dry film and
Machine screening processes. This study did not include
this aspect of manufacturing because of constraints of
time and available data.
1.
"World Markets Forecast", Electronics Journal, Jan.
12,1984, pg 66.
2. M.W.Lifson, Engineering Decision/Risk Analysis, 1982
pg 83.
3. M.L.James, G.M.Smith, J.C.Wolford, Applied Numerial
Methods For Digital Computation, Harper & Row, New
York,
1985, pg 265.
4. Dale H.Besterfield, Quality Control, Prentice-Hall
Inc. New Jersey,
1979, pg 31.
5. Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myers, Probability and
Statistics for Engineers and Scientists, Macmillan
Publishing Company, New York, 1978, pg 134.
6. Charles Lipson & Narendra J.Sheth, Statistical Design
and Analysis of Engineering Experiments, McGraw-Hill,
New York,
1973, pg 127.
44
45
APPENDIX A
DIAGRAM OF P.C. BOARD
46
-
APPENDIX B
~i.
·i·:
•
-
Y Y·A;Jill
•
• •••
•••••
• ••
47
UTILITY PROGRAM
APPENDIX C
LLIST
100 PRINT •INPUT NUMBER OF CRITERIA YOU HAVE"
110 INPUT G
120 FOR I=l TO G
130 lNPUT U1,U2,U3,Yl,Y2,Y3
140 Z1=<Yl-Y2)/(Y3-Yl>
150 Z3=CY3-Y2)/CY3-Yl>
160 B=2*LOGCCZl*U3)/CUl*Z3))
170 X=CU1/U3>*EXP<B*Z3>-EXPCB*Z1>+1-CU1/U3>
180 IF X<=.OOOl GOTO 220
190 S=CU1/U3>*Z3*EXPCB*Z3>-Zl*EXPCB*Z1>
200 B=B-CX/S)
210 GOTO 170
220 Al=U3/CEXP<B*Z3>-1>
230 C1=-Al
240 A=Al*EXP<<-B*Y2>1CY3-Yl))
250 B1=B/CY3-Yl)
260 C=Cl
270 PRINT "A",A
2 8 0 F' R I NT • B " , B 1
290 PRINT •c•,c
300 NEXT I
310 END
READY.
RUN
INPUT NUMBER OF CRITERIA YOU HAVE
? 3
? -3,0,1,10,20,40
A
-15.8987
~
B
-.13482
c
1.07233
? -2,0,1,6,4,2
A
-
...
• ..J
.346574
B
c
2
? -2,0,1,10,20,50
A
B
-9.35134
-.109891
1.03843
c
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
Orange County Manufacturing Globe Mfg. Communications
Electronics
Technolgies
Co.
Network
'
:
!
<Dry Film>
(M/c.Screen.)
(Wet Film)
<Hand Screen.),
I
'
Initial Invest.$
280,000
270,000
245,000
225,000
45,000
40,000
30,000
35,000
80,000
70,000
55,000
55,000
3 yr.
135,000
120,000
90,000
85,000
4 yr.
211Zl,000
195,1Zl00
145,1Zl00
131Zl,001Zl
5 yr.
305,1Zl!Zl0
210,1Zl00
210,000
185,000
2.2
2.4
3.6
3.2
F'rofit
1 yr.
<After
2 yr.
~
Ta:{)
D
IJ
"'0
I. Rejects
1'11
z
0
H
I. Sales Growth
26
28
22
25
X
0
QBIB
Q~IBl~~Q E8Q~ ~Q~EB~l~§
....I
TABLE 3
~
OJ
I
PROCESS
ROI
I. REJECTS
Mean Standard
Mean Standard
SALES GROWTH
Mean Standard
Deviation
Deviation
Deviation
..
'77
~._:.
2. 14
.116
25.8
1. 33
MACHINE SCREEN. 29.8
2. 14
2. 18
.133
27.4
1. 37
24.0
2.20
3. 14
.220
24.0
1. 00
24.6
1. 36
2.78
.241
26.2
1. 02
DRY FILM
30.0
WET FILM
HAND SCREENING
..
,....,
..::..
J>
iJ
'"(1
~~6~ ~ §I6~Q6BQ Q~~l6IlQ~
EQ8
~6~~ E8Q~s§§
m
z
t::1
H
X
t:!
I
N
..:::.
...;:)
50
RUN
MACHINE SCREENING
ECON304
*
PW, EAW, FW, IRR. PW l
APPENDIX E-2
EAW VS MARR, EAWOPT l NOPT
2
3
Q IF YOU WANT A QUICKRUN, OR OTHER CHARACTER FOR REGULA~ RUN? Q
YEARS.COMPOUNDINGS PER YEAR ? 5,1
CASH FLOWS
-:'70000
7
40000
? 70000
? 120000
4
?
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
0 ?
1
19~000
30!5000
l=PW,EAW,FW; 2=IRR; 3=BOTH; 4=PW l
5
?
EAW VS MARR; 5=EAWOPT l
NOPT
GUESS APPROXIMATE VALUE FOR ANNUAL IRR, LIKE 20 ? 30
ENTER MAXIMUM VALUE OF IRR YOU WISH TO SEARCH TO ? 100
THE INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN IS = 31 PER CENT
ENTER F FOR FIN!SHED OR C FOR CHANGE SOME OF THE ABOVE INPUTS
SRU
7
F
1.071 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
HAND SCREENING
2
?
RRUN
"'>C"=
ECON304
*
PW, EI'IW, FW, IRR, PW l
EI'IW VS MARR, EAWOPT l
NOPT
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
0 ?
1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
Q IF YOU WANT A QUICKRUN, OR OTHER CHARACTER FOR REGULAR RUN 7
YEARS,COMPOUNDINGS PER YEAR ? 5,1
CI'\SH FLOWS
-225000
35000
55000
85000
130000
:5
? 185000
1=PW,EI'IW,FW; 2=IRR; 3=BOTH; 4=PW l EI'\W VS MI'\RR; 5=EAWOPT l NOPT
'?
.
..,
"-
GUESS APPROXIMI'ITE VALUE FOR ANNUAL IRR, LIKE 20 ? 30
ENTER MAXIMUM VALUE OF IRR YOU WISH TO SEARCH TO ? 100
=
THE INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN IS
24.3 PER CENT
ENTER F FOR FINISHED OR C FOR CHANGE SOME OF THE ABOVE INPUTS ? F
SRU
1.032 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
Q
51
":C"=
ECON304
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
0
?
1
?
2 ?
3
?
APPENDIX E-1
DRY FILM
RUN
*
P~, E~W, FW, IRR, PW 1 E~W VS MARR, E~WOPT 1 NOPT
Q IF YOU W~NT ~ QUICKRUN, OR OTHER CH~R~CTER FOR REGUL~R RUN? Q
YE~RS,COMPOUNDINGS
PER YE~R ? ~.1
CASH FLOWS
-:::!80000
45000
80000
135000
4
? :::!10000
~
?' 3:::!5000
l=PW,Et'IW,FW; 2=IRR; 3=BOTH; 4=PW 1 EAW VS MARR;
~=EAWOPT
1 NOPT
GUESS ~PPROXiMATE VALUE FOR ~NNUAL IRR, LIKE 20 ? 30
ENTER MAXIMUM ~~LUE OF IRR YOU WISH TO SE~RC~ TO ? 100
THE INTERNAL R~TE OF RETURN IS = 33.:::! PER CENT
ENTER F FOR FINISHED OR C FOR CHANGE SOME OF THE ABOVE INPUTS
SRU
7
F
1.056 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
WET FILM
RUN
ECON304
~
PW. EAW, FW,
IRR, PW 1 EAW VS MARR,
E~WOPT
1 NOPT
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
0
?
1
?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
Q IF YOU WANT ~ QUICKRUN. OR OTHER CHARACTER FOR REGULA~ RUN? Q
YEARS,COMPOUNDINGS PER YEAR ?' 5,1
CASH FLOI.:S
-245000
30000
:=i5000
·.
90000
145000
~
? 210000
l=PW,EAW,FW; 2=IRR; 3=BOTH; 4=PW 1 E~W US M~RR; :=i=E~WOPT 1 NOPT
? 2
GUESS APPROXIMATE VALUE FOR ANNUAL IRR, LIKE 20 ? 30
ENTER MAXIMUM VALUE OF IRR YOU WISH TO SEARCH TO ? 100
THE INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN IS = 23.3 PER CENT
ENTER F FOR FINISHED OR C FOR CH~NGE SOME OF THE
SRU
1.051 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
~BOVE
INPUTS ? F
<=" ......
....u:..
APPENDIX F
PROGRAM USING SIMPSON'S RULE
? LLIST
101 REM THIS PROGRAM INTEGRATES USING SIMPSOMS RULE
102 REM A,B,C ARE CONSTANTS,N IS NUMBER OF INTERVALS
103 REM S IS THE STD DEVIATION, U IS MEAN
104 REM P AND Q ARE MIN AND MAX VALUES OF Y
110 INPUT A,B,C,N,S,U,P,Q
120 LET Y=P
121 LET P=A*EXP<B*Y>+C
122 LET Q=l/(5*2.5066>
123 LET 0=1*EXP<-.5*<<Y-U>IS>**2>
124 LET F=O*P*Q
125 R=O.O
130 LET H=<Q-P)/N
150 FOR 1=1 TO Ntl STEP 1
160 IF I=l THEN 170 ELSE 190
170 R=R+F
180 GO TO 240
190 IF I=Ntl THEN 170 ELSE 200
200 IF I/2=INT<II2> THEN 210 ELSE 230
210 R=R+4*F
220 GO TO 240
230 R=R+2*F
240 LET Y=Y+H
250 NEXT I
255 LET R=R*H/3
260 PRINT •AREA UNDER THE CURVE= •;R
270 END
READY.
53
APPENDIX G-1
RRUN
1 -15.899,-.13482,1.07233,100,2.33,30,26,34
AREA UNDER THE CURVE =-9.88178E-3
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
1 -15.899,-.13482,1.07233,100,2.14,29.8,26,33
AREA UNDER THE CURVE =-9.35809E-3
SRU
0.174 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
1 -15.899,-.13482,1.07233,100,2.2,24,22,27
AREA UNDER THE CURVE =-2.19133E-3
SRU
0.164 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
1
-15.899,-.13482,1.07233,100,~.36,24.6,23,27
AREA UNDER THE CURVE =-3.31887E-3
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
54
APPENDIX G-2·
? -.5,.346574,2,100,.116,2.14,1.7,2.3
AREA UNDER THE CURVE = 6.64384E-3
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
? -.5,.346574,2,100,.128,2.18,1.7,2.4
AREA UNDER THE CURVE = 6.10796E-3
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
? -.5,.346574,2,100,.220,3.14,2.4,3.6
AREA UNDER THE CURVE = 5.18774E-3
SRU
0.169 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
? -.5,.346574,2,100,.241,2.78,2.0,3.2
AREA UNDER THE CURVE = 5.76459E-3
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
Q '
APPENDIX G-3
RUN
? -9.35134,-.109891,1.03843,100,1t33,25.8,24,28
AREA UNDER THE CURVE =-3.07698E-3
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
? -9.35134,-.109891,1.03843,100,1.37,27.4,25,29
AREA UNDER THE CURVE =-4.07265E-3
SRU
0.183 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
? -9.35134,-.109891,1.03843,100,1,24,22,25
AREA UNDER THE CURVE = 2.14672E-3
SRU
0.164 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
RUN
·•
? -9.35134,-.109891,1.03843,100,1.02,26.2,25,28
AREA UNDER THE CURVE =-4.11358E-3
SRU
0.173 UNTS.
RUN COMPLETE.
56
APPENDIX H
Cost of NC machine
=
$100,000
Annual expenses incurred for getting NC work done
through an outside contractor
Electronics Co.)
Annual cost
=
(for Orange County
$10,000
(estimated by the above company management)
if NC machine is installed in-house= $2,000
=
Life of NC machine
20 years.
Hence for calculating the rate of return, i.
Present investment P=$100,000
~
Annual savings A=$10,000-$2,000 = $8,000
Number of years N=20
A
p
=
i <1 +i >
(!+i)
-1
On calculating, we get, the internal rate of return i=5%
57
APPENDIX I
ki2t g£
s9~iQ~~Qt2
1. Shearing machine
2.
Tape generating machine
3. N.C. drilling machine
4.
Electroless copper flash equipment
5. Silkscreen/photo printer
6.
Copper plating equipment
7- Baking furnace
B. Soldermask equipment
9.
10.
Etching machine
Fusing machine
11. Routing machine
12. Punching machine
13. Scrbbing and Drying machine
14.
Inspection tools.
·•
58
APPENDIX J
DRY FILM
t-1ACHINE
V.JET FILM
SCREENING
HAND
SCREENING
ROI
1. 1'1ean
30.0
2.Std. Deviation
3.
Lo~·Jer-
Limit
4.Upper- Limit
29.8
24.0
24.6
. ·-··-·
~~
2. 14
2.20
1. 36
27.79
27.75
21.90
23.30
.
...;.......:...
31.84
26. 10
25.90
,.., 14
2. 18
.. 14
2.78
,...,
....:...
~""')
·-·....:...
,...,~
I. Bs;Is~I§
1. Mean
..:_.
2.Std. Deviation
. 116
..,..
..:,
. 133
Limit
2.03
2.05
2.93
4.Upper- Limit
...., ....,=
L • L,_J
2.31
._;, • ...,:.,_J
3.
Lo~Jer-
. 241
.220
7
-:rJ::"'
....,
l::"r:"
.L.,J.J
3.01
GROWTH
§Bbs§ -----1. Mean
25.8
27 •.~
24.0
26.·2
1. 33
1. 37
1. 00
1.02
3.Lower- Limit
24.53
26.09
23.05
"'JJ::"'
"""..:...~.L..;,
4.Upper- Limit
27.07
28.71
24.95
27.17
2.'Std. Deviation
TABLE 5