California State University, Northridge
The Development of the Self Concept
in Childhood
A project submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Educational Psychology,
Counseling and Guidance
by
Cynthia Rassel
January, 1982
The Project of Cynthia Rassel is approved:
California State
University~
i i
Northridge
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ...• , • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i'v
Chapter·
l.
Introduction.............................
1
2.
Theories of Self-Concept Development.....
6
3.
Empirical Trends in the Development
of Self-Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
ft.cademic Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
Family Influences........................
38
Peer Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
Adjustment in Childhood ..................
50
4.
Enhancement of Self-Concept ..............
54
5.
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
ii i
ABSTRACT
The Development of the Self Concept
in Childhood
by
Cynthia Rassel
Master of Arts in Guidance and Counseling
The purpose of this project is to provide an overview
{J
of the development of the self-concept in children, with
,.
suggestions for parents, teachers, and counselors on how
r·
'
(
I
I
to enhance children's self-concept.
The development of the self-concept in children is
researched, beginning with various theories of the
personality.
Psychoanalytic, cognitive, social-psycholog-
ical, phenomenological, and social learning theories are
summarized.
The reviev1 of the empirical literature focused on thef
development of the self-concept as it related to
scholas~
achievement, family and peer group influences, and arljustment in childhood.
iv
· >
Academic achievement and the self-concept correlated
positively specifically for the self-concept subscale of
scholastic ability.
The attitudes of teachers in
maintaining a safe environment in the classroom plays a
significant role, as does
t~e
parental attitudes in the
home, of enhancing positive self-concepts.
Peer group
also has a strong influence on the posture of the selfconcept.
The relationship of the self-concept to adjustment
is frequently inferred in material but only rarely were
direct references found.
Some suggestions for enhancing self-concept are:
1.
Expr~ss
warmth and affection.
Try to make the child
feel lovable and worthwhile.
2.
Maintai~
an atmosphere of trust and respect.
3. Take ari active interest in the children's activities
and affairs.
4, Establish· comprehensive rules and limits understood
by the child.
5. As a parent, teacher, or counselor, be aware of
your own needs; model self-appreciation and self-
\
acceptance.
6. Maintain realistic expectations.
7 . En co u r a ge. pee r i n t e r a c t i o n .
v
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
It is my intent in ths scope of this paper to present
the major theories of self-concept development, recent
studies pertaining to the influences on this development,
and recent studies reflecting how self-concept relates to
the adjustment in childhood. [f:,,om the theories and
research, plus various other sources, I will propose means
of positively affecting self-concept or improving self-
esteem_~_]
In preparation for studying the development of selfconcept, one discovers there are several difficulties in
collecting and summarizing the theories and data relevant
to this area.
These are the abstractness of self-concept
per se, the elusive nature of measuring self-concept, and
the variability of factors affecting self-concept
development in individuals.
In the overwhelming amount of literature available on')\'
(
the theory of self-concept, one finds there are ambiguitiesr 1
\
in terms and references to this development.
/
\/
In
/
1~
j
psychoanalytic theory, personality development is centered)
around the ego.
freud and his contemporades focus on the\
identity formation of the ego, and hew this is related t o / )
self-concept is inferred from the theory.
1
More recent
.
(
(J
t
2
theorists themselves use a number of terms in reference to
the development of feelings to the self.
Current research
studies frequently interchange terms of self-concept with
self-esteem, self-perception, self-evaluation, self-image,
and self-regard.
It would be hard to ignore these studies
due to a difference in terminology, but their ambiguous
nature needs to be recognized (Beane and Lipha, 1980).
Though frequently used
interchangeably~
self-concept and
self-esteem are defined differently and that difference
needs to be recognized.
Self-concept can be defined as a
11
learned system of
expectations, a group -of feelings about oneself based an
experience; a psychological construct, it does not have a
physical existence and has never been seen, it is a symbol
... summing up what a person feels about himself.
(Fitzgibbon, 1970).
It is referred to as
11
11
0ne's total
perceptual appraisal of oneself-- physically, socially,
academically, and psychological1y
11
(Del Felite, 1977).
It is these "dimensions of self-concept" that Samuels (1977)
refers to-- body self, cognitive self (academic ability),
social self, and self-esteem (the evaluative aspect of the
self-concep~)
that this paper will embrace in summarizing
the data collected for presentation.
These four aspects
were also recognized by Mead (Samuels, 1977) and effectively
encompass an individual
1
S
feelings about various aspects
of himself/herself.
Self-esteem is defined for purposes here as the
r
3
evaluation of self-worth.
It is the "valuative assessment
one makes regarding personal satisfaction with role(s)
and/or the quality of performance." (Beane and Lipha, 1980).
An individual who has high self-esteem respects himself/
herself, feels competent and considers himself/herself
worthy (Samuels, 1977).
If the person has low self-esteem,
he/she lacks respect for the self and believes he/she is
incapable, insignificant, unsuccessful, and unworthy
(Coopers~ith,
1967).
Studies using self-acceptance, self-respect, and
self-worth here will be included as terms comparable to
self-esteem.
This is to be able to encompass the material
collected that seems relevant in this study of self-concept.
The second ambiguity that needs to be addressed in
this
~aper
is the difficulty recognized in measuring atti-
tudes towards the self.
Wylie (1979) sees the most crucial
aspect of measurement as the construct validity.
The
importance of this hinges on the fact that self-attitudes
are not readily observable and rely on the subject•s
self-awareness and cooperation.
There may be a discrepancy
between real-self and ideal-self, and that discrepancy may
not be in the subject•s conscious mind.
The problem of social desirability seems to be one of
the greatest obstacles to reducing ambiguities in measuring
self-concept.
The subject may project that he/she feels
the tester will approve and respond to that projection.
This is particularly relevant in studies that are measuring
4
methods of affecting self-concept or self-esteem.
Social
desirability may also play a role in what is acceptable
for the subject to reveal about himself/herself to the
researcher.
There may be areas that are less critical for
a subject to disclose to others, even when it has been
)
' <__ }
assured that the information is anonymous for research
purposes only.
Also present in self-referent measures is a tendency
to agree, although there may be a concurrent tendency to
disagree.
Although there may be no conscious attempt to
distort results, Wylie (1974) states there is no method
of testing sufficient to infer that distortion can be
eliminated.
,., I
The subject•s own interpretation of the meaning of
quantitative scales (seldom) often, frequently, very,
little) affects results and uniformity is desired.
Also,
the individual •s response habits in the forms of intraspection and language lend variability to the interpretation of test measures.
Carelessness in responding may
even be attributed to consistent scores in test-retest
situations (i.e., low self-concept scores of poor readers,
behavior disorders).
The third difficulty in collecting and summarizing/~'
the material for studying the self-concept is the vast
J
amount of material available relevant to this subject.
Many theorists have devoted years to studying this area and
it is literally impossible to summarize all that has been
5
written in the context of this paper.
For the purposes of
this study, the development of self-concept and research
pertaining to its effects on the individual are restricted
to the years from birth to the age of 12.
Limiting this
study to the age of 12 has been done to restrict the influences on self-concept to those in childhood.
The onset
of adolescence begins a period of change of identity that
is quite different and may have other influences on the
self-concept (Erikson, 1973).
Since there is this
significant difference in influences, this study
~as
5
restricted at this stage of development.
More recent theories are referred to and summarized
as much as possible.
Where applicable, these theories
are related to the research presented.
CH/\PTER
2
THEORIES OF SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
Sigmund Freud wrote the first comprehensive theory of
personality, centering his theory around ego development.
In Freud 1 s framework the id, the ego, and the superego
comprise the personality.
The id is the original system
of the personality, that part which is present at birth,
includ·lng instincts.
Freud called the ·id the "true
psychic 1·eality'' (Hali & Lindzey, 1957) because it
represents the world of subjective reality.
The ego comes into existence because the needs of the
organism require appropriate
tra~sactions
with the
objective world of reality.
It acts through the reality
principle and tests whether an experience is true or false.
It formulates a plan for the satisfaction of a need and
tests this plan.
The ego
has contr~l
over all of the
cognitive and intellectual functions (Hall & Lindzey,
1957).
The
ego
controls the gateways to action, selects the
features of the environment to which it will respond. and
decides what instinc~s will be satisfied and in what
manner.
The ego does not exist separately from the id and
never is completely independent of it.
Its function is to
integrate the often conflicting demands of the id, the
6
7
superego and the external world (Hall & Lindzey, 1957).
The superego is the internal representation of the
traditional values of society as interpreted to the child
by his/her parents.
It is the moral arm of the personality
and represents the ideal rather than the real.
for perfection rather than pleasure.
It strives
That which he/she
learns is improper is incorporated into his/her conscience.
That which he/she leanrs is desirable is incorporated into
his/her ego-ideal by introjection (Hall & Lindzey, 1957).
The id, ego, and superego are merely names for various
phychological processes.
leadership of the ego.
They act as a team under the
The id is the biological component,
the ego is the psychological component, and the superego
is the sociological component (Hall & Lindzey, 1957).
''Freud was probably the first psychological theorist
to emphasize the developmental aspects of personality and,
in particular, to stress the decisive role of the early
years of infancy and childhood in laying down the basic
character structure of the individual'' (Hall & Lindzey,
1957).
He believed that personality was pretty well
formed by five years of age, and further growth elaborated·
on this structure . . Freud believes that the child was
father of the man.
Though Freud never directly addresses the theory of
self-concept, his theory of personality development can be
likened, in a sense, to the development of self-concept.
The self-concept begins developing very early in life and
8
is greatly affected in the early years.
Rather than
writing his theories on development of the self, he wrote
his works on development of the ego, which seems to be
quite similar.
The Freudian ego and the self are both
primarily the core, so to speak, of the individual's being
or person.
It is the basis of one's character or person-
ality, and is essentially the form around which all else is
built.
The Freudian ego, however, is ascribed more than
just the "person," v1hen at times it
~tJas
the process of
attaining psychic balance between the id and superego,
and at other times it was ascribed executive powers that
went far beyond the cognitive processes- (Burns, 1979).
Erik Erikson's (1973) psychoanalytic model or
personality development is a more expanded stage-oriented
theory than Freud's.
During each stage, society must meet
conditions to fulfill the psychological needs in the
striving for identity.
Identity has a self aspect, which
is conscious, and an ego aspect, which is unconscious
(Erikson, 1973).
Failure to develop optimally at one
stage can be rectified in later stages, but complete
failure in· a stage can prevent later development.
The
tasks are predominant at certain ages, but continue to be
important to a certain extent throughout life.
His eight stages of man are trust versus mistrust,
autonomy versus doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry
versus inferiority, identity versus identity diffusion,
intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-
9
absorption, and identity versus despair.
The stages
pertaining to children are through industry versus
inferiority.
Basic trust versus mistrust is the task for the first
year of life.
Trust is seen as the correlative of a
healthy personality.
Mother creates a sense of trust by
her sensitivity to the individual •s needs and by a sense
of her own personal trustworthiness.
By the quality of
the maternal relationship, she helps create a basis for
a sense of identity which will later provide a sense of
being all right as oneself, and what others trust one
will become.
The second stage ·of autonomy versus shame and doubt
centers around
toilet_training~
·During this stage, the
child iearns self-control and letting go without a loss of
self-esteem.
The child 1 s sense of autonomy reflects the
parent's own sense of dignity, and the sense of personal
independence they derive from their own lives.
At about four and five years of age, in the stage o
initiative versus guilt, the child becomes convinced of
being a person, and must find out what kind of a person the
child is going to become.
The child can move around freely,
has a sense of language and an
exp~nded
imagination.
of this must emerge a sense of unbroken initiative.
Out
The
child seems to grow together psychologically and
physically.
The
p~erequisites
femininity are developed.
for masculinity and
As in the Freudian model, the
10
Oedipal complex is recognized at this age and may produce
feelings of guilt.
Between the ages of six and eleven, the child is
challenged by the task of industry versus inferiority.
The
individual at this age 1 ike s to be mildiy but firmly
coerced into learning to accomplish things one would not
have thought of on one 1 S own which are the result of
reality, practicality, and logic.
A sense of industry
is formed from feeling useful and capable of mastering
difficulties arising at this time.
A feeling of inadequacy
arises from lacking a sense of worth.
Of the neo-Freudians only Erikson paid much attention
to the self as object (Burns, 1979).
In accordance with
other theorists, he referred to the ego as subject, that
central organizing agency, but referred to the self as
object so that self-identity emerged from experience.
Jean Piaget 1 s theory deals with cognitive and social
development (Cowan, 1978).
He defines four stages of
development: (1) the sensorimotor stage, birth to about
age two; (2) the preoperational stage, about ages two to
seven; (3) the concrete operations stage, about seven to
eleven; and (4) the formal operations stage, about age
eleven and on.
Four primary factors influence the
movement from stage to stage: (1) maturation, (2) experience, (3) social interaction, and (4) equilibration, the
process of building and rebuilding new mental structures
that becomes possible as the result of maturation,
1
1
- l.
experience, and social interaction.
cognitive development possible.
Two processes make this
Assimilation, the process
of integrating new stimulus into already existing patterns
of behavior, and accommodation, the process of modifying
the behavior so that there is a change or upward
development of cognitive structures, are basic to this
theory.
Piaget noted in his observations that an infant
begins passively dependent on his environment and moves
through accommodation, to active utilization.
Up to four
months there is no truly social interaction; the child
seems as though he/she is preoccupied with and emotionally
attached to the self.
By six months, there is an expanded
interest in adults as social objects and by twelve months
the child recognizes people as causal agents.
They are
able to differentiate themselves from their external world
and develop attachments to primary
"The
cal~etakers.
construction of attachment to caretakers then grows out of
a matrix of changes in which there is reciprocal
development in conceptions of the physical world, the
social world, and the self.
11
The advances raise a point
"which personality theorists tend to forget.
In their
investigation of self-concept and personality, theorists
usually focus on self-esteem.
Piaget•s ideas suggest that
from the child•s point of view, not only the value but also
the structure of the self changes throughout the course
of development." (Cowan, 1978)
12
Egocentric behavior is probably the most striking
characteristic of the preoperational child.
Egocentrism
is manifested by the child 1 s constant questions and
persistent chatter whereby he/she keeps a monologue going
whether anyone is listening or not.
The child during this
period believes everyone thinks and feels as he/she does.
(Singer and Revenson, 1978)
During the preoperational stage, the preconceptual
substage (two years to about four years), the child is
unable to draw pictures of himself/herself in sequence,
since he/she cannot correlate yesterday•s identity with
today•s.
The preconceptual child•s concept of self is a
preconcept, focusing on idiosyncratic details (Cowan,
1978).
In the preoperational period, early and late
intuitive substage (four to seven years), children are
able to recognize themselves in old pictures, but are
unsure that they will be the same person as adults.
During this stage, sex-typed identity evolves and they
begin modeling the same-sexed parent.
11
By the end of the intuitive stage, child.ren have
established a sense of self-- of personal identity-- being
the same person in the past, present, and future.
(Cowan, 1978)
11
They see themselves for the first time as
individuals, not only physical objects.
However, their
egocentric point of view limits their perspectives so that
they are unable to have a multiple point of view.
At this
13
time, they are seen as being most vulnerable to external
factors in forming their evaluative self-image.
The last Piagetian stage presented in this paper is
the period of concrete operations (six or seven years
through eleven or twelve).
During this stage, the child
can use more logical thinking, and can recognize
conservation of mass, weight, length, and volume, as well
as classify.
During this stage the children are able to examine
their own feelings as well as produce feelings and have
moods.
The development of guilt evolves and is seen as a
self-judgment based on violation of some internally held
standards.
At this time, the child is able to evaluate
the discrepancy between actual and ideal self (Cowan,
1978).
He/she also changes from egocentrism to socio-
centrism in this stage.
The Piagetian model differs from the psychoanalytic
model in that Piaget rejects the implication that a
figurative dimension of thinking is within the infant's
capacity as early as postulated by Freud (Greenspan,
1979).
The psychoanalytic model holds equal in
importance the environment's action on the organism, while
Piaget emphasized that the internal structure mostly
develops out of the organism's action on the environment.
Also, Piaget rejects the psychoanalytic unconscious as
the determinant of behavior.
In other words, Piaget
places more control on the individual's own behavior and
14
the realm of internal stimuli for the development of self.
On the contrary, the psychoanalytic model places more
responsibility on the mother-infant relationship forming
the basis of developing ego functions.
Through the
internalizing of this relationship, the representation of
self-other is the basis for developing ego functions that
regulate impulses and test reality (Greenspan, 1979).
~·!i
1·1 i am James was the first to write about the nature
of the self and, according to Rosenberg (1979), it is so
insightful and exhaustive it remains unsurpassed.
r e f e r r e d to t he
11
I 11 a s t he kn o"' e r a nd t he
11
He
Me 11 a s t he kn own
or empirical self (everything an individual can claim).
He calls these the global self.
They are part of the same
entity, the difference between pure experience (I), and
the contents of that experience (Me); between a Self as
Subjett (I) and a Self as Object (Me) (Burns, 1979).
The empirical self was divided into the spiritual
self !concrete states of consciousness, psychic powers,
and dispositions), the material self (property, body,
clothes, homes, and immediate family), the social self
(linked to social interaction-- that which grows out of
recognition we receive from others) and the body self.
The spiritual self was meant by James to be the
thinking and feeling aspects of ourselves that truly
represented who we were.
It was given the highest rating
for our feelings of self-esteem.
The social and material selves were not defined
c./"/
15
clearly as one being more important than another.
Both are
involved with gaining admiration of others, influence,
power, etc.
The material self may be as tied into our
"image" as the social self.
The body self is the least important, according to
James, for establishing our self-esteem, though at various
ages the body image may carry greater importance than at
other times.
Also, various people may value the body
self-concept more than others, i.e., muscle men or beauty
queens vs. college professors or ministers.
James interpreted self-esteem as the amount of success
experienced divided by the level of pretensions or
expectations of the individual.
To maintain a high level
of self-esteem a person can (1) rationalize sub-par
performance; (2) lower expectations; or (3) change the
activity to one where successful performance is more likely.
Charles Cooley coined the term "the reflected or
·~-
..... :-:.·.-----··-:__ .
1 oo ki ng
-·.:
---···
·~/-.
g1 a s s s e 1 f
11
(
Yam am o to , 1 9 7 2 ) .
Ac c o r d i n g to
Cooley, man perceives and defines himself as he believes
others perceive and define him.
He had in mind the
connection between self-awareness and imagined opinions
of others about one, thereby placing equal value on how
a person
felt~about
oneself as well as how one perceived
society to view oneself.
He theorized that self and
society mutually define each other, so that self and
society are twin born (Burns, 1979).
,/
(,'i. ___tL:. "~r~L~ad expanded on James
1
social self in a
16
development of Cooley 1 s theory for a more extensive theory
of self-development.
Mead theorized that the infant is
born without a self and the self-concept arises out of
social experience.
We take on the attitudes of the
significant others in our lives (Samuels, 1977), and
evaluate ourselves by the social group from which we arise.
It is from the interactions with others that we learn
to interpret our environment as they do.
Internal
regulation arises from incorporating anticipated responses
from the "generalized other."
vJe
learn to value what they
value and to judge ourselves as they judge us.
Mead interprets the I-Me dichotomy differently than
the or i g i n a l James v e r s i on .
He sees the
11
I
11
as the
impulsive, unorganized, undisciplined element of the self,
while the
11
t,1e 11 is under the influence of society that
gives it direction.
The development of self is based on
the emergence of "Me."
in two stages.
Accardi ng to
~~ead,
this happens
The first is play, a spontaneous activity,
that allows for elementary role taking.
The second is the
game, whereby the roles of others are internalized and
the self assumes an attitude of a member of the society
t o wh i c h h e I s he be 1 o ng s .
To
r~ e a d ,
11
n o ma n i s a n i s 1 a n d ,
11
and self and society are inseparable (Burns, 1979).
Other theorists emphasizing the importance of social
influences on the self-concept inciude Adler, Horney,
Fromm, and Sullivan (Samuels, 1977).
Adler was the first
to suggest that individuals were as much a product of
17
their culture as their psychological drives.
Horney
stresses the amount of parental love as important to the
chi1d 1 s self-conception and felt that the reason children
did not receive enough was due to the parent 1 s own
neuroses (Samuels, 1977).
Fromm discusses the developing individual in reference
to his social group and how social isolation can be
debilitating (Samuels, 1977).
He attributes positive
characteristics (theoretically related to self-esteem)
developing· in an atmosphere of acceptance, respect, concern,
freedom of expression, and independence in the societal
framework (Coopersmjth, 1967), that could also be applied
to effects within the family unit.
Sullivan ~up~orts the theory that negative perceptionsof seif start in infancy (Samuels, 1977).
He was the first
to describe the empathy between the mother and the infant.
The child's security rests on the mother 1 s solicitous
care.
Negative and positive interactions with the mother
result in feelings of a
11
QOOd me
11
and a
11
bad me.
11
Sullivan does not see the individual as separate from
society, but his/her personality develops depending on
interpersonal relations, not intrapsychic ones.
If he/she
learns negative self-appraisal at home, it is carried
and generalized out in school.
The phenomenological theorists
concept is concerned with a person
not in reality itself.
1
1
S
approach to the selfperception of reality,
This perception is selective both
18
in quantity and quality with the concept of oneself
expanding or limiting the richness and variety of
perception (Burns, 1979}.
The phe.,:~omenal fieJd)approach followed Lewin's field
----
theory
th~t
~uggests
all behavior arises from a total field
which ·Js not the "real" field, but the field as the
behaving individual sees it.
He sees behavior being
determined by this life field and never completely free or
indepe_ndent of its impinging forces (Burns, 1979).
Rainey_defined self-concept as a ''learned perceptual
system
v~hich
,'B urns, ""
1~,7 9)
functions as an object in the
.
pei~ceptual
field"
A person's idea of himself is a complex and
significant factor in his behavior.
What he believes about
himself is also a factor in his societal comprehension of
others.
This phenomenology field theory is expanded by Snygg
and Combs (Combs and Soper, 1963).
The principles written
by Snygg and Combs (and later revised by Combs) of the
perceptual phenomenological psychology theory are
summarized as follows:
1. The behavior of an individual at any moment is a
function of his/her perceptual field at that
moment (Combs and Soper, 1963).
2. The individual's perceptions about the self are
crucial in the causation of behavior.
The
"Phenomenal Self" is the total organization of all
the individual's seif-definitions.
The self-
19
concept is deftned as that particular organization
of self-perceptions regarded by the individual as
important or central aspects of his/her being.
It
i s what the i n d i vi dual
The
regards as '' I " or
11
1"1 e .
11
self-concept is learned as a consequence of the
individual's interactions with the world about
him/her in the process of growing up, but most
particularly from his/her interaction with the
significant people in his/her life (parents, older
siblings, teachers--·those close to him/her whom
he/she values).
Once the self-concept is
established, it is highly stable, but is always
open to change with new experiences (Combs and
Soper, 1963).
3. The basic need of the organism is the maintenance
and enhancement of the self.
On one hand, the
individual must seek to maintain the self of which
he/she is aware, and on the other hand to enhance
the self to move it toward its optimum condition
(Combs and Soper, 1963).
4. There is a continual process moving towards selfactualization which would be a positive view of
oneself, an openness to new experience, sttcng
feelings of identification, and having a rich,
varied and available perceptual field (Combs and
Soper, 1963).
The phenomenal field of Snygg and Combs appears to
20
possess three constttuents.
A large outside circle (A)
could represent the total perceptual field which includes
all the individual's perceptions.
An enclosed smaller
circle (B), the phenomenal self, could represent all those
perceptions that a person holds true about himself/herself,
irrespective of their importance or clarity at any given
time.
A third smaller enclosed circle (C) could represent
the self-concept, that being only those aspects that are
important or seem vital to the individual (Burns, 1979).
Stated simply, Combs and Snygg believed that conscious
feelings, cognitions, and perceptions were the predominant
aspect of the self-concept and that behavior was determined
by awareness.
They believe that children perceive
themselves as they are treated by others and through their
experiences (Samuels, 1977).
Carl Rogers' self theory agrees that one learns to
perceive oneself as others view him/her.
Self-concept is
defined by him as the ''organized, consistent, conceptual
Gestalt composed of characteristics of the 'I' or 'Me'
and the perceptions of the relationships of the 'I' or
'Me
1
to others and to various aspects of life, together
with the value attached to those perceptions.''
The ideal
self-concept is the self-concept the individual would most
like to possess and on which he/she places the most value
(Burns, 1979).
Rogers theorizes that once the self-concept is
developed, all interpretations and motivations are
21
channeled through it.
It resists all efforts at
disruption.
A main concept in this theory is that when the needs
of the organism for positive self-concept (or as Rogers
refers to it-- self-regard) is incongruent with the
actual experience, psychological maladjustment occurs.
The organism will work to preserve its established selfconcept and will interpret or deny experiences to maintain
its integrity.
Rogers sees the purpose of therapy as
decrea,sing the discrepancy behJeen the real- and ideal-self
concepts, by working towards more self-acceptance and a
more realistic ideal self (Burns, 1979).
Rogers avoids the ambiguousness of the "I" or the ego
as an executive.
In this way the self as known and the
self as knower are fused.
His theory is similar to
Erikson's identity theory, in that they fuse evaluated
self-image and the consequent pattern of organized
integrative behavior.
Both are based on direct experience
and internalized values of significant others.
Rogers,
however, emphasizes the Gestalt of the here-and-now and
awareness of the phenomenal field and lessens the emphasis
on un co n s c i o u s b e h a v i o r . !__ ~~e i s 1 e s s de v e 1 o pme n t a 1 a n d
considers the infantile experiences may affect the adult
but stresses the awareness of the here-and-now (Burns,
1979):
,,..,.... ·· .•
.l
The environment is a major part of<Bandura'~B/
(1977)
"'·-.:::.:.:::,..,_~;-~---~··-~ --~~·· ~· .
•... _, ./"'
social learning theory.
Most human Behavior is learned
22
observationally.
What behavior we retain ts determined
by out attentiveness to the behavior, our symbolic coding
and cognitive organization.
Reproducing the behavior,
in part, depends on our ability to reproduce the modeled
behavior as well as reinforcement as motivation to imitate
that behavior.
This reinforcement can be from internal or
external sources (Bandura, 1977).
Self-reinforcement refers to a process in which
individuals enhance and maintain their own behavior by
self-controlled rewards for attaining self-prescribed
standards.
These standards are chosen by the influences
of others and cognitive reasoning.
Self-appraisals in a
performance measured by social criteria require three
sources of comparative value:
absolute performance levels,
one•s own personal standards, and a social referent
(Bandura, 1977).
Negative self-concepts are defined in social learning
theory as the tendency to devalue oneself while positive
self-concepts judge oneself favorably.
Because a person
usually performs at different levels in various areas of
pursuit, he/she may rate himself/herself good in school,
poor in sports, a fun person socially, etc.
Therefore,
a measure of self-evaluation in the various areas is more
meaningful than a conglomerate index (Bandura, 1977).
Bandura attributes differing values for variation of
motivation for performance and the effect of the consequent
self-appraisal.
He sees much of the distress that some
23
suffer as the result of excessively high standards for
self-evaluation (Bandura, 1977).
It can be summarized that the self-concept appears
to develop from the child's interactions with others that
he/she has had contacts with, and through experiences
which provide feedback regarding the self-concept.
CHAPTER
3
EMPIRICAL TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-CONCEPT
The studies used in this paper to represent the
current trends of research on development of self-concept
were considered utilizing Wylie 1 s (1979) recommendations
of analyzing research studies.
In essence, her criteria
for acceptable research include, (1) using self-concept
measures sufficiently well known to enable reader to
evaluate findings or that enough information is given
regarding the measure to assess its effectiveness;
(2) have results using scores that are interpretable;
(3) have a population size of respectable number (forty
considered acceptable); (4) use comparable testing and
group conditions; (5) if a longitudinal study, give
possible effects of attrition; (6) use modern design rather
than the conventional cross-sectional or longitudinal
designs to compare cultural differences in developmental
age; (7) consider use of low self-regard groups. (those who
have been found to score consistently low on self-concept
tests, i.e., learning disabled) analyzing effects of
a) purposely reported low self-regard, or b) unreliable
reports; and (8) have significant tests properly done and
r e po r t e d .
r~a-ve
Whe n de f i c i t s w~e f o un d i n t h e s t u d i e s , the s e
been acknowledged and their importance on the
of the research addressed.
24
pul~pose
25
Self-concept development begins early in life in its
simplest form of self-recognition.
At eighteen months of
age, infants recognized themselves in a mirror with a dot
of rouge on their noses and responded to themselves
(Wylie, 1979).
Nineteen to twenty-one month olds could
label slides of themselves correctly (Wylie, 1979).
A further differentiated sense of self can be seen as a
developmental process.
As a child
1
S
cognitive ability
increases, his self-concept moves from more concrete terms
to a more abstract awareness.
Montemayer and Eisen (1977)
found in a study of 262 students in grades 4, 6, 8, 10, and
12 that descriptions of self changed from physical appearance
and possessions to interpersonal and psychological descriptions.
Bromley (1977) states that 5 - 6 year olds cannot
attribute stable psychological characteristics to themselves because they do not have the necessary cognitive
abilities or language forms.
As they grow older, they
become more aware of themselves in relation to others.
The
children then see similarities and differences between
themselves and others, and this gives rise to self-identity.
As they become more developmentally mature, they can reflect
on and control their own individuality.
This development
is only possible with the help of cognitive and linguistic
development.
This is reflected in the description of self
and, similarly, of others.
Bromley saw the self-concept as
a frame of reference for self-understanding and a basis for
self-other comparisons.
As the self-concept becomes more
26
differentiated, descriptions of self and others become more
complex and coherent, better organized and selectively
focused.
This is correlated with development of an
increased vocabulary.
Leahy (1976} also found more
differentiated descriptions of self and others with age,
particularly of liked peers.
This is also demonstrated by Faterson and Witkin
(1970).
Using human figure drawings, they found an
increased articulation of the body concept between the ages
of 8 to 14, when it stabilizes with relatively smaller
increases thereafter.
That during the growth years there
is such an increase in body concept differentiation marks
it the effect of developmental age.
The perception.of body builds was tested with 84
Australian boys and girls in grades 2, 4, and 6. Pictures
of same aged children of same sex were rated negatively for
fat children , and positively for average weight children.
Although the study provided some support for the stereotyping theory of mesomorph, endomorth and ectomorph having
early appeal, the students did not apply the negative or
positive stereotyping to themselves or their classmates
(Lawson, 1980).
Another aspect of
d~velopmental
age level is the real-
ideal self image disparity (Katz, Zigler, & Zalk, 1975;
Leahy & Huard, 1976).
Although in the Rogerian theory
(as cited in Katz et al, 1975 and Leahy, et al, 1976) the
disparity between real self-image and ideal self-image is
27
seen as a
~ign
of maladjustment of psychopathology, in the
cognitive-developmental position it is seen as an indicator
of developmental level.
It is seen that as the childis
cognitive abilities increase, he also becomes more aware
of how others may value him.
The values of society are
internalized and these in turn affect the evaluation of the
self.
The child becomes increasingly more concerned with
comparing the qualities purported as desirable by society
with actual qualities of the child.
manifestation of role-taking.
Leahy sees this as a
In essence, as the child
becomes more aware of the roles required by society, he/she
becomes more critical of his/her own performance.
This is in support of Katz and Zigler (1975).
In
comparing normal and maladjusted males between the ages.
of 9 years 6 months and 14 years 6 months, self-image
disparity was not found to be greater in the maladjusted
group but greater in the older ages.
The real self-image
was more megative in the maladjusted boys.
Girls were found to have a higher discrepancy of
ideal-self and real-self, suggesting more dissatisfaction
or uncertainty of themselves than boys (O'Connor, 1978).
In this same study, sixth grade students also had a higher
degree of dissatisfaction.
However, it was addressed that
at this school the sixth grade was the youngest age level
and the dissatisfaction could reflect adjustment to a new
school.
This was reflected in studies reported by Wylie (1979).
28
There were significant
c~anges
in self-regard correlating
to changes tn school.
However, the body of studies
reported on self-concept and age were inconclusive in that
some reported no significance between overall self-regard
with increasing age, some an increase, and some a decrease.
Academic Ability
A large portion of the child's cognitive development
transpires in the academic setting.
How the self-concept
is affected by ability and academic performance and,
conversely, how ability and academic achievement ar&
affected by self-concept are two dynamics difficult to
delineate.
If a child enters school with a good self-
concept, will this be reinforced and/or reflected in
his/her performance and evaluation by self and others?
Will the same dynamic occur with a poor or negative
self-concept? Or is the self-concept of academiability
a separate entity from overall self-regard?
Wylie (1979) reports that although some studies
correlate self-concept and grade point average or other
standardized achievement tests and either overall selfregard or specific aspects of self-concept, none of these
correlations is interpretable as indicating a null or a
significant relationship between achievement and selfconcept variables with measured IQ or other relevant
ability held constant.
There were more correlations be-
tween self-concept of ability and IQ than overall selfconceot and IQ.
Thirteen of nineteen studies cited showed
29
at least one significant positive association of overall
self-regard and achievement, six showed no significant
trend of this sort.
From this, it may be concluded that the self-concept
of academic ability may be formed quite separate of overall
self-concept.
In other words, a child may have a negative
perception of himself/herself in terms of appearance or
social ability, but may concurrently see himself/herself
as a good student with high academic ability.
It seems safe to surmise that a positive feeling
toward oneself would lend itself to a better performance
in any attempted task.
Therefore, it seems likely that
a positive self-concept would contribute to a better
academic performance and, conversely, that a negative view
of one's overall self would tend to a lesser performance.
McCandless states that a poor self-concept will
accompany deficiency in school performance (Wylie, 1979).
A poor self-concept, often associated with depression and
anxiety, can cause decreased concentration which would
decrease performance.
Rogers theorizes that a person will
try to maintain congruency between self-concept and
environmental feedback (Wylie, 1979).
circular reaction could evolve.
Therefore, a
If a child entered school
with a negative self-evaluation, this could have devastating
effects if there were no intervening positive experiences.
Teacher attitudes were indicated as a particularly
important aspect of promoting a positive school experience.
30
Teachers who were accepting of self and had a high selfregard portrayed this to their students.
These self-
attitudes of teachers may be more important than techniques,
skills, performance, or competence.
High overall self-
concept children were found more prevalent in classrooms
with teachers who were supportive, calm, accepting, and
facilitative (Samuels, 1977).
Low overall self-concept
children were found more prevalently to have teachers who
were dominating, sarcastic, grim, and threatening.
It was observed that teachers of high achievers would
expect more from them and spend more time eliciting a
correct response from them.
Their expectations were much
less of a slow learner and equal time would not be given to
help them respond correctly.
When teachers were taught to
increase waiting time with low achievers, their participation increased (Samuels, 1977).
One could speculate that
if a student becomes more willing or able to participate,
this increase in participation and performance may affect
his/her self-concept of academic ability to provide
solicited responses.
This alone could help to increase
his/her success experiences on which he/she partially bases
his/her self-evaluation of ability.
Such patience and acceptance were attributed-to Miss A,
a teacher of students who participated in a longitudinal
study on the effects of a first grade teacher (Pederson,
Faucher, and Eaton, 1978).
The students of Miss A were
found to improve academic achievement in the first year, to
31
do better than other teachers' students in subsequent
grades, and to generally have succeeded as adults.
Her
students all remembered her well, whereas other teachers
were not necessarily recalled with as much ease.
She was
remembered as being concerned, encouraging persistence,
giving extra attention to slow learners, and teaching with
a lot of love.
The researchers caution against making casual inferences because of the methodology involved in the study.
It was longitudinal in that the interviews were conducted
many years (25) after the incidents, there was no control
of the population or the conditions of each group taught
by each teacher.
However, the positive correlation of this particular
teacher's effect on her students, as compared to the
effects of two others on their students, over such a long
time span leads to inferences that are implied by the
study.
It seems plausible that if children begin school
with a teacher who expects them to do well and teaches·
them the basic skills needed for further academic success,
they are
~ore
likely to perform better than when exposed
to a self-defeating outlook.
Also, the development of a
positive self-concept in eariy school years will tend to
perpetuate in subsequent levels of achievement.
This self-fulfilling prophecy effect has support from
several studies as reported by Samuels (1977). These
studies show a positive correlation between teacher
32
perceptions and academic achievement.
in Wylie (1979)
t~at
It is summarized
self-concept of ability is learned
through achievement and feedback from others.
Positivel~·
reinforcing academic successes encourages self-confidence
in ability and increased persistence in learning tasks.
Research evidence overall clearly shows a persistent
and significant relationship between self-concept and
academic achievement (Purkey, 1970).
concept~~as
General self-
frequently been shown to be irrelevant to
academic achievement (Ketchum, Bunty & Snyder; 1977;
Kaney, Johnson, &Kanoy, 1980; Williams, 1973), while there
is a very strong correlation between the self-concept of
academic ability and achievement (Gose, Wooden, & Muller,
1980; Shoemaker, 1980; Purkey, 1970).
Apparently, it is
not only the evaluation of self-worth (or self-esteem),
but the concept of oneself as having the ability to perform
at expected levels that influences the child to work
appropriately in school.
Without this self-concept of
ability at an adequate level, the child is shown in these
studies to have difficulty adjusting to scholastic requirements.
Underachieving gifted children were found to lack the
self-confidence of achieving students and were depressed
by feelings of inadequacy that held them back from
competing.
~ore
The self-concept of ability was found to be
predictive of achievement than actual IQ (Purkey,
1970).
Thus, it is apparent that how a student views
33
his/her ability is remarkably influential on his/her
petformance.
A high self-concept of ability is not enough, however,
to insure scholastic success.
Some students with high
self-concept of ability were found to perform below a
corresponding level of achievement (Purkey, 1970; Ketchum,
Bunty & Snyder. 1977).
This was attributed to a lack of
relevance of school to these students or to a feeling of
being threatened in the academic environment.
Therefore,
self-concept of ability is a necessary but not sufficient
factor in determining scholastic success (Purkey, 1970).
11
I n t h e p a s t t \'I o d e c a d e s s e v e r a 1 s t u d i e s o f t h e s e 1 f-
concept gave evidence that a low self-concept results in
low school achievement.
11
It is not known which came first
(Fitzgibbon, 1970).
As stated before, it is hard to analyze from the number
of studies done on self-concept, academic ability and
achievement, whether a positive self-concept of ability
is the cause or effect of achievement.
Which came first,
the chicken or the egg problem typifies this analysis.
It is shown that one reinforces the other, but where the
cycle begins is not clearly delineated.
This circular effect is explained by Fitzgibbon
(1970).
A child who seem himself/herself as unable to read,
reads poorly.
When called upon, he/she feels negatively
evaluated by self and others, and will continue to read
poorly.
In addition, he/she is likely to try to avoid
34
situations of reading performance.
In this way, the child
perpetuates his/her expectations and evaluations of himself/
herself.
If he/she evaluates himself/herself poorly and
has this reinforced, his/her low self-evaluation will
continue.
In other words, over the years a student develops a
sense of competence.
Once acquired, the student will work
to maintain this level of self-appraisal to maintain
consistency of it.
He/she will look forward to tasks
he/she feels competent at and will avoid tasks he/she
dislikes or feels incompetent at.
They tend not to do
their best but rather do what they expect of themselves and
what they think others expect of them (Maehr, 1979; Kugle
& Clements, 1980).
Those uncertain of their ability tend
to seek out success experiences.
Providing success
experiences and encouraging risk taking is one suggestion
for preventing a failure self-concept from developing or
perpetuating (Kugle & tlements, 1980).
The circular effect is similar to the self-fulfilling
prophecy of labeling demonstrated by a study telling girls
{ages
5~
to 9 years) that they were patient (Toner, Moore
and Emmons, 1979).
The purpose of the study was to
~st
the effects of labeling_ on delaying taking candy from a
conveyor belt.
The children were told casually by the
experimenter that they had heard they were patient.
(The controls were told that they heard they had nice
friends.)
The labeled girls waited significantly longer
35
to take the candy
t~an
the controls.
Since the label was
given at random, tt can be surmised that the children
altered their performance to meet that expectation.
This was again demonstrated by children in a social
comparison study (Santrock & Ross, 1975).
When placed in
a negative position (given fewer chips as a reward for a
task) and asked if they thought they could do as well as
the other child, the child in the negative position was
less efficient at the task though not significantly less
confident.
Though learning disabled students have average IQ's
(Lincoln and Chazan, 1979), their decreased academic
performance correlated with a decreased sense of competence
in the cognitive domain and a decreased expectancy of success.
Other aspects of self-concept were not decreased
in this study of 56 males.
The learning disabled students
were found more dpeendent on external sources of evaluation
(grades, teacher evaluation) than the normal control group.
Chapman and Boersma (1979) also found learning disabled
students to have negative self-perceptions and less
confidence in overall academic tasks.
Successful and
unsuccessful students develop different perceptions of
ability regardless of that actual ability.
This reflects the value of the self-concept and its
influence on adjustment in childhood.
The measurable
difference in the ability of these students is in their
perception of themselves and their ability, not the actual
36
ability itself.
Poor reading ability has been correlated to negative
self-perceptions, low self-concept, low levels of permormance and persistence on reading skills (Butkowsky and
Willows, 1980).
Seventy-two fifth-grade boys were tested
to assess their perception of ability.
They were asked
prior to the test how they thought they would do and why.
The poorer readers expressed lower expectations even for
nonreading tasks.
The poorer readers were found signif-
icantly less likely to see themselves as personally
responsible for their successes and were more likely to
blame their failures on lack of personal competence.
A low self-concept of ability indicated a reluctance to
ascribe success to presence of ability.
Low self-concept children placed reason for success
on luck and high self-concept children placed the reason
for success or good achievement on ability (Butkowsky and
Willows, 1980; Ames and Felker, 1979).
When poor readers
failed at a task, they lost more self-confidence to future
success than good or average readers.
Good or average
readers were shown to persist 40% longer than poor readers
on a difficult task (Butkowsky and Willows, 1980).
Similarly, achievers were found to have higher selfconcept on the intellectual and school status subscales
than underachievers.
They also had higher internal locus
of control scores than underachievers in a study of
academically bright fourth-grade children (Kanoy, Johnson &
37
Kaney, 1980).
Both high self-esteem and high internal locus
of control scores were equally predictive of academic
achievement (Gordon, 1977).
These findings imply that
positive self-concepts correlated with a feeling of being
able to manage well scholastically by relying on one 1 s
ability.
Again, the self-concept affects the child 1 s
adjustment.
Not only are low achievers more self-devaluing in
taking responsibility for success, but they also have been
found to be self-critical in the face of failure.
Ames
and Felker (1979), Katz et al (1967) found that poorly
adjusted boys in the classroom criticized themselves more
than well.adjusted boys ..
in a simi1.ar study·,
Katz, Cole and Baron (1976),
~~tablished
white experimenter.
the reverse was true.
the same trend with a
However, with a black experimenter
High achievers were more self-
critical than low achievers.
It was hypothesized that this
could have been an unfamiliar environment, since most of
the teachers in the subjects• school were white.
In the
face of this unfamiliar setting the high achievers felt
more apprehensive than usual and this resulted in selfcriticism.
Failure to establish consistent findings
indicates a need for further research to make conslusions
regarding the circumstances of self-criticism of high and
low achievers.
38
Family Influences
The research and theory of the effects of family on
the development of self-concept lean heavily on the
concepts of imitation and learning (Wylie, 1979).
Imitation, defined by Bandura, is the process in which a
person patterns his thoughts, feelings, or actions after
another person who serves as a model.
Children learn
characteristics and behaviors through which selfconceptions are formed from imitation and parental
reinforcement.
An inaccurate self-concept could develop
if actual characteristics were rejected by parents.
Therefore, acceptance, or unconditional positive regard,
could promote more accurate self-concepts.
Maternal self-concept has been positively correlated
with child self-concept (Coopersmith, 1967; Samuels, 1977).
The mother's self-attitude was shown to be more significant.
than any child rearing technique.
This self-attitude was conveyed to the child and may
account for the correlation between self-concept of mother
and child (Coopersmith, 1967).
Generally, children with
positive self-concepts had mothers who had positive selfconcepts.
Samuels (1977) relates this to the· "modeling
theory" or "social learning theory" of Aandura.
Bandura theorizes that most human behavior is learned
observationally.
Therefore, if a child observes his/her
mother behaving in a manner that says she is either worthy
39
and capable or disvalues herself and her abilities, the
child, observing this behavior from a young age, may
imitate
~he
behavior as the acceptable manner in which to
present oneself.
Many of us can recall situations of
parent-child similarities and mannerisms and this seems
to carry over into evaluations of self, also.
This researcher had had an experience with a mother
and child that clearly demonstrates this imitating
behavior.
Upon being asked why she (the five-year-old
child) had not responded to a neighbor when he had asked
her a question, she replied, "Because I am shy."
Only
a few weeks prior, this author had been with her and her
mother.
The little girl had asked her mother why she had
n o t to 1 d a s t r a ng e r we p as s e d t h a t i t
\If
a s t he g i r 1 ' s
birthday. The mother responded, "Because I'm shy.
11
Maternal employment was found to have a positive effect
on the self-concept female children (Marotz -Baden, Adams,
Bue c h e , t·1 un r o , a n d
t~ u n r o ,
. 1 9 7 9 ) , a n d ma 1 e c h i 1 d r e n
(Coopersmith, 1967), when job satisfaction and reward are
present.
It is theorized that the satisfaction the mother
receives from desired and rewarding work is conveyed to the
child as increased competence, assurance, and reliance.
This is not found if the mother does not want to worR or is
dissatisfied with her employment.
Research strongly acknowledges the correlation between
self-concept and parental attitudes.
Sears (1970)
significantly associated high self-concept with parental
40
warmth in a study of 159 sixth graders tested for selfconcept whose mothers had been interviewed seven years
prior.
He found parental warmth to be predictive of a
good self-concept, particularly in boys, and maternal
permissiveness almost as predictive in girls.
The parents
seemed to exert equal influence but, on the average, one
warm parent was seen to be sufficient to produce a good
self-concept.
This was supportive of findings correlating selfconcept of 85 preadolescent boys and maternal attitudes
(Coopersmith, 1967).
High self-esteem was significantly
related to maternal affection and tolerance.
Graybill
(1978) and Summerlin and Ward (1978) supported these
findings correlating high self-esteem with parental warmth
and acceptance in more recent studies.
The amount of parental interest perceived by the
child also correlated positively to self-concept and inversely to anxiety (Samuels, 1977).
Coopersmith (1967) found
that boys with high self-esteem had mothers who knew their
.
friends and were aware of their affairs and activities.
These mothers also were more iealistic about having
children and were less romantic in what to expect.
They
were seen as being more accepting of their role and the
demands that motherhood placed on them.
They were also in
agreement with the role of the fathers.
Before going on to make further inferences about
familial effects on the development of children's self-
41
concept, it should be acknowledged here that Wylie (1977)
criticizes Coopersmith's study as being difficult to analyze
critically.
reports.
It is a study using primarily subjective
It is a study of perceptions by one of the par-
ents for the self and the child.
gleaned from the mothers.
Most of the data is
She states that significance
tests are not specified and that the population is
relatively small.
Despite these deficits, this study is
seen to be of significant importance (as seen by this
researcher in the frequent references made to it in other
studies) on the interaction of parental influences on
self-concept development.
Child rearing practices per se have not been shown
as significantly important as an influence on self-esteem
but when consistent with the parental attitudes of warmth
and acceptance, it becomes significant (Samuels, 1977).
Coopersmith found mothers of boys with high self-esteem
to set a larger number and more comprehensive rules and
limits.
They were more demanding, firmer, and consistent
with punishment.
The frequency of the punishment was not
relative but the type of punishment was less likely to be
harsh than that of mothers of boys with lower self-esteem.
High self-esteem was correlated to the use of management
and positive control.
The perception of the punishment was seen differently
by the boys with low or high self-esteem.
Low self-esteem
correlated with the punishment seen as harsh or being
42
mistreated.
as justified.
Boys with high self-esteem saw the punishment
Graybill (1978) correlated low self-esteem
with the use of phychological techniques.
High self-esteem in boys was also significantly
associated with low father dominance in husband-wife
relations pertaining to child control and punishment,
but was unrelated to decision-making dominance (Sears,
1970).
Fathers of high anxiety children were harsher
in parental judgements (Katz in Samuels, 1977).
Clear
lines of power and decisiveness reflected in one parent
making the major decisions (either gender in dominant role)
correlated with high self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967).
Relating this to developmental and phenomenological
theory, the child would learn positive self-concept from
modeling that decisions can be made relatively easily
(suggesting that when both partners have difficulty making
a decision, it implies that decisions are hard to make,
reflecting a feeling of lack of confidence).
Also,
disagreement between parents could indicate a lack of
consistency toward the disciplining of the child.
Ordinal position and family size were significantly
correlated to self-concept.
The older and only children
had higher self-concepts and children in larger families
had poorer self-concepts (Sears, 1970).
This was explained
as a dynamic of competition for parental attention.
Those
who had less need to compete for attention developed more
positive self-concepts.
These factors were found by
43
Coopersmith to have no relationship to self-concept.
Marotz-Baden, et al (1979) also reports that family form
has no relationship to self-concept.
The less traditional
family styles (communal family, single parent and child,
unmarried couple and child) or traditional structure had
much less effect on the child's development than the actual
process in the family itself.
Behavioral problems were
attributed more to conflict in the home than the father's
absence as is juvenile delinquency being more of an effect
of lack of family cohesiveness than the father-absent
situation (Glueks in Marotz - Baden, et al, 1979).
A
stronger masculine self-concept was developed when mothers
of boys whose fathers were absent early (0-5 years)
encouraged aggressive behavior (Biller & Bahm, 1977).
Early separation may affect the female child in later life,
manifested by a disturbed heterosexual relationship due to
an overidentification with the female role (Marotz - Baden,
et al, 1979).
In summarizing the parental effects on the child's
self-concept development, the overall attitudes of the
parents toward the child were more significantly
correlated with positive self-regard than any particular
child-rearing practice or family form.
Warmth, acceptance,
guidance, interest, and consistent, reasonable punishment
helped contribute to higher self-esteem.
Harsher
punishment or negative control and lack of parental interest
and guidance were related to lower self-esteem.
Higher
44
self-esteem, self acceptance, and feelings of adequacy of
the parents were communicated and modeled by the child.
Less significant was the actual type of family
organization.
Peer Influence
The child 1 s family and parents are the primary
influences on the development of the self-concept and the
peer group is the second most important socializing
influence (Bogers & Andrews, 1975).
Adult-child relations
teach social reality while the peer group offers a safe
environment for testing in which there are no rights or
wrongs (Youniss, 1980).
In peer relationships, the child
learns to re-evaluate self-judgment of competence and
self-esteem and build more realistic attitudes about
himself/herself.
The peer group also influences the
development of social skills, teaches role-taking, and
sex-appropriate behavior which are all directly or
indirectly related to self-concept (Bogers & Andrews,
1975).
Piaget calls a mutual exchange of ideas between children a mutual engagement (Youniss. 1980).
It is
identified as an encounter where various ideas may be
presented so that both leave with somewhat different ideas
than those with which they came.
The encounter may be
45
limited by egocentrism and the skill required may come
with age (Youniss, 1980).
The peer relationship, then,
seems to offer children a chance to relate as equals, to
check out what they have learned at home about themselves
and others, and to learn new material in relating to
others (Youniss, 1980).
The peer group is a source of self-esteem (Kirchner
& Vondracek, 1975).
More 3-5 year olds in a day care
center mentioned peers and siblings more often than parents.
All elementary grades showed high social-self subscale
scores and peer successes (Kokenes, 1974).
Peers were
shown to be an important influence on self-esteem and
indicates an identification with the peer group (Kokenes,
1974).
Coopersmith (1967) found that when siblings and
peers were estranged and the child experienced periods of
aloneness and awkwardness, that self-concept was lower.
A chum relationship was significantly correlated to
higher self-concept scores than those without such a
relationship (Mannarino, 1977).
It seems that sharing
common feelings and thoughts validates a sense of selfworth.
Children have expressed feelings of similarity
with others except those they actively reject (Lazar,
1969).
This peer group identity appears to be an
acceptance or reassurance of self-worth that contributes
to higher self-esteem as suggested in the socialpsychological theories of development.
As the peer group is a testing ground to reevaluate
46
the self on equal circumstances, social comparison becomes
an inf1uence on self-concept.
Very young children
(3~
years old) have been found to be too own-gain oriented,
and 4-5 year olds too egocentric to be very concerned in
comparing self to others.
Not until
4~-5
years old has
social comparison become important enough to influence
choices on the child 1 s part to be made for their
-~--]
competitive advantage.
Importance of social comparison\
has been found to increase from kindergarten to second
grade and then to level off (Suls & Sanders, 1979).
Use of peer comparison to evaluate themselves is a ball
throwing task, showed that first and second graders were
almost unaffected by social comparisons (Ruble, Baggiano,
Feldman, and Loeble, 1980).
The first graders tended to
rate themselves higher when others succeeded and second
graders lower.
It was not until the fourth grade in this
study that social comparison was shown to play a large
effect on predicting ability in the child 1 s
self-evaluat~on.
l
The influence of the peer group also has far-reaching !
effects. The individual •s perceptions of how others in their
peer group view them are more important to the posture of
the self-concept than are the actual perceptions of those
others (Goodman, 1973).
peers
1
The child 1 S perceptions of his/her
perceptions of him/her have even been found to be
better predictors of academic achievement than the
perceptions of the child 1 s mother or teachers (Andrews,
1976).
The perception of academic achievement in the
47
child 1 s social comparison with his/her peers is more
significant to the value of the self-concept than is the
absolute value of the achievement itself (Sals & Sanders,
1979).
Therefore, two children who have equal academic
ability and performance levels may differ in their selfconcept of achievement if they are in different classes of
varying levels (La Beane & Greene, 1969).
This closely relates to both the social learning and
cognitive theories of self-concept development.
The peer
group is used as a measure of acceptance for the child to
evaluate and compare himself/herself academically as well
as socially.
It is from this social experience that the
child derives his feelings of self-esteem and develops a
social concept of self on the peer level.
The cognitive theory is also relevant in analyzing
the influence of the peer group in that the child's
cognitive awareness of himself/herself and others plays a
role in that social experience (Youniss, 1980).
How he/
she perceives and interprets social interactions and is
influenced by them is strongly dependent on these interpersonal cognitions.
Social comparison can affect children in very
individual ways.
In a study using three groups of
students, one group reported their failures, one group
reported their successes, and one group reported their
teacher's successes (Rosenfeld, 1977).
Most increased
self-esteem scores by self and peer reports were in the
48
group that reported the teachers' successes.
The group
that reported their own successes showed those with
initially high self-esteem had lower scores by self-report.
The researchers theorized that this may have been a result
of comparing themselves to their self goals.
In the group
that reported their failures, those with initially low
self-esteem scores increased by self-report.
This was
postulated to be a result of desensitizing to failure.
The results in this study are good examples of the
effects of the self-image disparity referred to by Rogers
(Samuels, 1977), and Katz, Zigler & Zalk (1975).
For those
who have strong ideal self-images even their successes were
not enough to satisfy them.
Those who had poor real self-
images became less at an effect of that disparity by seeing
others also have failure experiences, and becoming less
sensitive to their own.
Similar to the relationship of self-concept and
academic achievement, peer interaction is dependent on the
conception of self and others and his/her understanding
of interpersonal relationships.
Piaget's cognitive theory
·regarding the development of peer relationships emphasized
the child's role-taking perspective and his/her ability to
see himself/herself in the other's position.
More
traditional socialization theories emphasize the self as an
entity for development and external agents rather than the
children themselves (Youniss, 1980).
A group of two-year old boys was measured to be high or
49
low
self~defined
according to passing the mirror test,
perceptual role taking, pronoun production and pronoun
recognition.
Of these children, those who were high self-
defined interacted more often and more verbally than the
low self-defined group.
In their interaction, the
increased use of toys seemed to be a means of defining self
and territory.
After the initial interaction using the
toys, the highly self-defined boys showed a high interest
or skill in interacting with others.
The claiming of toys
seemed significant in
self and others
(Levine, 1980).
differentiat~ng
The implication of this study is that a
more defined self-concept allows a child to become more
aware of others around him rather than still needing to
define himself in regard to his environment.
Also, similar to the circular effects of self-concept
of ability and achievement, the role consistency theory
postulates that an individual •s self-concept and selfesteem are at any given stage of his/her development
primarily centered after the social role or status which is
of current major importance to him/her.
This was demon-
strated in a group of boy scouts who evaluated the
performance of members consistent with the social role and
status with his peer groups (McNelly, 1974).
This circular effect has also been seen in acceptance
of self and others (La Beane & Greene, 1969).
A positive
correlation was found between the self-concept and social
adjustment and between self-acceptance and respect for
50
others.
When there was a change in the feelings for self,
the feelings towards others changed in the same direction.
There seems to be a parallel between academic
achievement and peer relations and their relationship to
the self-concept.
As the self-concept of ability increases,
the greater the probability of scholastic success.
It
appears as the self-worth changes, others' response may
change.
Adjustment in Childhood
Since many psychologists attribute the early years
with having significant effects on the psychological
development of the individual, the self-concept would seem
to affect the adjustment of the individual also at an early
age.
The term adjustment is defined here as the outcome
of the individual's efforts to deal with stress and meet
his/her own needs (Coleman, Butcher & Carson, 1980).
It can be questioned whether the various responses
of individuals to stimuli in the environment are affected
by the self-concept.
The implications for parents, teachers
and therapists are that by enhancing the self-concept, the
child will respond to the environment in positive, growthstimulating and self-accepting ways to develop and become
a well-adjusted, happy and productive individual.
If the self-concept is a filtering system, "a screen
/~
51
through which everything is seen, heard, evaluated, and
understood
(Combs in Shelton, 1977), then it could be
11
seen as the basis for adjustment in childhood.
As persons value themselves, others regard them with
simil«r value.
indicate
Samuels (1977) reported that studies
ch~ldren
with high self-esteem were adjusted
socially and were liked by peers.
associated with lower peer status.
with high self-esteem favorably
Low self-esteem was
Peers view children
(Richmond~
White, 1971).
Children with high self-esteem felt that the people they
liked reciprocated those feelings.
Children with low self-esteem are reported by Samuels
(1977) to be more conforming to social pressure.
This is in
agreement with Coopersmith's (1967) observation that mothers
of low self-esteem children value accommodating behavior
and pleasing others.
It is fairly evident that a positive self-concept in
childhood is correlated with positive peer relationships.
Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationships are placed at
the root of maladaptive behavior (Coleman, Butcher, and
Carlson, 1980).
It is noted that self-concepts can be distorted by
parental influences (over-criticism, rigid socialization
measures) and negatively affect the child's adjustment
is related to the inability of the child to integrate and
accept the
11
bad me."
This reflects the effects of parental
52
acceptance discussed previously.
This inability to accept the ''bad me" relative to
maladjusted behavior draws on Rogers' theory of disparity
between real and ideal self-image correlating to mental
illness.
However, self-image disparity has been correlated
as an invariable accompaniment of increasing maturity (Katz,
et a1, 1975) and an effect of role taking (Leahy, et al,
1976).
Maladjusted children were found to have a negative
opinion of themselves (Katz, et al, 1975).
The
internalizers (children who were withdrawn) had higher realideal disparities than
nor~al
children, but externalizers
(children who acted out) were found to have lower disparity
scores.
The real-self-image was lower for both groups of
maladjusted children but significant difference from
normals was found only for the externalizer-normal
comparison.
This is possibly due to the negative evaluation
placed on acting out behavior by schools and families.
Also, probably related to the lower real-self-image scores
are the effects of being labeled maladjusted, removed from
the mainstream of school activities, and placed in classes
for the emotionally disturbed.
The self-concept of autistic children is of key
importance to the child's dysfunction.
undifferentiated concept of self.
They have a blurred,
Unlike normal young
children, they do not perceive themselves at the center of
their world.
Autistic children lack a central reference
53
point for anchoring or integrating perceptions.
Bettleheim refers to this as the
11
empth fortresS
11
11
Bruno
absence of I 11 or the
(Coleman, Butcher, and Carson, 1980).
The self-concept of children with withdrawal
disturbances is of being inadequate, fearful, shy and timid
with a pervasive attitude of
11
I can•t do it.
11
Stutterers
have a self-concept of being a stutterer and have resigned
themselves to it (Coleman, Butcher, and Carson, 1980).
Schizophrenic children have a confused sense of selfidentity.
They also have feelings of inadequacy,
insecurity, and self-devaluation.
Typically, there is an
immature dependency with overemphasis on being a good girl
and a lack of effectual coping patterns (Coleman, Butcher,
and Carson, 1980).
It can be seen that maladjustment in childhood
frequently includes a negative, undifferentiated, or
confused self-concept. Disparity between real- and idealself-image can also be found in maladjustment.
CHAPTER
4
ENHANCEMENT OF SELF-CONCEPT
There is a continual process moving towards selfactualization which would be a positive view of oneself,
an openness to new experience, strong feelings of
identification, and having a rich, varied and available
perceptual field (Combs & Soper, 1963).
It is the purpose in this last chapter to provide
informationfor parents, teachers and therapists working
with children to help enhance and improve the development
of self-concepts in children.
The material already
presented will be referred to as suggestions for positive
influences as indicated throughout.
A few outside sources
are included in that they offer concrete guidelines for
this enhancement.
Specific
exercise~
for particular prob-
lems are not detailed to enable generalization across
situation.
However, the bibliography can be used as a
reference for several sources of such material.
It is
acknowledged that some of the information is not based on
empirical studies per se, but on theory, experience, and
generalizations on a body of research.
A few studies are
presented that, even though reported results that were
not of significant value, presented ideas that showed
potential for positively effecting self-concept.
54
55
Parental Means of Enhancing Self-Concept in Children
Parental attitudes toward the child and child-rearing
was cited frequently as a great contributor to the
enhancement of a positive self-concept (Samuels, 1977;
Coopersmith, 1967; Sears, 1970; as well as others).
Parental warmth and affection convey to the child that
he/she is lovable and worthwhile.
Expressions of affection
to the child can help him/her learn to like himself/herself
by learning from the attitudes, responses and experiences
of those around him/her (Briggs, 1975).
The social theorists and phenomenologists both refer
to learning to value the self by the environment they live
in.
By being treated as lovable and worthwhile by those
significant to him/her, he/she will value himself/herself
in the same manner.
The child also needs to feel love and acceptance for
being himself/herself (Briggs, 1975; Yamamoto, 1972).
Helping to promote a feeling of being worthwhile just
because he/she exists, separates his/her self-perceptions
from behavior.
Respecting and cherishing the child's
individuality can be done by active listening and allowing
for differences.
Respect for opinions and emphatic
understanding (without judgments, agreement or disagreement)
promote acceptance and actively build the love relationship
between parent and child.
The use of
11
I-reactions 11 can
separate acceptance of the child without approving the
56
behavior.
It encourages open communication between parent
and child (Briggs, 1975).
The child needs focused attention on him/her as a
person.
Coopersmith (1967) correlated high self-esteem
with maternal interest and concern.
Mothers of boys with
high self-esteem knew of their friends and activities.
Promote an atmosphere of trust.
Providirg friendly
help with his/her needs conveys a feeling of concern and
interest.
Children with positive self-concepts feel adequate.
He/she needs to feel competent to handle himself/herself
and his/her environment.
Parents can promote a feeling of
adequacy by maintaining realistic expectations of the
child (Yamamoto, 1972; Samuels, 1977; Briggs, 1975).
Help
the child assess himself/herself realistically and provide
appropriate autonomy for making decisions and living with
the consequences.
Allow him/her to share real
responsibilities, not just tasks to keep him busy.
Self-concept in children has been correlated to the
self-concepts of their mothers (Coopersmith, 1967; Samuels,
1977; Burns, 1980).
Mothers with high self-concepts
seemed to foster that in their children.
Samuels (1977)
attributed that to Bandura•s (1977) social learning
theory.
It is possible, also, that mothers who are happy
in themselves and know how to meet their own needs are
better able, not only to model such an ability, but have
better attitudes toward child-rearing.
Briggs (1975)
57
suggests that self-acceptance by parents promotes
acceptance of the child and decreases their unrealistic
expectations of him/her.
In promoting an atmosphere of trust, parents should
allow a child to own his feelings without withdrawing
approval (Briggs, 1975).
Carl Rogers states that i t is
important in bringing up a child that he/she not be required
to distort or disown his feelings as a condition of warmth
and affection.
of that feeling.
He/she may be required to limit expression
fur example, a mother may allow a
child's feelings of anger toward her while restricting
him from hitting her (Burns, 1980).
Coopersmith (1967) found that high self-esteem boys
had discipline that was firm with comprehensive rules and
limits.
Briggs (1975) outlines a positive attitude
toward discipline which refers to rules for behavior
and the methods to enforce them.
She states that the end
goal of discipline is self-discipline, thereby
emphasizing the benefit aspect of discipline for the
child.
She states that rules are more constructive when
the needs of both the child and the parent are considered.
Fewer rules are needed when appropriate outlets are
provided for childish needs, expectations are kept
realistic, and a climate of love and respect are maintained.
Briggs (1975) also proposes setting up agreeable
limits and solutions to problems, and maintaining
democratic attitudes of mutual respect.
58
Programs directed at improving parenting have sometimes
been found to be effective at improving children 1 s selfconcept (Boger & Andrews, 1975; Summerlin & Ward, 1978).
However, this has not always shown significant effects.
suggesting that parent teaching and direct intervention at
the child level be conducted concurrently (Meredith &
Benninga, 1979).
Parents who rlesire classes on parenting
should refer to their child 1 s school counselor, their local
junior college or community adult education facilities for
these resources.
Enhancing the Self-Concept on the Peer Level
Since the peer group has such an influence on the
posture of the self-concept, parents and teachers can help
by f a c i 1 i t a t i n g g o o d p e e r r e 1 a t i o n s h i p s . '· Pa r e n t s c a n
involve other children in family activities and outings
(Briggs, 1975).
Teachers can encourage group participation
and involve a shy or withdrawn child in activities with
another or other children.
Teaching children an understanding of the causes
behind behavior and acceptance of themselves was found to
increase self-ideal congruency and an increase on the
Mental Health Analysis Test (Griggs & Bomney, 1970).
Though
specific measures of self-concept were not measured,
acceptance of self and others increased.
Acceptance of
se1f is thought to correlate with a positive self-concept.
59
Using transactional analysis teaching programs has been
shown to influence the self-concept in a positive direction,
though not at a significant level (Muro, Edmonson &
Edmonson, 1979; Gumaer & Voorneveld, 1975).
The teaching
programs included instruction and discussion.
A program
for human development taught as a comparative group also
increased self-concept scores, though not significantly.
The implication of the studies is that an understanding
of feelings and behavior and discussion increased the
child's feelings of awareness and promoted an acceptance
or group identity.
Body awareness and acceptance using yoga and
meditation facilitated an increase in body satisfaction
in a small group of elementary students (Clance, Mitchell
& Engleman, 1980),· The purpose was to alter the cognitive
perception aspect of body image.
An increased
participation in classroom activities was also noted.
Though this is a small study with several method flaws,
it demonstrates a variety of ways children can be
influenced to accept themselves and evaluate themselves
in a more favorab1e context.
Programs are available directed specifically at
increasing
self-awar~ness
development in children.
and improving self-concept
Their programs frequently include
filmstrips, books, tapes and music with activities that
examine feelings and lead children to comparing how they
are similar and different from each other (Kern County
60
Suoerintendent of Schools).
Transactional analysis is a method of understanding
oneself and others in order to improve one's interpersonal
relationships by examining interactions with others (Freed
& Freed, 1977). Using this method, the personality is
divided into three parts (or ego states).
Parent, the Adult, and the Child.
These are the
The Parent is the part
of ourselves that tells us what to do, how and when to do
it.
It can be bossy and critical or caring and nurturing.
It is formed by the important people to us when we were
young.
The Adult is the thinking and reasoning part of
ourselves.
It thinks ahead, makes decisions, and
processes information.
The Child aspect of our personalit-
ies is the feeling and free part of us.
Positive and
negative feelings alike arise from this aspect and make us
act very much like a child regardless of our biological
ages.
Each person has a need for strokes (recognition)
and has developed a life script (plan) in childhood
based on early beliefs of oneself and others (Corsini,
1979).
A series of books uses TA-based theory
~ritten
at the
child level to be read to children individually or in
groups (Freed & Freed, 1977).
The purpose is to
systematically open for discussion feelings children may
have about themselves or others.
As children recognize
they are not alone in their feelings, a feeling of selfacceptance and peer identity may follow.
61
Bibliotherapy is another proposed means of increasing
self-acceptance by identifying with others (Ott, 1979;
Ostrovsky, 1974).
Through books children learn that others
have fears and anxieties; they are no longer alone.
They
are children of the universe with universal problems, in a
sense.
Books can give a feeling of dignity and self-worth,
help children appreciate others despite their differences,
overcome their fears and concerns, expand their horizons
and promote fun.
Ott (1979) states that bibliotherapists
are needed for helping troubled children with books but
that
par~nts
and teachers can also help.
Bibliographies
are available classifying books according to areas of
specific problems, i.e., shyness, friendship, etc.
The significance of the peer group was frequently
emphasized as a means of influencing the self-concept (Boger
& Andrews, 1975; Youniss, 1980; Kokenes, 1974; and others).
To enhance the self-concept, peer interaction should be
encouraged.
Increasing peer interaction can be encouraged by
parents and teachers by providing activities and
opportunities for children to play and work together.
J
Social interaction in less socially responsive children
(defined as having less peer interaction and being less
verbal in their preschool and school) was increased
through the use of self-speech visual tapes (Jakichuk &
Smerglio~
1976).
Narrative tapes were also found
significantly effective in twenty-two 3-10 year olds
62
shown tapes of same-sexed children going through the
mental and physical process of going from playing alone to
joining others in an activity.
This study implies that social interaction can be
modified by modeling and supports 8andura•s (1977) social
learning theor·y.
If children can observe others in the
process by overcoming their reservations about interacting
and learning the cognitive process that accompanies it,
they can imitate the behavior and interact easier.
Direct
testing of the self-concept was not done in either of
the above two studies.
The formation of friendships is the subject of another
project program avai.lable (Brayton & Tutton, 1975). The
program consists
~f
discussion topics for the children,
i.e., a good way to make friends is to consider others•
feelings; how to make someone else happy; what a person
needs to do to do his part as a friend.
The teacher also
demonstrates friendly behavior, sensitivity to others•
feelings, etc.
The purpose of programs such as this is to
increase cognitive awareness of forming friendships that
help promote peer identity ar.d acceptance.
A teacher can facilitate the move toward more peer
interaction in a classroom setting by establishing an
atmosphere of trust which encourages the shy and withdrawn
child to participate and express himself/herself more
freely.
Dependent relationships
sho~ld
be avoided and
rather, equal and mutual friendships encouraged.
63
Prcvide opportunities for an isolated child to help another
successfully with a skill or activity and work to integrate
into group participation (Yamamoto, 1972).
Children who
completely withdraw from adults as well as children should
be evaluated by the school counselor or psychologist
(Samuels, 1977).
In Summary, For
1•
Paren~~
E·x p r' e s s wa r mt h a n d a f f e c t i o n .
T r y to ma ke t h e
child feel loved and worthwhile.
2.
Accept and respect him/her as an individual
separate from his/her performance and behavior.
3.
Take an active interest in his/her activities and
affairs.
4.
Promote a feeling of trust and concern.
Maintain realistic expectations.
Help the child
feel adequate.
5.
As a parent, be
attitudes.
awar~
of your own needs and
Care for yourself and model that
self-appreciation for the child.
6.
Allow the child the freedom to explore and express
his/her true feelings, not what you think he/she
should feel.
7.
Establish comprehensive rules and limits that are
understood by the child while maintaining an
atmosphere of trust and respect.
Be democratic,
allowing input from the child.
8.
As a parent, be involved in assessing parenting
64
ability and work for optimal understanding of
parent-child relations.
Check resources available
for parents.
9.
Provide opportunities for children•s friends to
join family activities.
Enh~ncinq
the Self-Concept in the Classroom
There have been many references to the atmosphere and
attitudes maintained by teachers affecting the self-concept
of the child (Samuels, 1977; Fitzgibbon, 1970; Combs &
Sopar, 1963; Pedersen, Foucher, & Eaton, 1978). Combs &
Sopar (1963) refer to the teacher as a significant other
in the child 1 s life and that his/her values are revealed in
the judgment. he/she makes on the student•s behavior.
If a
child 1 s general self-esteem is to be enhanced, a child
needs a teacher who will make him/her feel secure, who
has realistic, clear behavioral expectations and will
encourage independence and responsibility.
He/she needs
a supportive environment where tasks are appropriate and
wili lead to success.
He/she needs to feel free to make
mistakes without penalty (Samuels, 1977).
LaBeane and
Greene (1969) agree that making mistakes should be an
accepted part of learning and the child should be made to
feel accepted.
The social theorists and phenomenologists emphasize
how the individual learns to regard himself/herself in
65
relation to his/her environment and his/her phenomenal field.
For the child, the school and his/her teacher play a large
part in that learning.
The teacher concerned about the
enhancing positive overall self-concepts as well as selfesteem needs to be aware of how he/she influences the
atmosphere of the classroom and its effect on the child 1 s
self-concept development.
If he/she feels that he/she is
valued as his/her performance is valued, he/she may form
negative self-evaluations if perceiving that that
performance is not adequate in that environment or
phenomenal field.
Hence, the teacher needs to make a
separation of the individual •s performance and his/her
person in regard to overall acceptance.
Maintaining a
threat-free environment will promote this feeling of
acceptance (Fitzgibbon, 1970).
Accepting the child as he sees himself/herself will
also foster formation of a realistic self-concept.
A
teacher can also help the child realistically assessing his
strengths and weaknesses, making him/her aware of his/her
assets, and encouraging seeking out opportunities for
success (Del Felite, 1977).
Personalize the teaching to
the student to meet his/her individual needs, interests,
and concerns.
Training modules on enhancing the self-concept and
establishing an accepting atmosphere through understanding
self-concept and communications theories are available
for assisting the teacher provide a supportive
66
environment (Del Felite, 1977; Fitzgibbon, 1970; Emmons,
1978).
The teacher communicates more than content. The
teacher's self-attitudes may be more important than
techniques, methods, skills or competencies (Samuels, 1977).
As with parents, a teacher can be more effective by being
aware of his/her own needs, as well as the child's, when
working with children (Yamamoto, 1972).
The self-concept of academic ability is related to,
but more specific than overall self-contempt.
A feeling
of adequacy is essential to scholastic achievement.
Fitzgibbon (1970) and others refer to the circular effect
of achievement and self-concept of ability.
Promoting
success experiences was recommended by many-researchers
as a means of enhancing this area of the
self-concep~
.
. .
·.
A few studies of how this may be done are presented here.
A group of nine first-grade repeaters were included
in a special program of group activities and free-play
designed to promote discussion of feelings and awareness.
Exercises included use of magazine pictures to relate
identity, TA for Tots, how to make others feel good, books
related to feeling good to be oneself, and others.
self-concept testing was reported but the
progl~am
No
was well
received by both teachers and students and was found to
have positive effects on adjustment to repeating and
interacting (Fournier, 1977).
Sixty withdrawn and aggressive students, grades
second through eighth, participated in a program of three
67
groups -- tutors, tutees, and a control.
The tutors were
given a brief training and helped other students (tutees)
with specified school subjects.
Increases in self-
concept scores were not at the significant level but gains
were made in the tutor and tutee groups compared to the
control group.
The gains correlated to the proportion
of time involved in the tutoring program (Lazerson, 1980).
The study implies that helping other students with
scholastic material may be beneficial by giving them a
feeling of being responsible and capable.
Since both the
tutor and the tutee groups showed gains, however, implies
more that involving the students in peer interaction may
have been the more effective aspect of the study.
However,
it does have some potential as a means of promoting a
concept of ability for students.
As reported previously, a study of students reporting
1) their own successes, 2) their own failures, or 3) their
teachers' successes showed varying results in the students.
Initially low self-esteem students increased scores when
reporting their failures.
This seemed to indicate a
desensitizing to their failure experiences.
The initially
middle and low self-esteem students improved most when
reporting teacher successes (Rosenfeld, 1977).
Increasing the waiting time for responses from low
achievers encourages them to persist longer (Samuels,
1977).
This would give a student the feeling of being
adequate in the perception of the teacher.
Increased
68
persistence in learning tasks and self-confidence is
encouraged by positive reinforcement for academic successes
(Wylie, 1979).
Providing opportunities for success was
mentioned in many studies and resources as a means of
promoting positive academic self-concepts.
Offering
encouragement and individual assistance, as well as being
patient, help stimulate a student lacking in self-confidence.
Individualizing curriculum specific to meeting the child's
needs, interests and concerns greatly increases the
possibility of a success experience.
An uncertain child
may need to be encouraged to take risks in seeking
success opportunities.
It is important for students to get reinforcement
from their peers (LaBeane & Greene, 1969; Kugle & Clements,
1980; Maehr, 1979;Entwisle & Hayduck, 1978).
Provide
positive reinforcement in front of peers and provide the
opportunity for peers to praise each other.
Positive self-concept children were found to place
the reason for their good achievement on ability, while a
negative self-concept child placed the reason for good
achievement on luck.
It was also found that the positive
self-concept child engaged in more self-reinforcing
statements, while the negative self-concept child was more
punitive to himself/herself when he/she failed (Ames &
Felker, 1979).
Lane and Muller (1977) found that by
positively reinforcing positive self-statements of students,
there was an increase in the intellectual-self domain
~f
69
the self-concept.
To change self-statements by relabeling
or reframing, a teacher or school counselor can assist a
student to change a negative belief about himself/herself
(Fadiman, 1979).
A statement such as "It's true that you
haven't been good at math (sports, English, reading,
etc.) in the past, but is that necessarily true for the
p r e s e n t o t' t h e f u t u r e ? " a n d g i v i n g a n e x amp 1e of c h a n ge s
that the child can observe (i.e., physical strength, or
improved grades in a subject) encourages the child's
belief in his ability to change (Fadiman, 1-79).
A program designed to teach impulsive children selfcontrol (Michenbaum & Goodman, 1971) may be pertinent here
as a model for a program to teach negative self-concept
children how to give themselves positive self-statements.
Two methods of teaching the children self-instructional
statements, first overtly then covertly, talking themselves
through a task, were effective in slowing a child's
behavior.
Cognitive modeling alone was effective in slowing
the compulsive child's behavior but errors were decreased
with the addition of self-instructional training. ·rt
seems feasible that teaching negative self-concept
children positive self-statements to reinforce their
assets in this manner could influence the posture of their
self-concept.
This could be a particularly significant
program for children whose self-concept is severely
distressed.
70
Iti SummarV, For Teachers:
1.
Provide the opportunity for some teaching of self
and other awareness.
Promote an understanding
of feelings and behavior.
Use books, filmstrips,
activities, and discussions that promote selfawareness.
2.
Promote body awareness through various activities
that acknowledge the differences and similarities
between children and mark changes and growth.
3.
Be observant for withdrawn children and provide
opportunities for group activities.
participation with another shy child.
Encourage
Refer
particularly withdrawn children as appropriate.
4.
Provide opportunities for a withdrawn child to
help another successfully.
5.
Maintain an accepting, supportive, threat-free
environment where making mistakes is an accepted
part of learning.
6.
Accept the child as an individual separate from
his performance.
7.
Help him/her realistically assess his/her strength
and weaknesses.
Establish realistic expectations
and appropriate challenges.
8.
Personalize teaching to individual needs,
interests, and concerns.
71
9.
Be actively involved in assessing enhancement of
the self-concept in the classroom and become
familiar with resources and programs available
for specific activities promoting enhancement.
10.
Provide opportunities for success experiences for
every child.
11.
Give positive reinforcement in front of peers.
Provide the opportunity for positive peer feedback.
12.
Encourage low achievers by increasing waiting time
for responses.
13.
Promote a feeling of adequacy.
Positively reinforce the child's acknowledgement
of ability (positive self-statements).
Whenever
possible, try to change self-devaluing statements
by the child with encouragement of the opportunity
and ability to change.
14.
As a teacher, acknowledge your own accomplishments.
In the Therapeutic Setting
In working with children in the therapeutic setting,
many of the same techniques and principles will be
applicable.
Some of these will be mentioned here, but not
explained in great detail if presented earlier.
Whether
the child's self-concept is measurably negative,
undifferentiated, or incogruent with the self-ideal,
the work of the therapist will be to increase self-
72
awareness,
self~understanding,
and self-acceptance.
There
may be other goals indicated, varying with the specific
problems of the child (behavior modification with an
aggressive, misbehaving child, for instance).
Specific to
the self-concept, however, therapy revolves around the
three aforementioned goals.
The self-concept of the child can sometimes be
surfaced by imagery (Schoettle, 1980).
Bringing the child's
negative self-image of himself/herself into the open makes
more readily apparent some problems to be dealt with.
Imagery and meditation exercises are also frequently
mentioned as proposed means of self-awareness (Oaklander,
1978; Hendricks & Wills, 1975; Rozman, 1975).
Since a
negative self-concept may also be seen as a loss of a sense
of self, self-awareness is a significant factor in
promoting a positive self-concept.
As stated above, Rogers theorizes that self-image
disparity causes the maladjustment of mental illness and
the purpose of therapy is to increase self-acceptance.
With increased self-acceptance, the self-concept is
enhanced.
Teaching causal understanding of behavior of self
and others was already mentioned
as~
speculative means of
increasing self-acceptance and increasing self-ideal
congruency (Griggs & Bonney, 1970; Muro, et al, 1979).
The therapist on a smaller scale can help a child understand and accept himself/herself in a similar sense
73
individually or in a small group.
Transactional analysis, as presented above, is another
proposed means of understanding and accepting oneself that
can be utilized in the therapeutic setting with children
(Freed & Freed, 1977; Muro, et al, 1979; Gumaer &
Voorneveld, 1975).
Bibliotherapy was previously mentioned as a proposed
method to increase self-acceptance and identifying with
others (Ott, 1979; Ostrovsky, 1974).
The use of fairy
tales and mythology are also speculative means of helping
child-r·en answer
life. 11
~~~·Jho
am 1? 11 and
"~Jhat
is the purpose of
Bettleheim (1977) states that there are two ways
to gain selfhood-- through learning to master the inner
world as well as the outer world.
He indicates the need
to turn inward in the struggle to become oneself and
proposes the use of stories for enhancing self-awareness
in children.
As the child needs support and encouragement in the
classroom, he/she needs support in the therapeutic setting
to freely explore his/her feelings of fear and anxiety.
Support in the therapeutic setting encourages selfacceptance and encourages the child to seek further selfawareness without fear of rejection or the need to deny
his/her feelings (Oaklander, 1978).
Relabeling or reframing is also pertinent here as a
proposed means of enhancing the self-concept (Fadiman,
1979).
Without denying the child his/her feelings, the
74
therapist can help a child look at himself/herself or
his(her behavior and provide a more positive view of
himself/herself or a more promising chance for change.
Similar to relabeling, the therapist can teach the
self-devaluing child positive self-statements or strokes
(similar to the concepts of Michenbaum & Goodman, 1971).
The therapist can help demonstrate this proposed means of
enhancing self-concept to a child through modeling
behavior that is self-rewarding.
Similar to the role of the
~arent
and teacher, the
therapist needs to be consistent with rules and controls.
Give responsibility, independence, and freedom to make
choices.
praise.
Give respect, acknowledgement and specific
Be a good model.
things for yourself.
Think well of yourself and do
Help the child give up negative
messages and reform positive ones.
Oaklander (1978)
states, "Change occurs when one becomes v1hat he is, not
when he tries to become \'lhat he is not.
11
For Therapists:
1.
Express acceptance and warmth; promote a feeling
of being worthwhile.
2.
Model self-acceptance and self-appreciation.
3.
Promote a feeling of self-awareness and selfacceptance.
Imagery and art therapy may be used
for encouraging self-awareness.
Books can help
75
promote self-awareness and self-acceptance.
4.
Help relabel negative concepts of self.
5.
Teach positive self-statements.
6.
Teach the step-by-step mental process to
successful execution of a feared or failed task.
Promote a feeling of adequacy to cope.
7.
When groups of children are available and
appropriate, teach an awareness of feelings and
behavior that can help promote self-acceptance
and peer identity, i.e., transactional analysis.
76
CHAPTER
5
CONCLUSION
This project has presented the theoretical background
pertinent to the development of the self-concept and a
review of the empirical literature relative to this
development.
Suggestions for enhancement of the self-
concept have been derived from these as well as other
resources.
The developmental aspects on the formation of the
concept of self or ego development, include introjection,
cognition, experience, maturation, social interaction,
and
eq~flibration.
self-evaluation.
The social realm of the child influences
The child learns to perceive himself/
herself as he/she sees that others perceive him/her.
The
child•s sfgnificant others compose the large part of this
environment.
The child•s reality, not reality itself, was
emphasized as the determinant of self-concept formation
and of behavior.
Children learn to perceive themselves as
they are treated by others and through their experiences.
Learning by observation and cognitive reasoning were
mentioned, as well as environment, as strong influences
on self-concept development.
77
The
import~nce
of the self-concept was expressed as that
through which interpretations and motivations were channeled.
Basic to all the theories are interactions with others and
experiences providing feedback.
The empirical literature documented self-concept
beginning early in life.
It becomes more differentiated
as a developmental process, moving from recognition of
oneself to an increase of body concept that is more complex
and coherent.
Real-ideal self-image disparity was also
attributed to developmental age although frequently
related to maladjustment.
The self-concept of academic ability was found to be
separate from overall self-concept, although they were
found to frequently correlate.
Teacher attitudes, success
experience, circular effect of self-fulfilling prophecy,
and the locus of control were all found to affect the
self-concept of ability.
The family influences on self-concept development
emphasized imitation or observational learning, expression
of parental warmth, and acceptance, interest in the child
and his/her activities, maintainirig realistic expectations,
and establishing consistent and comprehensive rules and
limits.
The actual type of family organization was
reported to be less significant than the family process.
The peer group was also found to have a strong
influence on the development of self-concept, second only
to the family.
The peer group was reported to be a
so~rce
78
of
self~esteem
and identity.
Social comparison was found
to play an important part in the influence of the peer
group.
Peer interaction was seen as an effect of role
taking and was also shown to have the circular effect
evident in academic ability.
The
self-~oncept
was seen to affect adjustment in
childhood as negative self-concepts were correlated with
maladjustment.
Diffused or confused self-concepts were
also significant in certain disorders.
Suggestions for enhancing the self-concept for
parents included providing warmth, acceptance, a trusting
atmosphere;
modeling self-appreciation;
istic expectations;
maintaining real-
becomeing aware of appropriate
parenting behavior; and establishing consistent rules
and limits.
Satisfactory peer relationships were seen to be
potentially enhancing to the self-concept and peer interactions can be promoted by both parents and teachers
through various activities.
Parents and teachers both can
also promote self-awareness and self-understanding.
Suggestions for enhancement in the classroom include
maintaining a safe, accepting environment;
success experiences;
and from peers;
promoting
providing reinforcement in front of
promoting self-acceptance and the
confidence to change performance.
The self-concept can be enhanced in the therapeutic
setting similarly to the parenting and teaching techniques.
79
These include promoting self-awareness and self-acceptance;
providing support and encouragement; providing a more
positive self-image to the child through relabeling;
and
modeling self-acceptance and self-appreciation.
As
rese~rch
continues for more information on the
influences and effects of the self-concept, the above
suggestions provide a basis for promoting development of
positive self-concepts in children.
Future research should
focus on more methods or factors significant for improving
self-concept in children.
These should be focused on
1) therapeutic techniques with children who have unhealthy
self-concepts;
2) classroom techniques applicable in aca-
demic settings that require teaching numerous students
with varied self-concepts; and 3) parent-child programs
that promote successful parenting techniques that enhance
positive self-concepts in children.
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80
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