CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORI'HRIDGE
SELF-DISCI.DSURE I SOCIAL SUPPORI' I IDCUS OF CONTROL
AND THE TENDENCY TO SEEK PROFESSIONAL COUNSELING
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Education, Educational Psychology, Counseling
and Guidance
by
]X)lores Jordan
August, 1982
'Ihe Thesis of Dolores Jordan is approved:
Luis Rubalca\i; Ph. D.
California State University, Northridge
ii
ACKNO\tVLEDGEMENTS
The researcher would like to express her thanks and appreciation
to those who so willingly helped her these past months:
Dr. Augusto Brittan-del Rio for his direction, expertise, and
enthusiasm.
Dr. Richard Russell, Dr. Al Bishop, and Gene Olson for sharing
their students.
Mrs. Margaret Pryer for her time and knavledge of cc:mputers and
statistics.
Dr. Ronald Pryer for his encouragement.
And most of all, the students themselves who gave so freely of
their opinions.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
THESIS APPIDVAL •
•
0
•
•
ii
• iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
v
LIST OF TABIES
vi
ABSTRACI'
Chapter
I
THE PROBLEM. • • • • • •
1
Rationale of the Study
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
II
III
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
8
HETHOOOIDGY • • • • • • •
25
Description of the Subjects
Description of the Instrturents
Data Collection Procedure
Statistical Analysis of the Data
IV
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
31
Results
Additional Findings
Discussion
v
SUMMARY, CCNCLUSION, AND RECCMMENDATIONS
39
REFERENCES
45
APPENDICES
48
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1
JYT..eans and Standard Deviations on Dependent and
Independent Variables
32
2
Intercorrelations between Variables for One Dependent
Variable and Five Predictive Variables
33
v
ABSTFACI'
SELF-DISCLOSURE, SOCIAL SUPPORT, LOCUS OF CONTROL
AND THE TENDENCY TO SEEK PROFESSICNAL COUNSELING
by
:COlores Jordan
Master of Arts in Education, Educational Psychology,
Counseling and Guidance
This study investigated the relationship between self-disclosure,
locus of control, social support, and the tendency to seek
professional counseling.
The three research questions were:
(a)
Is
there a significant relationship between self-disclosure and the
tendency to seek professional counseling?
(b)
Is there a significant
relationship between inteiTI.al-extemal locus of control and the
tendency to seek professional counseling?
(c)
Is there a significant
relationship between social support systems and the tendency to seek
professional counseling?.
\(
t
Previous studies agreed that a significant number of college
·-
1~tudents suffer fran psychological symptc::ms of distress that are
serious and handicapping to some degree.
Hc:wever only a minority of
those students who suffer a high level of distress seek professional
counseling.
The research suggested a serious underevaluation of the
professional resources provided to help students deal with their
problems.
This study was undertaken to investigate characteristics
which influence whether or not a student will seek professional help.
vi
A total of 61 subjects, 35 worren and 26 men, participated in the
study.
All were students in introductory psychology classes at a
community college in the Los Angeles area.
All were administered Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control
Scale, the Distch Self-disclosure Inventory, and the Social Support
Questionnaire.
The last four questions on the Social Support
Questionnaire rreasured the tendency to seek counseling.
The multiple regression procedure was employed to analyze the
correlation between the tendency to seek counseling and the predictor
variables.
A chi-square analysis, an analysis of variance, and t-
tests were also perfm:rred to compare groups.
The data did not provide evidence of a significant relationship
between internal-external locus of control or social support and the
tendency to seek counseling.
The data did provide evidence of a
significant relationship at the . 05 level between self-disclosure and
the tendency to seek counseling.
High self-disclosers had a greater
tendency to seek professional counseling.
When age and gender were
used as predictor variables with self-disclosure, locus of control,
and social support, the rrultiple correlation was significant at the
.01 level.
Older subjects had a significantly greater tendency to
seek counseling.
An additional finding was that subjects who had
previous counseling experience were more self-disclosing and were more
likely to be women.
It was concluded that the variable of self-disclosure would be
useful in predicting the tendency to seek counseling.
were given for future research.
Suggestions
Action was also recorrmended to
provide the assistance that students need to deal with their problems.
vii
CHAPI'ER I
THE PROBLEH
Recent studies (Mechanic and Greenly, 1976, Tanck ahd Robbins,
1979) have examined psychological distress and coping behaviors of
college students.
Many studies of college student populations have
been published demonstrating substantial psychological distress
(Reifler and Liptzin, 1969).
They agree that a significant number of
students suffer fran psychological symptans of distress that are
serious and handicapping to son:e degree.
However, only a minority of
those students who suffer a high level of distress seek professional
counseling.
Tanck and Robbins (1979) found in their study that the
coping behavior reported with the lowest frequency was seeking
professional help.
Since recent studies have found significant levels of distress
among college students and low frequency of seeking professional help,
what are the characteristics which influence whether or not a student
will seek professional help?
In an effort to answer the previous
question, this study investigated the relationship between selfdisclosure, social support, locUs of control, and the tendency to
seek professional counseling.
The first variable selected for the study was self-disclosure.
Self-disclosure is the process of communicating highly personal
material about one's self to another individual (or individuals).
Jourard suggested that authentic self-disclosure to others is a prerequisite to positive rrental health (Jourard, 1968).
He believed the
processes of defensiveness and concealrrent are "the same modes
1
2
of being that screen off a man's unconscious, his preverbal
experiencing fran himself" (p. 47) .
Furtherrrore, the impulses and
memories an individual would be uncanfortable revealing to saneone
else are the same memories and impulses he finds uncanfortable
admitting to himself.
As
we continually tcy to present a false image
of ourselves to others, our
ONn
self-image becares less authentic,
and it becomes difficult to distingUish the person we
person we are trying to convince others we are.
are fran the
Does this process of
self-disclosure relate to the individual's tendency to seek
professional counseling?
The second variable selected for this study was
social~port.
The concept of social support refers to the network of interpersonal
relationships an individual has.
Miller and Ingham (1976) have
suggested that partial protection from the development of psychological symptoms is provided by social support.
They suggested that
social support rroderates the level of psychological symptoms not .just
at the time of stress but always.
BrCMIIl et al.
(1975) suggested that
only an intimate relationship could give virtually complete protection
fran depressive illness follc:wing a major life stress.
Are
individuals who have a strong system of social support less likely to
seek professional counseling?
The third variable selected for this study was internal-external
locus of control.
The concept of locus of control was developed by
Julian B. Rotter.
Rotter completed his Internal-External Locus of
Control Scale (I-E Scale) in 1966.
This scale measures an
individual's belief in his power to control his awn destiny.
3
Individuals who are able to perceive the relationship between their
actions and the outcane of their actions have an internal locus of
control.
They believe that they have central aver their lives.
Individuals who believe that their lives are cc:ntrolled by luck, fate,
chance, or pcwerful others and not themselves have an external locus
of ccntrol. · An individual who has an internal locus of control
believes that the power to control
his life lies within himself.
Would he be less likely to seek professional counseling because he
views the counseling relationship as giving up his control of his life
to another individual?
Rationale of the Study
Strassburg (1979) cited several studies by Culber, Chaiken and
Derlaga that have examined the relationship between self-disclosure
and personal adjustment.
A curvilinear relationship between self-
disclosure and mental health has been supported by Jourard (l968) and
Cozby (1973).
Cozby pointed out that both the individual who is
reluctant to disclose and the one who discloses excessively may have
difficulties in their interpersonal relationships.
The individual who
is reluctant to disclose himself will find it difficult to establish
close relationships which usually demand at least moderate amounts of
self-disclosure.
The individual who indiscriminately discloses highly
:personal material often makes others around him uncanfortable because
they sense his self-preoccupation, and they may anticipate that high
levels of disclosure are going to be exp=cted of them in return.
With the general exception of psychotics and delinquents,
evidence seems to support the hypothesis that the person who is
4
'
willing and able to discuss :personal material in therapy, or learn to,
will benefit rrore fran therapy than the individual who cannot or will
not self-disclose (Strassberg, 1977).
Strassberg suggested that nru.ch of the research on self-disclosure
has been virtually pioneering efforts, and he proposed that it remains
for future research to explore the critically important effects of
therapist self-disclosure on the :perceptions and behaviors of clients,
and the relationship between client self-disclosure and outcome.
This researcher believes that the process of self-disclosure is
also related to an individual's tendency to seek professional counseling.
Since the nature of the thera:peutic relationship rests on being
willing or able to self-disclose :personal information abbut oneself to
the therapist, the individual who scores law an self-disclosure would
be less likely to seek professional counseling.
'Ihere is nON much evidence that life circumStances are related to
both physical and psychological illness.
'Ihere is substantial amount
of evidence of a definite l:ink between the occurrence of stressful
life events and the onset of illness (Brown, 1972; Brc:wn and Birley,
1968; Cooper and Sylph, 1973; Brc:wn, Harris and Peto, 1973).
Miller
and Ingham (1976) conducted a study which found that wcrnen reporting
the lack of an intimate confident had psycholcgical symptoms of
significantly greater severity than those reported by wanen who had
an intimate confident.
'Ihey also found that the absence of many
casual less intimate, friends was also associated with higher symptom
levels both physical and psychological.
Silberfeld (1978) asked:
.
5
Do patients by virtue of seeking psychiatric help
demonstrate a lack of social supports? (p. 16)
Several studies (Miller and Ingham, 1976; Brown et al., 1975,
Silberfeld, 1978) have suggested that partial protection from the
developrrent of psychological symptoms is provided by social supr:ort.
Christensen and Magoon (1974) found that students would only visit the
counseling center if family and friends were consulted in vain.
Thus
students who score high on social supr:ort systems should also be
significantly less likely to seek professional counseling.
Tanck and Robbins (1979) used Rotter's Internal-External Locus
of Control Scale in their investigation of how coping behaviors may be
preconditioned by assertiveness and locus of control.
Analyses using
the Internal-External Scale indicated that persons showing a greater
degree of internal control appeared rrore inclined to cope with tension
by :rreditating whereas external control is rrore closely associated with
daydreaming, using alcohol and seeking professional help.
Thus stu-
dents who shCM an internal locus of control would be less likely to
seek professional counseling.
In their conclusions, Tanck and Robbins (1979) raised the question
of why students do not use the professional resources designed to help
them deal with their anxiety and depression.
Of the 133 students in
the Tanck and Robbins study, only 17 (13%) rer:orted no recent tension.
School problems were mentioned as a source of tension in 78% of
these cases and 33% mentioned interpersonal relationships with peers.
Other sources listed included parents, health, and finances.
6
The data canpiled by Tanck and Robbins suggested a serious underevaluation of those resources on college campuses which are designed to
help students deal with their anxiety and depression.
Clearly,
research exploring the variables related to the tendency to seek
professional counseling could begin to answer the question of why
students do not use the counseling resources designed to help them.
Perhaps such research will also enable counseling services on college
campuses to design and offer their resources in a way that will make
students aware of the assistance that is available to them.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this sb.ldy was to investigate the relationship
between self-disclosure, locus of control, support systems, and the
tendency to seek professional counseling.
Will those sb.ldents who
score law on self-disclosure be significantly less likely to seek
professional counseling? Will those students who score high on social
support systems be significantly less likely to seek professional
counseling?
Will those students who shaw an internal locus of control
be less likely to seek professional counseling?
It was expected that there would be a statistically significant
relationship between the independent variables of self-disclosure,
locus of control, social support systems and the dependent variable of
the tendency to seek professional counseling.
This researcher expected to provide data that would begin to
answer the questicn of why students do not use the counseling
resources on campus that are provided to help them deal with their
7
problems.
If this research identifies sane characteristics of those
students who do not tend to seek professional counseling, it can be
used by college counseling centers to evaluate their resources and to
educate students about the assistance that is available to help them
cope with the tensions in their lives.
It was the purpose of this study to address these questions.
Research Questions
This study investigated these three questions:
1.
Is there a significant relationship between self-disclosure and
the tendency to seek professional counseling?
2.
Is there a significant relationship between internal-external
(I-E) locus of control and the tendency to seek professional
counseling?
3.
Is there a significant relationship between social support systems
and the tendency to seek professional counseling?
Delimitation of the Study
This study was conducted at a camm.miity college in the Los
Angeles area.
It is a two year college drawing its population fran a
middle socio-econa:nic area.
The total student population is 20,835
with 4,479 full time students (m::>re than 12 units) and 13,971 parttime students (8 to 11.5 units) and 2,385 students taking less than 8
units.
The Freshman class consists of 2, 729 students.
two hundred and thirty-five students have
Total minority student population is 26.6%.
Four thousand
A.A. or higher degrees.
'Ihe average age of the
total student population is twenty-two years of age.
Forty-one
percent of the student population express a desire to transfer to a
four year college or university to earn a Baccalaureate degree.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERAWRE
This study investigated the relationship between self-disclosure,
social support, locus of control and the tendency to seek professional
counseling.
The first variable selected for study was self-disclosure.
Self-
disclosure is the process of corrm.:micating highly personal material
about one's self to another individual (or individuals) .
Jourard
(1968) suggested authentic self-disclosure to others is a prerequisite
to positive mental health.
He believe:i the processes of defensiveness
and concealment are "the same rrodes of being that screen off a man' s
conscious, his preverbal experiencing fran himself''
(1968, p. 47).
Furthenrore, the impulses and :rrerrories an individual would be
uncomfortable revealing to scrneone else are the sane :rrerrories and
impulses he finds uncomfortable admitting to himself.
As we continu-
ally try to present a false image of ourselves to others, our own
self-image becOI'I:Es less authenticG
It becares difficult to
distinguish the person we are from the person we are trying to
convince others we are.
A curvilinear relationship between self-disclosure and mental
health has been supported by Jourard (1968) and Cozby (1973).
Cozby
pointed out that both the individual who discloses and the one who
discloses excessively may have difficulties in their interpersonal
relationships.
The individual who is reluctant to disclose himself
will find it difficult to establish close relationships which usually
demand at least moderate amounts of self-disclosure.
8
The individual
9
who indiscriminately discloses highly personal material often makes
others around him uncomfortable because they sense his self-preoccupation, and they may anticipate that high levels of disclosure are going
to be expected of them in return.
Data review-ed by Strassberg, Roback, D'Antonia, and Gabel {1977)
indicates that the relationship between self-disclosure and
psychologic adjustment is complex.
The nature of the population
studied, the rreasures of self-disclosure and adjustment used, the
content of the disclosure, the gender of the individual, and the
characteristics of the person to whom one discloses have all been
shCMn--i:<J have significant mediating effects on the relationship
between disclosure and adjustment.
Strassberg et al. (1977) have found a significant tendency for
self-disclosure arrong members of both therapy and discussion groups
when the group leader self-discloses.
In the review of self-
disclosure by Strassberg et al. (1977) they pointed out that Traux and
his colleagues are responsible for rruch of the research relating
self-revelation to psychoterapeutic outcome.
Clients demonstrating
improvement in psychotherapy showed a significantly greater increase
in the arrount and inti.nacy level of their self-disclosure from ear1y
to late interviews than did less successful clients.
This has been
demonstrated in both individual and group therapy sessions by Traux.
With the general exception of psychotics and delinquents,
psychotherapeutic outcorre seems to support the hypothesis that the
person who is willing and able to discuss personal material in therapy,
10
or learn to, will benefit rrore from therapy than the individual who
cannot or will not self-disclose (Strassberg, 1977).
Jourard' s Self-Disclosure Questionnaire (JSCQ) has been the :rrost
used instrument to assess individual differences in self-disclosure.
The initial questionnaire contained 60 items.
each of six content areas:
There were 10 items in
attitudes and opinions, tastes and
interests, work (or studies) , rroney, personality, and bc:xiy.
Subjects
resp:mded to each item by indicating the extent to which they revealed
the infonnation to four target persons:
Mother, father, best
opfOsite-sex friend, and best same-sex friend.
Items were scored as
0 - no disclosure to the target person, 1 - disclosure only in
general tenns, or 2 - full and complete cisclosure.
There is little evidence to supfOrt the predictive validity of
Jourard' s self-Disclosure Questionnaire.
Researchers have not ·found
a relationship between the JSI:Q and actual disclosure in a situation
(Ehrlich and Graven, 1971; Hi.rrelstein and Kimbrough, 1963; Lubin and
Harrison, 1964; Vondracek, 1969a, 1969b) or ratings of actual disclosure made by peers (Hi.rrelstein and Lubin, 1965; Hurley and Hurley,
1969).
It is clear that the JSDQ does not accurately predict actual
self-disclosure.
Scores on the JSI:Q reflect subject's past history
of disclosure to parents and friends.
When actual .disclosure is
rreasured, the subject is disclosing to an experimenter or to peers
whom the subject has never rret (Cozby, 1973).
Jourard and his students have recently been using a 40-item
questionnaire which asks subjects to indicate what they have disclosed
11
to someone in the past, and what they would :be willing to disclose to
a stranger of the same gender.
Studies by Drag, Jourard and Resnick
(1970) have indicated that this questionnaire does predict actual
disclosure.
Though little research, if any, has :been done on self-disclosure
and the tendency to seek counseling, information relating to the
relationship between self-disclosure and ITelltal health seems pertinent
to this study.
Jourard (1959) argued that the ability to alla.v one's real self
to be known to at least one "significant" other is a prerequisite for
a healthy personality.
Jourard pro:pJsed that low disclosure is
indicative of a repression of self and an inability to grow as a person.
Jourard's writing indicated that disclosure should be negatively
related to "clinical" maladjusbrent and also :pJsitively to "I;Dsitive"
ITelltal health.
Virtually every type of relationship has been re:pJrted
in the literature, yet no correlation re:pJrted has been greater than
. 50, and rrost are much lower.
The curvilinear relationship suggested by Jourard (1965) was
further explained by Cozby (1973).
Cozby pro:pJsed that persons with
pJSit ive mmtal health are characterized by high disclosure to a few
significant others and m=diurn disclosure to others in their social
environment whereas individuals who are pJOrly adjusted are
characterized by either high or low disclosure to virtually everyone
in their social environment.
The individual who never discloses may
be unable to establish close relationships with others.
A large
12
portion of his self may be seen as threatening, and he represses this
part of himself.
In contrast, the individual who discloses a great
deal about himself to anyone, not just to someone close, may be
perceived by others as maladjusted and unable to relate to others
because of a preoccupation with his own self.
The medium discloser
may disclose a great deal to sorreone who is very close, but maintain
rroderate self-disclosure to others in his social envirornnent.
Strassberg (1977) suggested that much of the research on selfdisclosure has been virtually pioneering efforts, and he suggested
that it remains for future research to explore the critically
important effects of therapist self-disclosure on the perceptions and
behaviors of clients, and the relationship between client self-disclosure and outcome.
The researcher in this study investigated the
relationship between self-disclosure and the tendency of an individual
to seek professional counseling help.
The second variable selected for this study was social support.
The concept of social support refers to the network of interpersonal
relationships an individual has.
Virtually no studies exist in the literature relating to the
concept of social support and the tendency to seek professional
counseling.
Many studies of college student populations have been
published demonstrating substantial psychological distress (Reifler
and Liptzin, 1969).
They agreed that a significant number of students
suffer from psychological syrrptams of distress that are serious and
handicapping to some degree.
However, only a minority of those
students who suffer a high level of distress seek professional
13
counseling.
Christensen and Magoon (1974) found that students would.
only visit the counseling center if family and friends were consulted
in vain.
Tanck and Robbins (1979) found in their study that the
coping behavior reported with the lowest frequency was seeking professional help.
They suggested that close supportive relationships
arrong students could be a possible explanation of this finding.
Clearly 1 research exploring this possibility is a logical follow up
to their study.
Although there are no studies in the literature
related to social support and the tendency to seek professional
counseling 1 it seems pertinent at this point to review existing studies
relating to the development of psychological symptoms and social
support.
Miller and Ingham (1976) have suggested that partial protection
from the development of psychological symptoms is provided by social
support.
They suggested that social support rroderates the level of
psychological symptoms not just at the time of stress but always.
Brown et al. (1975) suggested that only an intimate relationship could
give virtually complete protection from depressive illness following
a major life stress.
According to a study completed by Silberfeld (1978) evidence was
given for the hypothesis of Miller and Ingham (1976) that psychological symptom levels are moderated by the presence of social support.
Fifty psychiatric and 50 family practice female patients were
interviewed about their interpersonal relationships.
patients were out-patients of mixed diagnosis.
The psychiatric
The family practice
patients were not involved in psychiatric therapy.
The patients were
asked to recall day by day the real tives and friends they had seen in
14
the previous week.
For each relationship the patient was asked to
identify the relationship as relative or friend and to indicate
whether she considered this to be a "close" relationship.
Then, for
each relationship, the patient esti:rrated the number of days per week
the person was usually seen, the average number of hours per day
spent with this person and the total length of time this person had
been known.
Psychiatric and family practice out-patients were found
to differ rrarkedly in the social network they participated in with
psychiatric patients having a smaller pool of available on-going
relationships.
The psychiatric group tended to have rrore of their
close relationships with friends rather than relative.
According to
Silberfeld (1978) it is likely that friends do not provide the degree
of support that relatives do when those relationships are close.
Psychiatric patients had a fewer number of relationships and
spent less time in relationships than family practice patients.
Both
groups of patients had roughly the sarre proportion of all their
relationships directed to relatives, spouse or child.
Yet psychiatric
patients spent less time involved with relatives, spouse or child.
Psychiatric patients had a greater proportion of all their
relationships with friends, and friends represented a greater
proportion of their "close" relationships.
Both groups of patients
saw their friends with ,the same average frequency and average duration
of visits, but psychiatric patients spent less total time in these
relationships.
There is now much evidence that life circumstances are related
to both physical and psychological illness.
There is a substantial
15
anonnt of evidence of a definite link between the occurrence of
stressful life events and the onset of illness (BrONn, Harris and
Peto, 1973).
Miller and Ingham (1976) conducted a study that found
that waren reporting the lack of an intimate confidant had psychological symptoms of significantly greater severity than those reported
by
w:)IIEil
who had an intimate confidant.
They also found that the
absence of many casual, less intimate friends was also associated with
higher symptcm levels both physical and psychological.
Silberfeld
concluded that a higher level of psychological symptom formation is
associated with different levels of support, and he asked:
"]):)
patients by virture of seeking psychiatric help derronstrate -a-lack
of social support?"
(1978, p. 16) •
Miller and Ingham (1976} concentrated an the relationships of
nine symptoms - backache, headache, palpitatians, dizziness, breathlessness, tiredness, anxiety, depression and irritability - to the
nmnber of casual friends a person believes he has and to whether
or not he thinks he has at least one good confidant.
Social support
and symptcms were assessed in a hone interview.
Data were collected
on 172 patients drawn from a rredical practice.
The sample was drawn
over a ten week period from patients who had
about a new illness episode.
COire
for rredical help
For each subject, a control of the
same age and gender who had not visited the doctor for at least three
months was interviewed.
34% were nnder 32.
In the sarnples, 20% were aged over 61 and
Thirty-six percent were
I1'eil
and 64% worren.
The
social class compositions of the groups were similar, but there was
a slight tendency for the controls to be of higher social class than
16
the patients.
Statistical analysis included a two way analysis of
variance for each symptom separately with the two types of support
(confidant, acquaintance) as independent variables.
For the women, having a good confidant was associated with lower
levels of tiredness, anxiety and depression.
Having a few
acquaintances accompanied higher syx:np.tom levels of tiredness, depression, palpitations and breathlessness.
Fewer clearcut results were
obtained for the men, but the trends arrong the four psychological
synptoms were similar.
Brown et al. (1975) suggested that there are a number of factors,
including lack of a close relationship with a husband of boyfriend,
which increases the chances of developing a psychiatric disorder when
a serious life event or major long-tenn difficulty is present.
Brown
et al. (1975) divided their sample into those who have an intimate
relationship and those who do not, and those who suffer a severe life
event or difficulty, and those who do not.
Their results showed that
the one group in which disorder was very frequent was composed of
people who had no initmate relationship and who also suffered a
severe life event or rrajor difficulty.
In the other three groups of
their sample, disorder was rare.
Results cited in the above mentioned studies are consistent with
the position of Brown et al. (1975) in that lack of a good confidant
is associated with the presence of syrrptoms in worren, expecially
symptoms associated with depressive illness.
Brown et al. also
stated that there is no suggestion that any other kind of confidant
serves to rrodify the impact of a severe life event or difficulty.
17
However, in contrast, in the study by Miller and Ingham (1976} there
appeared to be a lower level of psychological symptoms in both genders,
among those who said that they know at least several people, if only
at a superficial level at home or at work.
The researcher in this study investigated the relationship
between social support and the tendency to seek professional counseling in an effort to explain the finding of the low tendency of
students to seek professional counseling.
The third variable selected for this study was locus of control.
The concept of locus of control was developed by Julian B. Rotter.
In his studies of social learning theory, Rotter stated that the
locus of control greatly influences the acquisition of knowledge and
perfonrance.
As Rotter stated:
In its simplest fo:r:m, our basic hypothesis is that if
a person pe:rceives a reinforcement as contingent upon
his own behavior, then the occurrence of either a
positive or negative reinforcement will strengthen or
weaken potential for that behavior to recur in the same
or similar situation. If he sees the reinforcement as
being outside his own control or not contingent, that
is depending upon chance, fate, powerful others, or
unpredictable, then the preceding behavior is less
likely to be strengthened or weakened. (1966, p. 5}
Consequently, one will strive rrore if one believes his
CM1Il
actions
can influence the results that will occur.
To
test the hypothesis, the scale was administered by Rotter,
in group settings to 575.men and 605 women at Ohio State University.
The mean of the number of external responses given by Ohio State
students was then ccmparei with the means of the numbers of external
responses given by 18 other populations.
18
Literature reviews by Joe (1971), Lefcourt (1966, 1972), and
Minton (1967), indicated that there are individual differences in
perception about one' s control over one' s destiny, and that the Rotter
scale is sensitive to these differences.
Robinson and Shaver (1973)
in their review of Rotter's scale pointed out the validity of the
scale has been called into question by recent stud.ies which have
found significant correlations with measures of social desirability
response bias (need for social approval).
Other studies have found
that the scale taps rrore than one factor.
Robinson and Shaver
conclude that questions about the validity of the scale have been rrore
effectively raised than answered because the correlations with social
approval were typically lON, and results of factor analysis are varied
and difficult to ccmpare.
Factor analyses have uncovered one factor narred personal control
on which the. items with the highest loadings are phrased in the first
person.
This group of items would appear to be reflecting and measur-
ing the construct as it has been defined by Rotter.
Although this
factor tends to account for rrost of the scale variance, a second
factor in which the items are phrased in the thii:d person appears with
some frequency.
This factor seems to be different from internal-
external expectancy.
A review of Rotter's scale by Joe (1971) generally supported the
validity of Rotter's concept.
He cited several stud.ies that also
reported good discriminant validity for the scale indicated by low
correlations with such variables as intelligence, social desirability
and political affiliation.
19
Studies by Feather (1967) and Altrocchi, Palmer, Hellman, and
Davis (1968) reported that the I-E Scale is not totally free of the
social desirability set as claimed by Rotter.
Rotter's correlations
to Social Desirability ranged from -.07 to -.35 whereas they reported
correlations of -.42 and -.34.
Although they reported these
correlations as significant, the correlations do not indicate a strong
relationship.
Although Rotter stated that gender differences on the I-E Scale
a.nnng college students appear to be minimal, a study by Feather (1961,
1968) showed that women earned significantly higher external scores
than rren at the University of England.
Rotter noted one sample from
the University of Connecticut in which the differences in means between men and women were significant.
He suggested that it could be
a geographical difference or the result of factors of selection or
testing.
Dies (9168) developed a projective measure for evaluating
internal-external control from TAT stories.
He found that he could
identify 80% of the subjects according to their scores on the I-E
Scale.
Coan (1968) argued in his study that the I-E Scale favors items
dealing with social and political events as opposed to items regarding
personal habits, traits or goals, and he suggested that the I-E Scale
nay not tap all major aspects of personal control.
Another study which atterrpted to clarify the factor structure of
the I-E Scale was perfonred by Mirels (1970).
factors in the scale.
He identified two
Factor I concerned the a.nnunt of control
20
one believes he personally possesses while Factor II concerned the
extent to which one believes a citizen can exert control over political and world affairs.
Mirel' s findings along with Gurin and Lao
(1969) strongly support the notion that the locus of control variable
should be studied at a multi-d:i.rnensional rather than a unidim:msional
level.
A study by Tha:nas (1970) demonstrated that the "internal" items
of the I-E Scale were rrore congenial to individuals holding
conservative political views than to those holding liberal views.
This study questioned the validity of the I-E Scale as a rreasure of a
stable personality trait.
Studies relating the I-E Scale to personality characteristics
have reported significant relationshops between externality and
debilitat:ing anxiety, neurotic synptoms, hostility and aggression.
These studies also supported Rotter's view that individuals at the
extreme ends of the internal-external dim:msions are rrore maladjusted
than individuals in the middle range.
According to Rotter, individuals
falling at either extreme may not recognize their personal limits and
may believe that they have rrore control than they really do.
When
they fail in their unrealistic efforts to control events, they may
experience exaggerated feelings of stress, loss of control, and
lowered self-esteem because their expectations of personal control
are so high.
On
the other hand, externals may under-estimate the
arrount of control they can realistically exert.
When they have to
face an uncontrollable event, they may be ove:r:whelmed and view the
event as more stressful than it is.
21
Tanck and Robbins (1979) used Rotter's Internal-External locus
of Control Scale in their investigation of how coping behaviors may
be preconditioned by assertiveness and locus of control.
Their study
focused on 133 students taking undergraduate courses in psychology at
a large urban university.
They found that these students appeared
quite vulnerable to anxiety and depression and attributed distress
ma.inly to academic dem3Ilds.
The rrost frequently coping response was
to deal with the problem by one's own efforts or turning to significant others, family or friends.
Attempts to narcotize the problem by
use of alcohol, ma.rijuana, or sex were relatively infrequent._
The
person scoring high on assertiveness emerged as a person who is
gregarious, analyses and shares his problems and takes direct action .
.Anaylses using the Internal-External Scale indicated that persons
showing a greater degree of internal control appeared rrore inclined
to cope with tension by rreditating whereas external control was rrore
closely associated with daydreaming, using alcohol and seeking
professional help.
According to Tanck and Robbins (1979) meditating
is a self-generated approach to controlling tension.
Alcohol and
seeking professional help are seen as external sources and daydreaming
implies a feeling of being helpless to control events.
The coping
behavior reported with the lcmest frequency was seeking professional
help.
Although much of the literature on Rotter's locus of control
construct tends to view "internals as good and externals as bad"
(Gilbert, 1974), there is ample evidence that "internals" respond
less appropriately to certain stressful situations than "externals" do.
22
For exarrple, after experiencing laboratory rranipulated failures,
individuals classified as internals on Rotter's I-E Scale typically
blame themselves whereas "externals" blame impersonal sources (Davis
and Davis, 1972; Phares and Lamiell, 1974).
Another study by IDNerey and
Du
Cette (1976) found that diabetics
classified as internals maintained their health less well as the
disease progressed than did diabetics classified as externals.
According
to
Gilbert's (1976) view of internal-external control,
individuals with internal perceptions of control may hold unrealistic
· expectations of control.
\i'Vhen they are faced with events over which
they have little real control, they may experience lowered selfesteem and increased anxiety.
A number of other researchers have been concerned about what
happens to individuals when their desire to control their environment
is blocked.
Gilbert and Mangelsdorff (1976) reported that individuals
with exaggerated notions of personal control find uncontrollable
outcorres particularly stressful.
They often fail to recognize that
such outcomes are beyond their control and waste considerable effort
trying to alter uncontrollable outcomes.
A study conducted by Gilbert and Mangelsdorff (1979) investigated
the perceived control to stress of clients when they were facing
actual stress as evidenced by their seeking psychological help.
Clients and nonclients made assessments of their self-esteem and of
belief in their control over recent life events.
The subjects were a sample of 46 clients and two samples of 67
and 145 nonclients at a large university.
Beliefs of personal control
23
were measured by Levinson's InteiTlality Scale.
Clients and nonclients
were compared on self-esteem and perceptions of control over recent
life events.
Subjects also indicated the degree of stress they
associated with experiences of social isolation and powerlessness.
High internals generally reported higher stress than m:x:lerate or low
internals.
High internal clients, in comparison with nonclient
controls, reported lower self-esteem, higher stress, and less control
over recent events.
When faced with the actual occurence of a. stress-
ful life event, high and low internals responded quite similarly to
each other.
The similarity in the findings for high and low internals is
consistent with Rotter's (1966, 1975) theory regarding the curvilinear
relationship between locus of control and adjustment.
According to
Rotter, individuals falling at either extrerre of the I-E continuum rray
have greater difficulties in adjusting to stressful events than
individuals who are rrore m::xlerate.
High inteiTlals experience a .loss
of control, whereas low internals experience an increased lack of
control in response to uncontrollable events.
So it is, in the light of the preceding information, that this
study was conducted.
Its purpose was to investigate the relationship
between self-disclosure, locus of control, supi:XJrt systems and the
tendency to seek professional counseling.
It was hof€(1 that this
study would begin to answer some of the questions that researchers
have raised about why some students do not use the counseling services
that are provided for them.
Research has indicated that students
appear quite vulnerable to anxiety and depression, but only a minority
24
seek professional counseling (Tanck and Robbins, 1979).
If variables
can be isolated that significantly correlate with the tendency to
seek professional counseling, then this information can be used by
counselors to educate students about their importance as help givers.
CHAPIER III
.ME'IHODOIDGY
Chapter 3 will present the methods and procedures of this study.
This chapter has been divided into four sections, namely, description
of the subjects, description of the instruments, data collection
procedure, and statistical analysis of the data.
Description of the Subjects
The subjects were 35 worren and 26 men attending a two-year
community college in the Los Angeles area which draws its population
from a middle socio-economic area.
introductory psychology classes.
to 55 years.
All subjects were students in
The subjects ranged in age from 18
The mean age was 26 years.
Description of the Instruments
There were three instruments employed in this study.
The first instruirent was Rotter's Internal-External I.Dcus of
Control Scale.
The I-E Scale (Internal-External Locus of Control
Scale) was composed of 29 paired staterrents including six filler
statements which were designed to make the purpose of the scale .
ambiguous.
Of the 23 remaining paired staterrents, one of the two
statements was the more external response.
(See Appendix A for
Internal-External Locus of Contral Scale. )
Internal statements are
paired with external statements.
Internal statements are statements
that reflect that the person perceives that events in his life are
contingent upon his own behavior or his own relatively permanent
characteristics.
External statements reflect that the person
25
26
perceives that events (reward or reinforcement) in his life follOW'
some action of his own, but are not entirely contingent upon his own
action, but rather a result of luck, chance, fate, or under the
control of powerful others 1 or unpredictable because of the great
complexity of the forces surrounding him (Rotter 1 1966) .
Directions for answering the questionnaire were clearcut and
sufficient enough to enable subjects to do so on their own without
assistance.
Scoring was accomplished sirnply by sunming the number of external
beliefs selected.
selected.
one point was given for each external belief
Scores can range from 0 (rrost internal) to 23 (rrost
exter-
nal).
The questionnaires were scored in two ways.
First, each
subject's total external responses were tabulated out of the possible
23.
The second scoring followed the suggestions of Mirels (1970) and
Reid (1973).
They identified a factor designated as the individual's
perceived control over the course of his own life.
There were 18
items (2, 4-7, 9-11 1 13 1 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, and 28)
dealing with this factor.
Each respondent •s questionnaire was scored
according to the total external responses indicated for perceived
control over the course of his own life.
The second factor was
identified as the individual's perceived control over political
institutions.
This factor was not included in the second scoring.
over 50% of the internal-external locus of control investigations
have employed the Rotter scale.
The literature indicates that there
are individual differences in. perception about one • s .control over
27
one 1 s destiny, and that the Rotter Scale is sensitive to these
differences.
Rotter reported that correlations with the MarlCMe-Crowne Social
Desirability Scale (need for approval) ranged from -.07 to -.35.
Correlations with measures of intelligence ranged from . 03 to . 22.
Test-retest reliability measures reported by Rotter (1966) for
varying samples and for intervening time pericds varying from one to
two IIDnths ranged between .49 and .83.
Test-retest reliability for
one rronth was . 60 for males and • 83 for females for a combined correlation of .72.
Test-retest reliability for two months was .49 for
nales and . 61 for fenales for a combined correlation of . 55.
Rotter
(1966) suggests that the somewhat lower reliabilities for the two
month pericd may be partly because the first test was given under
group conditions, and the second test was individually administered.
Internal consistency estimates of reliabilities ranged from . 65
to . 79, with nearly all correlations in the . 70 1 s.
The Speannan
Brown prophesy formula was used to determine internal consistency.
The correlation was . 70 for 50 males and . 76 for 50 females.
The second instrurrent used in this study was developed by James
Dietch (Dietch and House, 1975).
This inventory was designed to
provide an index of present-oriented self-disclosure to peers.
original version consisted of 24 items.
intrcductory sociology students.
The
It was administered to 70
From arrong the 24 items, the 16 with
the highest part-whole correlations were chosen for the final
questionnaire.
The Speannan-Brown formula was used to yield an odd-
even reliability of . 89 (n
= 148,
p < than . 001) .
Of the final
28
sample, lOW' and high disclosers occupied the lower and upper
quartiles, respectively; rredium disclosers were chose.'! fran the
central 50% of the pgpulation (Dietch and House, 1975).
The Dietch Self-disclosure Inventory consists of 16 topic areas.
(See Appendix B for Self-disclosure Inventory. )
Representative
topics are: ·"your attitudes about earning, spending, and saving
''rroney ," "the things you are :rrost sensitive about," and "your present
attitudes tOW'ard your parents."
SUbjects were given nine disclosure
options, ranging in intimacy fran "no one" (9), through "closest
friend" (7) and "casual friend" (3), to stranger you have just met and
may see again (1).
Subjects were told to assmre that the target
person is the sarre sex as themselves.
A subject's self-disclosure
score is the sum of "intirracies" across the 16 topics.
Scores can
range fran 16 (high disclosure) to 144 (low disclosure).
In a previous study (Dietch and House, 1975) subjects completed
the inventory and then several weeks later were asked questions about
themselves as part of another experiment.
Responses were tape re-
corded and rated by the researchers for intimacy of self-disclosure.
A correlation of • 47 (df = 58, p < than . 001) was obtained between the·
questionnaire scores and actual self-disclosure.
The third instrument used in this study was the Social Support
Questionnaire.
(See Appendix C for Social Support Questionnaire. )
It was developed by this researcher for use in the present study.
Reliability was determined by test-retesting the questionnaire with
a group of 15 subjects taking a graduate psychology class at a large
urban university.
29
The concept of social support refers to the·network of interpersonal relationships an individual participates in.
The Social
Support Questionnaire was designed to detenuine the extent of
friendships at work, school, or in the neigh.l::x:>rhood, whether or not
the respondent has a close confidant (someone he can talk to about
personal problems and who reciprocates by sharing his personal
problems).
The first seven questions on the Social Support Questionnaire
measured the respondent 1 s network of interpersonal relationships.
questions were in a forced choice fonnat.
The
Each answer was assigned a
number rank, and the scores were added to give each respondent a total
score on social support.
The dependent variable in this study was the tendency to seek
professional counseling.
The tendency to seek professional counseling
was rreasured by the last four questions on the Social Support
Questionnaire.
(See Appendix C.)
Each response was given a number
rank, and the scores were added to give each respondent a total
score on the tendency to seek professional counseling.
Data Collection Procedure
The questionnaires described above were administered in groups.
All subjects were students in introductory psychology classes at a
ccmnunity college.
of 61 subjects.
There were three classes of students for a total
The students were told that the researcher was doing
a study as part of the requirerrents for a Master 1 s degree.
told that their participation was voluntary.
They were
They were also assured
30
that their participation would not influence their grade.
res}?Ondent was assured of complete anonymity.
on the questionnaires.
Each
No names were recorded
All subjects were asked to record their age
and gender on the questionnaire.
The Social SupJ?Ort Questionnaire was administered first.
The
researcher read each question orally as the res}?Ondents indicated
their answers on the questionnaire.
Instructions for taking the
Self-disclosure Inventory were read and explained orally to the
students before they indicated their choices on the inventory.
The
last questionnaire administered was Rotter's Internal-External Locus
of Control Scale which was self-administered.
Students took approxi-
rnately 30 minutes to complete all three questionnaires.
Statistical Analysis of the Data
The correlation between the tendency to seek counseling and the
predictor variables was analyzed using the multiple regression
procedure.
This procedure yielded the weight of each independent
variable in terms of its importance in predicting the tendency to
seek counseling and yielded a multiple regression equation that
ccmbined the predictive value of the three independent variables into
a single formula to yield a prediction of the subject's score on the
criterion variable (the tendency to seek counseling).
significance was set at the . 05 level.
The level of
I
CHAP'IER N
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship
between self-disclosure 1 locus of control 1 support systems 1 and the
tendency to seek professional counseling.
The three research
questions were:
l.
Is there a significant relationship between self-disclosure and
the tendency to seek professional counseling?
2.
Is there a significant relationship between internal-external
(I-E) locus of control and the tendency to seek professional
counseling?
3.
Is there a significant relationship between social support systems
and the tendency to seek professional counseling?
Results
A total of 61 subjects participated in the study.
warren and 26 ITEn.
There were 35
All subjects were students in introductory
psychology classes at a comm.mity college in the IDs Angeles area.
They were all administered Rotter's Internal-External IDcus of Control
Scale (Appendix A)
1
the Dietch Self-disclosure Inventory (Appendix B)
1
and the Social Support Questionnaire (Appendix C).
Each subject's score was tabulated for each of the independent
variables:
internal-external locus of control 1 self-disclosure 1 and
social support.
Each subject also received a score on the dependent
variable (the tendency to seek professional counseling).
The correla-
tion between the tendency to seek counseling and the predictor
variables was analyzed using the multiple regression procedure.
Table
l indicates the means and standard deviations on the dependent and
independent variables.
31
•
32
Table l
Means and Standard Deviations on Dependent
and Independent Variables
Test Variables
Range
Mean
SD
Tendency to Seek Professional
Counseling*
l-13
6.62
3.88
Social Support
4-17
11.02
2.82
Self-disclosure
16-118
77.66
17.60
Locus of Control
2-20
8.77
3.76
*De:pen:lent Variable
The multiple regression procedure was performed using the
independent rreasures of social support, self-disclosure, and internalexternal locus of control as predictors of the tendency to seek
professional counseling.
The IIDltiple correlation was . 314 which was
not statistically significant at the . 05 level.
The correction of R
for a small sample was .226.
The multiple regression procedure also measured each independent
variable in tenus of its :i.nportance in predicting the terrlency to seek
counseling.
The miltiple R was not statistically significant at the
• 05 level for support systems or locus of control.
The multiple R
was stastically significant at the .05 level for self-disclosure.
The multiple correlations for support systems, self-disclosure, and
locus of control were res}?6ctively:
-.139, -. 279, and -. 07 6.
The
multiple R for self-disclosure was -.279 which was statistically
significant at the .05 level (df 59).
33
Tht total intercorrelation matrix shown in Table 2 indicated that
social support, self-disclosure, and internal-external locus of
control are independent rreasures.
Their intercorrelations were . 003,
-.009, and .134 respectively, which were not statistically significant.
Table 2
Intercorrelations between Variables for One Dependent
variable and Five Predictive Variables (N=61)
Variable
1.
2
1
Tendency to Seek
Counseling
2.
Age
3.
Gender
3
.419**
.419**
-.215
.181
4
-.215
-.139
.181
.145
.145
-.358**
5
-.279*
6
-. 076
-. 338k* -.176
-.117
-.159
.003
-.009
--------
4.
Social Support
-.139
5.
Self-disclosure
-.279* -.338**
6.
Internal-External -. 076
.145
-.176
-.358**
-.117
.003
-.159
-.009
.134
.134
Locus of Control
* p less than .05
** p less than .01
Internal-external locus of control was re-scored for the perceived life control factor.
The correlation (r) was -.041 which was
not statistically significant at the . 05 level.
In sunmary, the data provided evidence that there was a statistically significant relationship between self-disclosure and the
tendency to seek professional counseling.
The data did not provide
evidence of a statistically significant relationship between internalexternal locus of control or social support and the tendency to seek
professional counseling.
34
Additional Findings
When age was included in the multiple regression procedure, the
rnultiple
~
was significantly increased.
Including age as an
independent variable with social support, self-disclosure, and
internal-external locus of control as predictors of the tendency to
seek professional counseling, the multiple R (.484, df 56) was
statistically significant at the • 01 level.
The correction of R for
a small sample was . 424 (E < than • 05) .
When gender was included in the multiple regression procedure,
the multiple R was increased to .639 (df 55, p < than .01}.
The
correction of R for a small sample was . 607 (p < than . 01) .
Thus, the
highest statistically significant multiple correlation existed when
social support, self-disclosure, internal-external locus of control,
age, and g:eflder were used as predictor variables for the tendency to
seek professional counseling.
The intercorrelation matrix shCMl in Table 2 indicates that gender is significantly correlated with social support.
more support systems.
disclosure.
WOmen reported
Age was significantly correlated with self-
Older subjects tended to be more self-disclosing.
To further illustrate the significance of self-disclosure as a
predictor of the tendency to seek professional counseling, a t-test
was perfo:r:rred corrparing high versus low self-disclosers
dependent variable.
the . 01 level.
on the
The obtained t (2. 726, df 38) was significant at
thus, the data provided evidence that highan::l low
self-disclosure differed significantly in the tendency to seek
counseling.
High self-disclosers had a greater tendency to seek
professional counseling.
35.
A t-test was perfonned comparing high versus low social support
groups on the tendency to seek professional counseling.
The high
support group consisted of those subjects who scored 13-17 (N=l7).
The low support group scored 4-9 (N=l3).
The obtained t (1. 403) was
not significant at the • 05 level.
A !-test was perfonned corrparing internals and externals on the
tendency
to seek counseling.
The obtained t (0. 369) was not signifi-
cant at the • 05 level.
An analysis of variance was perfonned to conpare high, medium,
and low internal-external groups.
The high group consisted of
subjects-who socred 13-20 on the I-E Scale.
6-12, and the low group scored 2-5.
The medium group scored
The obtained E:_ (0.280, df 2 and
58) was not significant at the .05 level.
Thus, the data indicated
that the three groups did not differ significantly in the tendency to
seek counseling.
A t-test was perfonned to corrpare subjects who had previous
experience in a::unseling with subjects who had not had previous
experience in counseling.
There were 28 subjects with previous
counseling and 33 with no previous counseling experience.
obtained !
The
( 6. 335, df 59) was significant at the • 01 level.
Thus, the
data provided evidence that subjects who had previous counseling
experience had a significantly greater tendency to seek professional
counseling.
A chi-square analysis was perfonned conparing subjects with
previous counseling experience and subjects without previous
36
counseling with the high and low self-disclosers.
The obtained chi-
square (6.465) was statistically significant at the .OS level (df 1).
Thus, subjects with previous counseling experience were significantly
more self-disclosing.
A chi-square analysis was perforrred carp:rring subjects with
previous counseling experience and subjects without previous
counseling experience with rren and women subjects.
The chi-square
(6.573) was statistically significant at the .OS level (df 1).
Thus
the data provided evidence that high self-disclosing subjects were
significantly more likely to be wonen.
At-test was perforrred corrparing subjects who reported having a
"close relationship" and subjects who did not report having a "close
relationship. "
There were 34 subjects who reported having a close
relationship and 27 subjects who did not.
The obtained!: (0.089,
df 59) was not significant at the . OS level.
Thus, these two groups
did not fuffet · on the dependent variable (the tendency to seek
professional counseling).
The obtained t
(0. 313, df 59) was not
significant when these two groups were canpared on self-disclosure.
Thus, the data provided evidence that subjects who reported having a
close relationship were not significantly more self-disclosing than
subjects who did not report having a close relationship.
In summary, the data provided evidence that high self-disclosers
have a significantly greater tendency to seek professional counseling.
However, the data failed to provide evidence that internal-external
control or social support is significantly related to the tendency
to seek professional counseling.
37
However, when age and gender were used as predictor variables
with self-disclosure, locus of control, and social support, the
multiple
~
is significantly increased.
Older subjects show a
significantly greater tendency to seek counseling.
An additional finding was that subjects who had previous counsel-
ing experience were rrore self-disclosing and were rrore likely to be
women.
Discussion
Tanck and Robbins (1979) found in their study that external
control was more closely associated with seeking professional
counseling.
finding.
Data provided by this study failed to support their
Internal-external locus of control was not significantly
correlated with the tendency to seek professional counseling.
Although little research, if any, has been done on self-disclosure and the tendency to seek counseling, this researcher believed
that self-disclosure would be related to the tendency to seek
counseling because the literature indicated that the therapeutic
relationship rests on being willing or able to self-disclose personal
infornation about oneself to the therapist.
This study provided
evidende that self-disclosure is significantly related to the tendency
to seek counseling.
Christensen and Magoon (1974) found that students would only
visit the counseling center if family and friends were consulted in
vain.
This Study investigated the relationship between social
support and the tendency to seek counseling.
Data failed to provide
38
evidence of a significant relationship between social support and the
tendency to seek counseling.
Perhaps a scale that measures a
subjeet' s degree of social isolation would be a better predictor of
the subject' s tendency to seek counseling.
Jourard (1968) and Cozby (1973) suggested that an individual
must be able to be self-disclosing in order to establish a close
relationship.
This study found that subjects who re_ported having a
close relationship were not significantly more self-disclosing than
subjects who did not re_port having a close relationship.
This finding
could possibly be due to the curvilinear relationship between selfdisclosure and mental health suggested by Jourard (1965) and further
explained by Cozby (1973).
Strassberg (1977) proposed that the person who is willing and
able to self-disclose in therapy, or learn to, will benefit more from
therapy than the individual who cannot or will not self-disclose.
The individual who cannot or will not self-disclose could see the
counseling relationship as threatening to that part of himself/
herself that he/she represses or refuses to disclose.
This study
found that subjects who had previous counseling experience were more
self-disclosing and had a greater tendency to seek professional
counseling.
Thus, subjects scoring high in self-disclosure indicated
a greater tendency to seek professional counseling.
The experience
of previous counseling could have increased their willingness to
self-disclose and to seek further counseling for help with a personal
problem.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Sumnary
The pur,pose of this study was to investigae the relationship
between self-disclosure, locus of control, social support, and the
tendency to seek professional counseling.
The three research questions were:
(a)
Is there a significant
relationship between self-disclosure and the tendency to seek professional counseling?
(b)
Is there a significant relationship
between internal-external locus of control and the tendency to seek
professional counseling?
(c)
Is there a significant relationship
between social support systems and the tendency to seek professional
counseling?
Previous studies had examined psychological distre.·ss and coping
behaviors of college students.
Many studies
agreed that a signifi-
cant number of students suffer from psychological symptoms of distress
that are serious and handicapping to some degree.
Rates of distress
reported by students were high, particularly symptoms of anxiety and
depression.
However only a minority of those students who suffer a
high level of distress seek professional counseling.
The research
suggested a serious underevaluation of the professional resources
provided to help students deal with their problems.
This study was
undertaken to investigate characteristics which influence whether or
not a student will seek professional help.
39
40
Therefore, the three variables of self-disclosure, locus of control, and support systems were selected in the hope that significant
relationships would shed same light on student resistance to seeking
professional help.
This researcher could find no studies dealing with self-disclosure
and the tendency to seek counseling.
However, since the nature of the
professional counseling relationship rests on the individual's
willingness to self-disclose personal information about himself, this
researcher believed that self-disclosure would be related to the
tendency to seek counseling.
Recent studies have suggested that individuals with an internal
locus of control tend to cope with their problems by meditating
whereas external control is rrore closely associated with daydreaming,
using alcohol and seeking professional help.
This study employed
Rotter' s Internal-External Locus of Control Scale to investigate the
relationship between locus of control and the tendency to seek
professional counseling.
The Locus of Control Scale was also
scored according to the perceived life control factor .
.
Virtually no studies existed in the literature related to the
concept of social support and the tendency to seek counseling.
However, the research suggested that close supportive relationships
could be a possible explanation of the law frequency of seeking
professional help.
Thus, this researcher developed a questionnaire
designed to measure the extent of the subject's network of social
support.
41
Previous studies have examined the extent of psychological distress arrong students, but surprisingly little research has been
conducted to examine why students do not use the professional
counseling seJ:Vices that are provided for them.
Hence, a total of 61 subjects 35 waren and 26 rren, participated
in this study.
All were students in introductory psychology classes
at a comnunity college in the IDs Angeles area.
from 18 to 55 years.
They ranged in age
The mean age was 26 years.
All v.ere administered Rotter's Internal-External locus of Control
Scale, the Dietch Self-disclosure Inventory, and the Social Support
Questionnaire.
The multiple regression procedure::: was employed to analyze the
correlation
variables.
between the· tendency to seek counseling and the predictor'
A chi-square analysis, an analysis of variance, and t-tests
were also perfonned to canpare groups.
The multiple correlation was
not statistically significant at the . 05 level for social support or
locus of control.
Thus, the data did not provide evidence of a
significant relationship between internal-external locus of control
or social support and the tendency to seek connseling.
Evidence
beyond the . 05 level was found for a significant relationship between
self-disclosure and the tendency to seek connseling.
When age and
gender were used a.S predictor variables with self-disclosure, locus of
control, and social support, the multiple correlation was significant
at the . 01 level.
to seek connseling.
Older subjects had a significantly greater tendency
An additional finding was that subjects who
42
had previous counseling experience were rrore self-disclosing and were
:rrore l:i.kely to be worren.
Conclusions
The findings of this study would indicate that self-disclosure
is an important variable in predicting the tendency to seek professional counseling.
Jourard (1968) suggested authentic self-disclosure
to others is a prerequisite to positive rrental health.
He believed
the i.rrpulses and menories an individual would be uncanfo:itable
revealing to someone else are the sane menories and i.rrpulses he finds
uncomfortable admitting to himself.
Jourard proposed that low
disclosure is indicative of a repression of self and an inability to
grow as a :person.
The individual who never discloses :rray be unable to
establish close relationships with others.
He/she :rray see a large
portion of himself/herself as threatening, and the represses this
part of himself/herself.
Hence, the low self-discloser :rray see the
counseling relationship as threatening because it rests on the individual's willingness to self-disclose.
It seems to this researcher that this could be an important
finding relating to student resistence to counseling.
now offer peer-group counseling for students.
Same colleges
Such groups could be
seen as less threatening to students who are reluctant to self-disclose.
Students share common problems due to academic pressures,
peer relationships, and parents.
A student who is reluctant to visit
a professional counselor may be more willing to participate in peergroup counseling.
Studies demonstrate that a client's willingness
43
or ability to self-disclose increases as counseling continues.
Thus,
participation in group counseling could increase the student 1 s
willingness to self-disclose and to seek further professional counseling if necessary.
There is a tremendous need on college campuses for
rrore group counseling to be offered for students.
Limitations of the Study
Although this study did not find a significant relationship
between social support and the tendency to seek counseling, this
researcher believes it is a variable that deserves additional
research.
The questionnaire errployed in this study might be of rrore
significance if rrore in-depth questions were included. to measure the
extent of social networks a student is involved in.
It would also be
of value to add a scale of social isolation to the study.
Recent studies have criticized Rotter 1 s Internal-External Locus
of Control Scale as a measure of personal control.
Although this
researcher also analyzed the data according to the factor of perceived
life control, no significant relationship was detennined.
Rotter's
scale has been used extensively as a :rreasure of locus of control, but
rrore recent scales of personal control nay be better predictors of
the tendency to seek counseling.
This study could be improved by including a larger sample of
students.
Future studies might also include a group of students who
seek professional counseling and a group that does not.
A scale
that :rreasures psychiatric symptoms could be of value to compare the
two groups.
44
Recomnendations
Very little research exists concerning the tendency to seek
counseling.
This researcher recOIIIrends that further studies be
conducted in an effort to understand student resistance to counseling.
A better understanding of the issues involved could enable counselors
to provide the assistance that students need to deal with their
problems.
Previous studies have clearly indicated that the level of
anxiety and depression :anong students is high.
Now it is time to do
whatever is necessary to alleviate these problems.
Counselors can begin this process by distributing rrore
infonnation to students concerning the counseling services that are
available for them.
Services should be provided without forcing
students unnecessarily into patient roles.
Many students are unwill-
ing to admit to thernselves or others that they have reached the point
of requiring professional intervention.
Counselors would be wise to
encourage students to view their symptoms as nornal reactions to
situational stresses that are often characteristic of the student
population.
Hopefully, a better understanding of characteristics which are
related to the tendency to seek professional counseling can provide
counselors with knowledge which will enable them to offer rrore
assistance to students.
It is hoped that this study will fill a small part of the great
void that exists in this area of research and augment the existing
literature on self-disclosure and the tendency to seek professional
counseling.
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r/.
v-'lUtrocchi, J., Palrrer, J., Hellmann, R., and Davis, H. The
Marlowe-Crowne, repressor-sensitizer, and InteiTia.l-extemal scales
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Brown, D. G. Stress as a precipitant factor in eczema.
Psychosomatic Response, 1972, 16, 321-328.
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Sociology, 1975, ~, 225-254.
Brown, G. W. & Birley, J.L.T. Crises and life changes and the onset
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Brown, G. w., Harris, T. 0., Peto, J. Life events and psychiatric
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\_/Christensen, K. C.
& M:i.goon, T. M.
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Cooper, B. & Sylph, J.
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illness: An investigation in general practice. Psychological
Medicine, 1973, ~, 421-430.
1
/Cozby, P. Self-disclosure: A literature review.
Bulletin, 1973, 79, 73-89.
Psychological
Davis, W. L. & Davis, D. E. Internal-external control and attribution
responsibility for success and failure, Journal of Personality,
1971, 40, 123-136.
"")0
,,y· Dietch, J.,
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& House, J.
Affiliative conflict and individual
differences in self-disclosure. Representative Research in
Social Psychology, 1975, ~' 69-75.
vffirrlich, H. J. I & Graven, D. B. Reciprocal self-disclosure in a dyad.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1971, l' 389-400.
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46
(_/F~ather, N. T.
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Sorre }?ersonality correlates of external control.
Australia Journal of Psychology, 1969, 19, 253-260.
vGil.bert, L. A. Situational factors and the relationship between
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~ilbert, L. A.
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Mangelsdorff, D. Influence of perceptions of
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&
Gurin, P., Gurin, G., Lao, R. c., and Beattie, M. Internal-external
control in the m:::>tivational dynamics of Negro Youth. Journal of
Social Issues, 1969, 25, 29-53.
Himelstein, P., & Kimbrough, W. W., Jr. A study of self-disclosure
in the classroom. Journal of Psychology, 1963, 55, 437-440.
Himelstein, P. , & Lubin, B. Attempted validation of the Selfdisclosure Inventory by the };leer nanination technique. Journal
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of Psychology, 1965, 61, 13-16.
~/
V.Joe, v. c.
Review of the internal-external control construct as a
personality variable. Psychological Reports, 1971, 28 (3), 619640. (Monograph)
,j:Hurley, J. R. , & Hurley, S. J. Toward authenticity in rreasuring
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271-274.
Jourard, S. M. Healthy personality and self-disclosure.
Hygiene, 1959, 43, 499-507.
Mental
Jourard, S. M. Self-disclosure and other-cathexis. Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1959, 59, 428-431.
Jourard, S.M.
1968.
J~ourard, S.M.
Disclosing man to himself.
The transparent self.
Princeton:
Princeton:
Van Nostrand,
Van Nostrand, 1968.
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IJLefcourt, H. M. Internal versus external control of reinforcement:
A review. Psychological Bulletin, 1966, 65, 206-220.
Lubin, B. , & Harrison, R. L. Predicting small group behavior with
the Self-Disclosure Inventory. Psychological Reports, 1964, 15,
77-78.
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MacDonald, A. P. Internal-External I.DCus of Control in Measures of
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j .·
"'\'
,,/
L-·/Mechanic, D. , & Greenley, J. R. The prevalence of psychological
. distress and help-seeking in a college student population. Social
, . \) Psychiatry, 1976, 11, 1-13.
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· ,''V"Miller, P. M., & Ingham, J. G. · Friends, confidants and symptoms.
J
Social Psychiatry, 1976, 11, 51-58.
Minton, H. L. Power as a personality construct. Progress in
experilrental personality research (Vol. 4), (B. Maher, Ed.),
Nevv York; Academic Press, 1967.
l~~rels,
H. L. Dilrensions of internal versus external control. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1970, 34, 226-228.
t~ares,
E. J., & Lamiell, J. T. Relationship of internal-external
control to defensive preferences. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 1974, 42, 872-878.
C. B.,
Liptzin, M. B. Epidemiological studies of college
J'Reifler,
mental health. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1969, 20, 525-540.
&
~Rotter,
J. B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external
control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80,
(1, Whole No. 609).
--
C\,/·
1{'~otter, J. B.
\ '·
Some problems and misconceptions related to the
construct of internal versus external control of reinforcement.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1975, 43, 56-67.
Silberfeld 1 M. Psychological symptoms and social supports.
Psychiatry, 1978, 13, 11-17.
Social
Strassberg, D., Roback, H. 1 D'Antonio, M., & Cabel, H. Selfdisclosure: A critical and selective review of the clinical
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Tanck, R. H., & Robbins, P. R. Assertiveness, locus of control and
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/ Assessment, 1979, 43, 396-400.
~··
\::/Vondracek, F. W. Behavioral measurement of self-disclosure.
Psychological Reports, 1969, 25, 914. (a)
l/vondracek, F. W. The study of self-disclosure in experimental
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APPENDICES
A.
Rotter's Internal-External I.oc:us of Control Scale
B.
Self-disclosure Inventory
c.
Social Sup.f:X>rt Questiormaire
48
49
APPENDIX A
Rotter's Inte:rnal-External Locus of Control Scale
English Version
Underlined letter preceding item indicates external response.
* after number of item indicates political control item.
For each number, choose one of two staterrents.
the staterrent that is closest to your opinion.
1.
a.
. b.
2.
3~
4.
5.
6.
7.
Circle the letter of
Children get into trouble because their parents punish them
too much .
The trouble with rrost children nowadays is that their parents
are too easy with them.
a.
Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due
to bad luck.
b.
People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
a.
One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people
don't take enough interest in politics.
b.
There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to
prevent them.
a.
In the long run, people get the respect they deserve in this
world.
b.
Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passses
unrecognized no matter hew hard he tries.
a.
The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense.
b.
Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades
are influenced by accidental happenings.
a.
Without the right breaks, one cannot be an effective leader.
b.
capable people who fail to beccme leaders have not taken
advantage of their opportunities.
a.
No matter how hard you try, sorre people just don't like you.
b.
People who can't get others to like them don't understand
how to get along with others.
\rWUI:;·e.
50
8.
a.
Heredity plays the ma.jor role in detennining one' s personality.
b.
It is one's experiences in life which detennine what one is
like.
a.
I have often found that what is going to happen will happen.
b.
Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as·
making a decision to take a definite course of action.
a.
In the case of the well-prepared student, there is rarely, if
ever, such a thing as an unfair test.
b.
Many times, exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course
work that studying is really useless.
a.
Becoming a success is a matter of hard work, luc:K1. has little
or nothing to do with it.
b.
Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place
at the right time.
112t a.
The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions.
9.
10[.
ll.
13.
b.
This world is run by the few people in power, and there is
not much the little guy can do about it.
a.
When I make plans, I am al.rrost certain that I can make them
work.
b.
It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many
things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune
anyhow.
14. a.
15.
16.
There are certain people who are just no good.
b.
There is sane good in everybody.
a.
In my case, gettiPg what I want has little or nothing to do
with luck.
b.
Many times, we might just as well decide what to do by
flipping a coin.
a.
Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky
enough to be in the right place first.
b.
Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability,
luck has little or nothing to do with it.
51
17~
18.
19.
20.
21.
a. As far as world affairs are concerned, rrost of us are the
victims of forces we can neither understand nor control.
b.
By taking an active part in political and social affairs,
t..he :people can control world events.
a.
Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are
controlled by accidental happenings.
b.
There really is no such thing as "luck."
a.
One should always be willing to admit mistakes.
_b.
It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes.
,a.
It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you.
b.
How many friends you have depends on how nice a person you
are.
a.
In the long run, the bad things that happen to us are
balanced by the good ones.
22~
b.
Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability,
ignorance, laziness, or all three.
a.
With enough effort, we can wipe out political corruption.
b.
It is difficult for people to have much control over the
things politicians do in office.
23. 'a.
24.
25.
Sorreti.Ires I can't understand how teachers arrive at the
grades they give.
b.
There is a direct connection between how hard I study and
the grades I get.
a.
A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what
they should do.
·b.
A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are.
a.
Many ti.Ires I feel that I have little influence over the
things that happen to :rre.
b.
It is impossible for :rre to believe that chance or luck plays
an important role in my life.
52
26.
27.
28.
29~
a.
People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly.
b.
There's not much use in trying too hard to please people,
if they like you, they like you.
a.
There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school.
b.
Team sports are an excellent way to build character.
a.
What happens to me is 11¥
b.
Saretimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the
direction 11¥ life is taking.
a.
.M:>st of the time, I can't understand why politicians behave
the way they do.
b.
In the long run, the people are responsible for bad
CMl
doing.
government on a national as well as on a local level.
(NOI'E:
I terns 1 , 8 , 14 , 19, 24 , and 27 are filler i terns. )
APPENDIX B
Self-Disclosure Inventory
This questionnaire is designed to survey :people 1 s willingness to
reveal things about themselves to other people.
Below is a list of people that you could reveal things to.
1 -
STRANGER YOU HAVE JUST MET
2 3 - CASUAL FRIEND
4 5 - VERY GCOD FRIEND
6 -
7 - CI.DSEST FRIEND
8 9-NOONE
Imagine these persons are of the sazre sex as you.
Place the number on the scale that corresp:mds to the person of least
acquaintance that you would be willing to offer canplete and honest
infonnation to if the topic cazre up during a conversation. If you
would be unwilling to offer complete infonnation to anyone of your
sa:rre sex, rrark the number that corresponds to NO ONE.
If you have trouble deciding between two categories nark the number
on the scale that lies right between them. And if you cannot readily
distinguish between all of the degrees of friendship give a rough
esti.Imtion.
For instance, irragine the topic is HOW YOU FEEL ABOUT 'IHE WEATHER.
If you would reveal this infonnation to a STRANGER YOU HAVE JUST MEl'
and anyone else you know better, nark down the number "1 11 • If you
would only offer this infonnation to a CASUAL FRIEND, or someone you
know better, nark dONil the number "3 11 • If you can 1 t decide between
a STRANGER and a CASUAL FRIEND, nark down the number 11 2 11 •
Your tastes in clothing\./
HON you feel about love and rrarriage L./
The things you find annoying about other people'/
Whether or not you feel that you are attractive to the opposite"''
sex
Your attitudes tONard earning, spending, and saving rroney "
The type of things that rrake you feel happy ,/
The aspects, if any, of your body that you dislike
Your attitudes tONard the use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs t /
The things in your past life that dissatisfy you v'
The rrost embarrasing situation you have ever been in '"'
53
54
The aspects, if any, of your personality that you dislike
--- Your
present feelings toward your parents
--- The ways
in which you feel rrost im:nature or maladjusted
--- - - The type of things that make you worried, anxious, or afraid
APPENDIX C
Social Support Questionnaire
Number in parentheses indicates score for answer.
l.
With whom do you live?
(0)
(4)
(3)
(1)
(2)
2.
(3)
(2)
(1)
(0)
5.
6.
Single
Married
Separated, divorced
Widowed
Are you employed?
(1)
4.
Donnitory
Are you:
(0)
3.
Alone
With spouse or boyfriend/girlfriend
With parents
With children
Yes
No
How rrany friends do you have in your neighborhood?
(3)
Many
(2)
(l)
(0)
Few
None
SOire
How many friends do you have at work or school?
(3)
Many
(2)
(1)
(0)
Sorre
Few
None
Do you have a close relationship with a spouse or boyfriend/
girlfriend?
(1)
(0)
Yes
No
55
56
7.
Do
you have someone you can talk with about a personal problem?
(1)
Yes
No
(0)
a.
If yes, does this person live with you or close to you?
(1)
(0)
b.
If yes, does this person reciprocate by trusting you
with his or her problems?
(1)
(O)
8.
Yes
No
If you had a serious problem to whom would you go for help?
No one
Parent (s)
Sibling or other relative
Spouse
Friend
Boyfriend/girlfriend
Minister, priest, or rabbi
Professional counselor
(0)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(2)
9.
Yes
No
*Rank the following according to the priority you gave them in
terms of you seeking help with a personal problem (Rank your
1st choice 1, second choice 2, etc.):
----:Parent (s)
Friend
__
----~Professional
counselor
Minister, priest, or rabbi
Sibling or other relative
----:Boyfriend/girlfriend
_ _-:Spouse
-:
10. Have you ever been to a professional counselor for help with a
personal problem?
(0)
(1)
(2)
(3)
No
Yes, one visit
Yes, two or three visits
Yes, four or rrore visits
57
11.
If you had a serious personal problem to what extent would you
be likely to seek help from a professional counselor?
(0)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Would
Would
would
Would
Would
not consider .seeking help
give sane consideration to seeking help, but probably
not go
give serious consideration to seeking help
definitely seek help
Please indicate your age and sex below.
Age _ _ _ __
Sex
*
M
F
Reverse rank for scoring.
(Note:
Items 8, 9, 10, and 11 measure the tendency to seekcounseling).