CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
PRESENTING PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENTS
ll
EXPERIENCING CRISES
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Education
Educational Psychology
Counseling And Guidance
by
Nicole Tindell
------
June, 1978
The Thesis of Nicole rindell is approved:
Ezra Wyeth, Ed.D.
~Date
California State University, Northridge
ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to my family
John and Suzanne
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION~
. . .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . .
ABSTRACT.
. . . . . .. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
PAGE
.iii
.
. . .
vi
.vii
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
Statement of the Problem . .
1
. . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study . .
. . . .
. . .
Limitations of the Study
. . .
Definition of Terms. . . . . .
Review of the Literature
II.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
. . . . . . . . . . .
Selected Definitions and qomponents
of Crises . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
2
2
3
4
5
Characteristics of Adolescent Development. .
History and Characteristics of
Crisis Counseling . . . . .
1
7
. . . . 17
Characteristic Goals and Effectiveness
Criteria of Crisis Counseling . . . . . . . 21
The Nature and Function of the Interface
Crisis Counseling Agency . . . . . . . . . . 30
III.
METHODOLOGY . .
• • 35
The Setting.
• . • 35
Data Collection Procedures .
iv
• • 35
Sample Selection and Description . . . • . . . 36
Delineation of-Survey Variables
Parenting, Adolescent Adjustment,
and Demographic. . . . . . . . . .
37
Limitations of the Methodology . . . . . . . . 41
Survey Research Questions. .
IV¥. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . .
.41
. . 44
. . . 44
Research Questions and Survey Findings
General Research Questions and
Research Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Specific Research Questions and
Research Variables. .
. . . .
. . 45
Graphs.
• • 46
Summary Overview of Survey Findings . . . . . . 51
V.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 66
. 71
REFERENCES. . .
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to all the members
of my thesis committee.
Dr. Janet Reynolds has been both
a teacher and a friend.
Her support and encouragement have
been invaluable to my graduate career.
Dr. Ezra Wyeth and
Dr. Jack Byrom have offered helpful suggestions and I appreciate their involvement in my work.
I want to express my appreciation to Kaye Durlak and
Becky Birnbaum, from the Interface Agency for their assistance.
I also wish to thank the Interface Community Agency
for the opportunity to learn and to grow.
Vl
ABSTRACT
PRESENTING PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENTS
EXPERIENCING CRISES
by
Nicole Tindell
This survey research was conducted to identify the
needs of the adolescents experiencing crisis counseling and
to discover whether there were key presenting problems or
behavior patterns evident in the adolescents and their families surveyed.
The review of the literature identified a) the various
components of crises;
b) the problems of adolescents' phy-
sical and psychological maturation with special attention
to the role of the adolescent in family.dynamics and communication patterns;
c) the historical evolution of crisis
counseling along with its purposes and criteria for evaluating effectiveness;
and d) the nature and function of the
vii
Interface Community Agency, the crisis counseling agency
which provided the population from which the study's sample
was surveyed.
The survey sample studied spanned the population seen
at the Agency for the period beginning August, 1977 and ending February, 1978.
Seventy-two clients, 30 males and 42
females were randomly selected.
From these seventy-two
adolescents four groups were stratified into females and
males, ages 13-15 and 16-17.
grouped into a) parenting;
The survey variables were
b) adolescent adjustment;· and
c) demographic variables.
The results with respect to the parenting variables
indicated the major presenting problems of adolescents to
be a) lack of communication between parent and youth;
ineffective discipline;
parents.
b)
and c) emotional problems of the
The results with respect to the adolescent adjust-
ment variables indicated the most characteristic patterns
to be a) sibling rivalry;
adolescents.
and b) emotional problems of the
The results with respect to the demographic
variables most characteristic of the surveyed adolescents
reported that a) the adolescents were living in broken families;
b) school was found to be a problem area;
and c)
running away was a way of life for manyof the adolescents
surveyed.
· . Recommendations for future study included a) the investigation of the role sibling rivalry plays in adolescent
viii
crises;
b) the education of parents and adolescents alike
with r6spect to the tisual presenting problems of normal
adolescence;
and how to institute more effective family
communication in order to prevent crises;
-----demands __of_single _p_a_rent
familie~; --~nd
c) the needs and
d) further research
---
comparing groups of normal adolescents with those experiencing crisis counseling employing the major presenting problems reported by this survey.
ix
CHAPTER I
Statement of the Problem
Crisis intervention services are proliferating throughout the United States.
Many centers providing in-person
crisis counseling have come into being in the seventies.
Presenting problems of teenagers experiencing crises represent the specific area of crisis counseling to which this
study addresses itself.
Because the quality of available
crisis counseling widely vari.es it seems important to research and to study the specific counseling needs of teenagers and to discover whether there are common presenting
problems of the population served by such a crisis counseling service.
Practical application of such findings would
improve services offered in the community thus more efficiently meeting the needs
of adolescents
experiencing crisis
.
.
counseling.
The study was conducted at the Interface Commu-
nity Agency, Newbury Park, California.
Review of the Literature
In the review of the literature a) selected definitions
and analyses of the components of crises and what constitutes crisis counseling will be addressed;
b) characteris-
tics of adolescent crises will be examined with respect to
selected issues and problems of physical and psychological
selected issues and problems of maturation with special
attention paid to the role of the adolescent in family
1
dynamics;
c) the historical evolution of crisis counseling
will be presented and described.
The issues of crisis coun-
seling and its effectiveness will be addressed in relation
to the special needs of the traumatized adolescent;
and,
d) a· final section of the review of the literature will describe the crisis counseling agency Interface Community
which is surveyed in this study.
Purpose of the Study
This present survey study was conducted to further
research and study the specific counseling needs of adolescents and to discover whether there are common presenting
problems for the traumatized adolescents and their families.
Implications for the community would include improved services for the needs of the teenagers experiencing crisis.
Limitations of the Study
This study was limited to adolescents who sought crisis counseling from the Interface Community Agency, Newbury
Park, California.
A random sample was selected from the
files of clients who actually received crisis counseling
during the period beginning August 1, 1977 and ending
February 1, 1978.
~eneralized
Thus, results and findings can only be
to the population serviced by the Agency.
The methodology has several possible limitations based
on the potential subjective biases of the researcher in the
selection of the
variabl~s
to be surveyed.
3
Definition of Terms
Adolescence:
The period of life between puberty and
maturity.
Cool Home:
Need:
A temporary sheltered home for the youths.
A compelling demand for some emotional or
physical requirement.
Referrals:
lated
Names of different agencies offering re-
serv~ces
Runaway:
or treatment.
An adolescent who flees from home without
the parent's consent.
Teenage Abuse:
Often the result of poor understanding
of normal child development processes which lead to
unrealistic expectations on the part of the parents.
CHAPTER II
Review of Literature
The review of the liturature is divided into four sections:
a) a description of various components of crises
focusing on the interaction of the person and the environment;
b) problems of adolescents' physical and psychologi-
cal maturation with special attention to the role of the
adolescent in family dynamics;
c) a description of crisis
counseling including the historical trends and its evolution along with the goals and criteria for evaluating the
effectiveness of crisis counseling;
d) description of
the components of the Interface Community program, a crisis
counseling model program, which provided the population
from which this study was surveyed.
The first section of Chapter II is designed to review
the crisis counseling literature with respect to selected
definitions and components of crisis.
The survey of the literature revealed that during the
last few years the definitions of crisis counseling have
become more specific such as child-abuse, drug abuse, runaways, school problems and suicide, whereas before all were
grouped under one major description, that of crisis counseling.
4
Selected definitions and analyses of the components of crises.
Caplan (1961) described that as a person attempts to
cope with problems in his daily life he may become temporarily emotionally upset, but generally he soon returns to a
state of equilibrium;
this state usually represents his
established place on the continuum of mental health.
How-
ever, when a problem may be said to occur which is too great
for the individual to handle with his previous problem-solving mechanism he may move from an emotionally upset state
into a crisis state.
The concept of a crisis reaction for-
mulated by Lindemann (1944) and Caplan (1961) was derived
from the response mode of a reacting individual who finds
himself in a hazardous situation.
/
Crow (1977) described the potentially negative effects
of a crisis state which exist when a conflict holds the
immediate potential to trigger significant deterioration in
the individual combined with a low probability of the person
in the interaction being able to resolve the conflict.
In
contrast, Rapoport (1962) pointed out the potentially positive effects a crisis can present in that a situation and
resolution can bring the individual an opportunity for acquiring greater mastery over his circumstances by effectively dealing with old problems.
produce personality growth.
In addition a crisis can also
However, she also indicated
that when a crisis remains unresolved, the risk of increased
6
breakdown increases because the longer the time that·has
elapsed between crisis onset and post-crisis equilibrium
the greater the likelihood that the individual will distort
the events of the crisis.
A crisis situation can be identified as a relatively
short period of psychological disequilibrium 1n which a person is confronted by an important problem which he can't
solve with his customary problem-solving mechanisms
(Strickler and
Bonnefil~
1974}.
In support of the idea
that an unresolved problem precipitates crises Bloom (1963)
stated that a crisis can occur when an individual finds himself unable to deal effectively with an emerging problem.
Devereux (1955) pointed out another component of crisis-that it is as the result of stress that a crisis may come
into being.
Stress can elicit fear when an individual's
coping mechanism no longer
~hus
produ~es
further disorientation occurs.
the expected results;
It may be said that
stress can be both a cause and a result of crises.
In high
stress situation Devereux (1955) further pointed out that
fear, which can serve as an objective appraisal of the magnitude of a real danger, is replaced by anxiety, thus highlighting the important crisis component of anxiety.
It
would seim therefore that this phenomenon may ih a sense be
a direct result of a sense of inadequacy with respect to
one's resources in the face of emotional stress.
Rapoport
(1966) further described the state of crisis as one of up-
7
set which is characterized by certain emotional components
such as tension, anxiety, shame, guilt or hostility.
She
pointed out that there may also be evidence of cognitive
confusion and possible perceptual confusion present if the
state of crisis is sufficiently severe.
Furthermore she
indicated that the state of crisis in which the individual
finds himself is the result of stress and the accompanying
breakdown of thinking is said to come through a physical or
psychological overloading.
In conclusion, Bondstedt (1970) pointed that if a
solution to a crisis is not forthcoming within a period
ranging from several days to several weeks, depending on
each individual, a major disorganization of the personality
is likely to follow.
Bondstedt continued to point out that
such a rise in tension may be experienced as anxiety, or it
may be converted into somatic symptoms, or it may be denied
by repression.
Summary Definition of Crisis
In conclusion, it may be said that crisis may be
characterized as an inability to function effectively with
an emerging problem:
a state of upset, of psychological
disequilibrium, of stress, of anxiety, and often of confusion.
Characte_ristics of Adolescent Development
The second section of Chapter II is designed to look
at the problems of the adolescents' physical and psycholo-
gical maturation with special attention to the role of the
·adolescent in family ·dynamics.
Balser (1957) believed that the urgent approach to
life in adolescence was in part a result of the biological
changes that were occurring.
Previously, Anna Freud (1946)
had described adolescence as the physiological process which
marked the attainment of physical sexual maturity which
could be accompanied by a stimulation of the instinctual
process.
From this aspect Rapoport (1966) further explored
the development of what occurred in times of crises.
First she identified crises which result from physical
maturation processes.
These crises refer to crises which
are precipitated by experiencing maturational stages and by
attempting to meet the related developmental tasks.
she described crises steming from role transition.
are not related to developmental phases as such.
Second,
These
A crisis
due to the requirements of role transition is produced because of the fear of the new social adaptation.
Brandon
(1971) further emphasized crisis as a component of role
transition when he viewed a crisis as a transitional period
presenting an individual with either an opportunity for
personality growth or a risk of adverse effect with increased vulnerability to subsequent stress.
Third,
Rapoport (1966) clarified that there are the accidental
crises that occur in the life of an individual.
These
refer to hazards in life which are not anticipated.
9
Adolescence seems like a time when life is full of hazards
and stress in which the adolescent finds himself in constant
struggle.
Further, adolescence may also be said to be stressful
not solely for biological reasons, but because of the pressures and demands that culture exerts upon the developing
youth.
Erikson (1950) indicated that most adolescent pro-
blems resulted as a crisis in the maintenance or the establishment of an ego identity.
He further stated that ego
confusion in adolescence often stemmed from the need to reformulate a personal value system which could reconcile
conflicting values learned in childhood.
Miller (1959)
supported Erikson's findings in that he found ego identity
could hinge upon the establishment of an economical, workable, and stable set of values.
It can, therefore, be
stated that much identity confusion in adolescence can,
and most likely does, concern the need to reformulate a
personal value system which can reconcile values learned
in childhood and which the adolescent now has to face with
new internal pressures in addition to the complex demands
with which society seems to confront him.
LaVoie (1975)
viewed the concern with identity as becoming acute during
adolescence becausB of the necessity to cope with physical,
psychological, and cognitive changes as well as genital
maturity and the acquisition of productive skills.
He
als~ indicated that the adolescent experiences an ~rgency
10
for change and has trouble coping and accepting the slow
pace tliat actual modification involves.
Meeks (1971) described the adolescent as engaged in
the struggle to escape the dependent ties of his parents.
He found the adolescent not entirely at peace with himself
because of his own world being at war and that often the
youth retaliated and latched on to those he was close to-mainly his family.
The adolescent's ensuring denial of
panic and resultant dependency often produced a defensive
sense of omnipotence and at times was experienced by attempts of daring and hazardous activities such as stealing,
sexual excesses or drug experiments during runaway episodes
(Meeks, 1971).
Desjarlais (1975) observed that during adolescence
tremendous anxiety developed in both parents and children
and neither understood how to handle the situation.
The
entire family often underwent upheaval when the children
reached their teens because the power system within the
family became altered and the changes were often experienced
as threatening to the point of family disruption.
Further,
Desjarlais felt that the values of many adults were challenged by the adolescents who then became uneasy in finding
out that their parents were imperfect.
Feelings of ambi-
valence and ambiguity for parents and children alike were
noticed.
Such feelings were amplified by the adolescents'
quest for a lifestyle of their own and especially in the
11
area of proving their emerging values.
Parents experienced
difficulty in letting go.
In conclusion it may be stated that major physical and
biological changes are occuring in the adolescent accompanied by a stimulation of the instinctual process.
Urgency
and much anxiety exist both for the adolescent and his parents at this stage of development.
Changing bodies, chan-
ging roles, breaking of dependent ties with parents, reformulating of one's own value system, searching for new
identity plus its emotional strain, and the threatening
·fear of family disruption all create much ambivalence for
the teenager at this time in his life.
Parents and child-
ren alike are faced with new roles within the family structure in this process of maturation.
In addition to the physical maturation taking place in
the adolescents, psychological and cognitive maturation is
also taking place.
Strickler and La Sor (1970) found that in every crisis
three basic kinds of.psychological needs seemed threatened
to some varying degrees:
1) loss of self-esteem, 2) loss
of sexual role mastery, 3) loss of nurturing, loss of love.
In 1962, Rapoport had indicated that there were three sets
of interrelated factors which could produce a state of
psychologicil crisis:
so~e
threat;
a) a hazardous event which poses
b) a threat to instinctual need which is sym-
bolically linked to earlier threats that resulted in vul-
12
nerability or conflict;
and c) an inability to respond with
adequate coping mechanisms.
Caplan (1961) had stated that
crises arise as a result of tension mounting to the point
where .additional internal and external resources were mobilized and thus created major disorganization in the individual.
Protinsky (1975) further hypothesized that during
adolescence the psycho-social crisis can be described as
that of achieving a sense of ego itentity while overcoming
identity confusion.
Erikson (1950) believed the regressing
and growing, rebelling and maturing adolescent was concerned
with primarily who and what he was in the eyes of significant people as compared with what he himself had come to
feel he was.
He described the adolescent as struggling with
how to connect in dreams, idiosyncrasies, roles and skills
with what was going on right now.
~e
further stated that
the danger with the adolescent stage was that of role diffusion (Erikson, 1950).
The adolescent often shifts from
seeing reality as a malleable medium in which he can implant an image of his inner struggles to viewing it as a
relatively fixed situation to which he must face himself
(Meeks, 1971).
Adolescents often seem as though they must
drag themselves and everyone around them in the mud of old
conflicts, enmities, and attachments to inoculate themselves
against the seductive and frightening dangers of the past.
In addition, Meeks (1971) felt that often the adolescents
seemed to be playing at life.
It could further be said
that the adolescent can find himself with many tasks in
order to achieve the progression from childhood to adulthood and these various tasks often produce anxiety to the
point of crisis.
Wolff (1972) described the adolescent passing through
successive crises in terms of basic trust versus mistrust;
autonomy versus submission associated with doubt and shame;
plus personal initiative versus fear of disapproval and
guilt.
The result of the decisions can be a positive iden-
tity formation based on one's own choice or a negative
identity based on opposition and often rebellion.
Wolff
further added that the achievement of mutually satisfying
interpersonal and social roles could increase self-confidence and a sense of self-realization.
One's identity is
in fact not finally established in adolescence but the
process of identity formation continues throughout life
(Wolff, 1972).
Adolescents with a positive identity were found to be
more trusting and they had developed a sense of being all
right, of being one's self (Erikson, 1968).
When the ado-
lescent had accepted his physical and sexual self, he was
able to progress toward a vocational identity and a basic
ideology (LaVoie, 1975).
The general pattern of lack of
personality integration and general maladjustments characterized the low identity adolescent.
Lack of personality
integration, general anxiety, and neurotic tendencies
14
arising from the apparent inability to come to terms with
the self and finding meaningfulness in one's life often are
observable traits 1n the identity diffusion adolescent
(LaVoie, 1975).
Thomas (1973) found that the healthy adolescent must
side with his peers against parental pressure and that defeat on any issue can be seen as a blow both to the adolescent's development of independence from parental control
and to his/her status and acceptance among peers.
What
might be a simple fear of parental criticism to the average adolescent may be distorted by the runaway to signify
overpowering control (Levantha1, 1963).
Running away from
home may be the only escape available from such a devastating defeat for the adolescent, although many adolescents
who run away from home have been found not to have a clear
idea of the problems they were running away from (Butler,
Reim,
&Treanor,
1974).
Lack of communication between parents and child is
often dominant for many adolescents.
Satir (1967) de-
scribed the family structure as often being at the root
of the communication dysfunctions in individuals because
the family provided the blueprint by which a child grows
from infancy to maturity.
She further stated that how an
individual chooses to communicate may be a function of his
self-concept and self-image.
Therefore, it seems that to
. th~ degree a person feels relatively
fre~
to express his
15
true feeling--be they hurt, fear, anger, sadness or love-he may increase his closeness to. his family.
Erlinch (1971) held that parent--child communicating
hinged to some extent upon visibility or the ability to
hear and understand one another.
I_
He felt that both parents
and adolescents tended to attempt to control through guilt
and to feel hurt whenever advice or suggestion were not
followed.
Also parents often felt hurt and ressentful when
their adolescents were ungrateful and disobedient.
McPherson (1972) noticed that in a maladjusted family,
homeostasis was often maintained by a number of maladaptive
mechanisms.
Consequently communication often tended to
take the form of no or minimal exchange of information
while no feelings were actually expressed and thus leaving
members at times feeling isolated.
Charney (1972) believed
that genuine confrontations of o_ne another was essential 1n
families.
He further stated that what he hoped for was
that of the process of talking honestly about what was going on in the £amily.
Quite often one parent was found to
have played the role of an accomplice in the sense of
standing by and allowing damage to be done without intervening.
Ackerman (1961) considered the family as a tool in
prevention of serious emotional problems.
However, much
understanding and love on the part of each family member,
as well as a commitment from each one, was considered
16
. necessary for this process to be successful.
lie~ed
He also be-
that each participant needed to face the task of
self-examination, self-exploration and often of selfincrimination as each one attempted to define his role
as a probable causal factor of emotional problems.
Further
he hoped that with this insight the family would begin to
emerge as a potential force in the creation of opportunities for rehabilitation and alleviation of obstacles which
could deter this intervention.
Ackerman (1961) also stated
that the family can be a potent rehabilitation force.
May
(1971) stated that when emotional development goes awry
and the individual is robbed of his chance to affirm and
assert himself he may move into aggressive behavior.
When
the agression is blocked over a period of time, the individual may choose to move into violence.
Others may choose
to run away and others to act deviantly such as sexual promiscuity, drug and alcohol scene, and truancy from school,
in order to mask their real fear or confusion.
In summary the psychological factors in crisis can be
seen as hazardous threats, threats to instinctual needs and
inability to respond with adequate coping mechanisms which
play a role in ego confusion and ego identity.
At this
stage loss of self-esteem, loss of sexual role and loss of
nurturing can occur for the individual which may create
psychological panic--not only for the traumatized adolescent--but also for his parents and others around him.
17
From this psychological distress crisis can and often does
occur with each individual reacting from this sense of imbalance and confusion.
Historical Review and Characteristics of Crisis Counseling
The third section of Chapter II is designed to review
the crisis counseling literature including the historical
trends in the development of the way it is today and its
goals and effectiveness, and the role of the counselor.
Historical Review.
An historical review of the development
of crisis counseling follows.
Thomas (1909) described a
crisis as a threat, a challenge, a strain and a call for
new action.
He felt the crisis could be used as a catalyst
in the development of evoking workable responses.
In 1927,
Molamud talked about crisis development.in which he saw the
individual in a period of conflict.
He felt that at these
periods of crisis guidance was necessary in order to forestall abnormal growth and maladaption.
In 1930 Kunkel be-
lieved that an individual did not become receptive for psychological treatment of his personality disturbance until
unhappiness forced the issue.
In 1944, Lindeman described
both grief and abnormal prolonged reactions occurring in
different individuals as a result of the loss of significant person, or loss of valued object, or loss of
integrit~
He further emphasized the importance of careful assessment
of the intrapsychic stature and the dynamics of personality.
Devereux (1955) further described crisis as a time when the
18
individual's customary method of coping and solving problems fail, thus, he could become disorganized and possibly
enter an acute anxiety state.
Caplan (1961) [referred to
by Morley (1970) as the Father of Modern Crisis Intervention] viewed crisis as a turning point in life and that a
crisis touched everyone around the individual experiencing
the crisis.
Satir (1967) reflected that when one member of
a family has pain all shared in some way this pain.
She
emphasized looking at the lack of communication involved
and confront each individual with his own role in the
crisis situation.
Bonstedt (1970) described crisis counseling as being
.conceptualized as a type of human action with the aim at
influencing the outcome of a person's crisis in the direction of a successful solution.
Since conception of crisis
counseling, Aguilera (1970) outlined general steps in sequence during a crisis, and emphasized recognizing such
sequence in hope of better understanding the client and
help him face himself.
Strickler and Bonnefil (1974) em-
phasized helping the client become aware of his own pro-
.
blem-solving impasse and the therapist needing to help him
start taking responsibility for his own actions and help
him notice that he has choices and alternatives thus hoping
that this new perception could help the individual have a
chance in further growth.
19
In the last decade the literature reviewed has revealed a trend for recognition of the importance of the
family with respect to crisis counseling.
More and more
Caplan's (1964) statement that an individual's crisis
touches everyone around him seems to have gained in importance.
Hill (1958) states that in crisis periods new
. roles were often forced onto the part of the family members.
The family may be seen as a significant factor in
changing a person's behavior.
Pool and Frazier (1973)
asserted that while assessing the results of family therapy
can be difficult, it is potentially recognized as a means
to educate and support the family, thus in dealing with a
crisis all members of the family can be affected in varying
degrees.
Often families in crisis are numbed by its effects.
Ackerman (1961) indicated that the distress of the individual can be seen less as the problem and more as a symptom
of the family pathology.
He also stated that all therapy
can.be in a sense group therapy, involving a reconstruction of the relationships in that basic group, the family.
Dell Ortho (1974) felt that the therapist needed to aim his
help at the family members in becoming objective spectators
of their owri role and hopefully_clearly seeing the underljing rules.
He felt many games may occur in treatment
arid mask the real conflicts and distort the reality of
20
what is really going on, thus sustaining the conflict.
Hill (1958) pointed out that traditionally the family
has been responsible for its own welfare and for the wellbeing of its members.
In crisis periods new roles and new
behaviors are. often forced onto the part of the family members.
In attempting to engage in this new process the
family can be faced with the reality of its limitations.
Hill felt that subsequently families often become more reliant upon the helping profession at this stage.
Jones and Polak (1968) viewed crisis situations as a
unique opportunity for sudden shifts in direction of either
growth or regression.
Golan (1969) stated that perhaps not
many people are motivated to change their behavior patterns
but all people in distress are motivated to get relief from
suffering.
Effective intervention can enable the entire family to
function better with some alteration in individual roles,
but usually not at the expense of any one family member.
Spiegel and Bell (1959) reflected that one way in which a
f~mily
member can be used in maintaining some kind of
equilibrium for the family is often by being the scapegoat
for the entire family pathology.
Being the target in which
family feelings are expressed can be destructive as each
individual member may refuse to really look at himself and
see what his role is in this situation.
occurs.
Denial often
Stephens (1947) stressed that parents and children
21
in problem families are often maladjusted individuals in
need of treatment.
More often than not disorder reigns in
their lives.
Summary of the Historical Review
In summary, it appears that crisis theoreticians have
identified personality as involving a dynamic equilibrium
with coping mechanisms adaptable to most life situations.
How much discomfort and suffering the individual has to
undergo in the process of recovering from his crisis appears to be the key issue as to the amount of functional
improvement he is willing to cope with and seek help for
himself.
The purpose of crisis counseling is to restore
these adaptive mechanisms and to return the individual to
his previous leve1 of functioning.
Characteristic Goals and Effectiveness Criteria of Crisis
Counseling_
The goals and effectiveness of crisis counseling will
be addressed in regard to the adolescent and his family as
well as the role of the counselor.
Gottschalk, Fox, and Bates (1973) defined crisis
counseling as aimed at improving the coping mechanisms of
the clients so that they may become more resilient in the
face of similar crises in the future.
In crisis counseling
there have·emerged several factors common in the successful
treatment of the individuals experiencing crises:
a) be-
c.ause the person experiences tension and disequilibrium he
zz
may be more ready for change;
b) although a crisis often
repeats important featuTes of an individual's past emotional struggles, the outcome may be largely determined by his
cuTrent or new psychological forces;
and, c) following a
crisis, an individual's equilibrium may be at a higher
point of stability, at the same level, or lower.
With
successful crisis resolution, through intervention, it is
hoped that the individual will be brought to a higher level
of.equilibrium (Morley, 1970).
Waldfoger and GaTdner (1961) saw the rationale behind
the intervention process as, first to exploit the cTisis
to provide those involved with a corrective emotional experience, and second, to foster mastery in dealing more
effectively with themselves.
Bondstedt (1970) observed
that the primary goal of crisis counseling was to foster
reconstitution, and secondary to provide alternate, realistic resolutions of the disruptive situation.
In helping
the individuals observe their unhealthy adaptation the
individual needs to be made aware of the effect of the
stress in clear, precise and comprehensive language.
Miller (1959) saw the goal of crisis counseling of
the adolescents as the formation of an identity sufficient
to cope with current life crises.
People in this age are
concerned with their new body developments, new impulses,
and with their new social Toles.
They often feel strange,
awkward and they are often panic-stricken at their in-
ability to integrate these new experiences into an organic
unity.
Miller further stated that the first concern for
the adolescent was for himself.
Therefore it could be said
that the adolescent at this time in his life loses perspective of his family and their needs and he only seems to
react to what he senses are his own needs.
Aiming toward
facilitating and helping the families and the teenagers
focus on their own demands and learning to communicate such
needs could help each individual better face what is happening with himself and with the family.
Shields (1969)
called attention to the verbal and the non-verbal communication that goes on in the families which at times are
incongruent.
Each member of the family fails to realize
what is happening.
It is believed that as communication
could be restored each individual could etilarge his own
sense of autonomy and relieve some pressure of stress.
Satir (1967) has pointed out that the home environment
generally becomes highly tense due to the struggles and
mixed messages occuring in both parents and teenagers.
Kauffman (1965) emphasized that as the family grew
together it could become a.vehicle to overcome feelings
of ineffectiveness, and become healthier and stronger, in
addition to being closser.
He also thought that family
members could value each other to a significant degree and
therefore, probably have a stake in stabilizing their new
found relationship.
As the family becomes better equipped
emotionally Ackerman (1961) hoped it could give each other
sufficient support to work through the painful areas.
This
author has concluded that by working toward a goal of eventual family integration families 1-..rill be faced with the
awareness that if they want things to change they will need
to make the commitment to work toward change;
change in
enhancing better communication and understanding of each
other.
Openness between family members can contribute to
a healthier family, thus conflict can be resolved on the
basis of mutual respect and shared responsibility.
Rapoport (1962) indicated that patterns of responses
for an individual or family necessary for healthy crisis
resolution could be described as follows:
a) correct
cognitive perception of the situation, which is furthered
by seeking new knowledge and by keeping the problem in
consciousness;
b) management of affect through awareness
of feelings and appropriate verbalization leading towards
tension discharge and mastery;
and c) development of pat-
terns of seeking and using help with actual tasks and feelings by using interpersonal and institutional resources.
At times the family may also actively interfere with
effective problem-solving by advocating avoidance of the
problem (Caplan, 1965).
Members of the family can obscure
the issues before the conflict is resolved or they may offer false resolution of making
~h~nges.
It has been ob-
served by the author that individuals in crises when
confronted with a resisting family often choose to repress
their feelings and may regress as their needs are not met.
Caplan (1965) stated that at such a stage the individual
may come to a decision of active resignation of giving up
his own need of satisfaction.
families
see~
He further stated that some
to need the crisis in order to avoid facing
what is going on within themselves.
Sometimes the indivi-
dual in trisis is merely expressing his frustration of the
entire pathology he feels is within his immediate family.
He feels threatened and confused and thus often acts out as
a result of his frustration.
Ginott (1969) pointed out
that restoring communication between adolescents and parents is what is needed in order to allow for need fulfillment.
Bryt (1969) viewed the counselor's role as one of
restoration of the person's real needs;
this can be done
through the use of open communication as this.is believed
to be the tool to really get to the problem underlying the
stress.
Bondstedt (1970) observed that the primary goal of
crisis counseling was to foster reconstitution, and the
secondary, to provide alternate, realistic resolutions of
the disruptive situation.
In helping the individuals ob-
serve their unhealthy adaptation to a psychogenic stress,
the crisis, the individual needs to be made aware of the
effect of the stress in clear, precise and comprehensive
language.
Caplan (1964) stated that the outcome of the
crisis often depends on the resolution of a complex of conflicting forces during the period of the disequilibrium.
At crisis periods the belief is that the individual is more
dependent than usual, thus the counselor can aim at helping
the client through the impasse and hope that the client can
reach emotional stability.
Caplan (1964) stated that a
characteristic finding during crisis was believed to be
that memories of old problems, which are in some ways
linked to the present one, may be stimulated and either
emerge spontaneously into consciousness or they may be uncovered by simple interviewing.
The emergence of these old
problems may be accompanied by a significant emotional reaction showing that they were not satisfactorily dealt with
in the past.
Caplan (1964) continued to point out that
previous failure may act as an additional pressure in this
current crisis.
One of the difficult tasks in crisis intervention is
seen as sorting out and dealing separately with the crisis
and its effects from the underlying psychopathology
(Strickler and Bonnefil, 1974).
This author believes that
once the individual in crisis is helped to an awareness of
the nature of the crisis situation and is made aware of his
problem-solving impasse he can become responsible for his
own behavior as he begins to see that he has choices and
alternatives, no matter bow unfamiliar they may feel to him
at that time.
This new found perception may diffuse the
w
crisis state of its emotional disruption;
when this bar-
rier to problem-solving is broken it is hoped that therapeutic growth takes place (Strickler
& Bonnefil,
1974).
Effective crisis management is thought to predispose to
enduring maladjustment (Feiner, Solberg,
& Cowen,
1975).
Parad and Caplan (1960) recognized certain types of
basic needs which they believed are relevant to mental
health such as love for one's own sake, a balance between
freedom and control with respect to instinctual expression,
and finally the availability of suitable role models.
Therefore, it may be stated that whether a person will
emerge stronger or weaker is not necessarily determined by
the individual's inner strength, but often by the kind of
help he gets during this troubled period of his life. Some
individuals will deny the danger signals and repress all
feelings of inadequacy and fear and will most likely emerge
defeated by the experience, and, thus probably weaker.
Mental illness can result if the pressure of the interpersonal forces role demands is such that the individual
comes out of the crisis with unsatisfied needs to which he
has either not been able to adapt to, by either resignation
or with needs he believes he achieved in order to maintain
some stability, or with needs which he denies or suppresses.
Those individuals that do face the crisis situation
and choose
~o
act upon it by
se~king
help can learn from
the experience and probably be psychologically stronger in
I
the event of future crisis.
Hoffman and Remmel (1975) believed that the willingness of the therapist to face the client's pain enables the
individual to confront it himself.
The counselor can pro-
vide a model of acceptance and bravery for the client to
choose to face himself.
Cadden (1961) stated it was not
the truth, but often our fantasies and dreams that made
cowards of us all.
The great void of the unknown can be
more frightening than the known, however threatening and
painful that may be.
Cadden (Ibid.) further stated another
goal of the crisis counselor was to have the individual
take responsibility for himself and avoid blaming others.
As the client learns to take responsiblity for his own
action it is believed he is on the way of better mental
health.
The therapist also needs to be totally with his
client in order to help him clarify-his basic conflict.
As
the therapist strives to demonstrate helpfulness by meeting
the client's specific need he may help him reduce some of
his guilt and bring him some relief of tension.
As the
individual receives some ego support to help himself he may
learn to become more confident and find hope within himsel£
Providing therapeutic iritervention to the individual in
crisis can promote positive mental health and ideally it
can alleviate the incidence of subsequent mental disorder.
Caplan (1961) suggested -that due to the increased susceptibility of the person in crisis a small amount of effort
can lead to a maximum amount of lasting response.
Summary of Goalst. Effectiveness and Characteristics of
Crisis Counseling
In surr@ary, then it could be concluded that with increased understanding and reduced feelings of helplessness,
as Cadden (1961) stated, the individual may find within
himself the strength to solve his problem.
Furthermore,
the disorganization of a crisis can offer an opportunity to
re-examine the person's pattern of problem-solving and pattern of coping.
By facing the crisis head-on the. individu-
al can perhaps choose to change some of his patterns which
have not proved satisfactory so that he may establish healthier relationships with others and it is hoped become
emotionally stabled.
Factors which influence crisis outcome can be viewed
as choices of the individuals.
It is believed that at each
stage of development the individual is faced with some crisis situation;
how each experience is resolved can have an
influence on the individual.
It is also believed that each
'experience can mold the individual either ·positively or
negatively.
Becoming aware of the ·Self is optimistically
the goal of effective crisis counseling.
Becoming aware of
one's reactions in the state of conflict can foster insight
into the self.
Such additional insight will, it is hoped,
promote increasing freedom to expr·ess what one really feels
and .to confront himself.
The Nature and Function of the Interface Agenty--A Crisis
Counseling Agency
The fourth and final section of Chapter II is designed
to give a description of the Interface Agency which is surveyed in this study.
Interface Community Agency, a program designed specifically to meet the needs of troubled adolescents and their
families, was selected in May of 1977 by the National Youth
Alterna!ive Project, Office of Youth Development, in
Washington, D.C., as one of five agencies in the nation to
participate in a Runaway Aftercare Research Project.
In-
vestigation by the agency into the special needs of the
families of runaways is being conducted.
Interface Community was founded by the Office of Youth
Development, Department of Health, Education and Welfare to
serve families in crisis.
Interface has been in existence
since 1972 and is a private, non-profit corporation designed to provide programs for personal and family growth.
Temporary foster care homes with outreach crisis counseling, family and individual counseling are offered through
the agency.
Since its implementation, Interface has grown to a
twenty-four hour outreach service to help individuals in
distress.
These programs are supported by the Federal
Grant by OYD/HEW, contracts with Ventura County and United
Way, Simi Child Abuse, C.E.T.A. funds and personal
donations and fees collected from clients.
Through research it was recognized that drug usage
was a symptom of basic underlying problems and it was found
that neither the scare approach nor the straight factual
education approach were effective in solving the drug problem.
Interface counselors realized that it was best to
help people dealing in drugs by making them aware of their
mm potentials and worth and thus, it 1vas hoped, restore
their emotional stability.
Special attention was focused
on human relationships and personal interaction to help
people deal more effectively with their personal problems.
From
thi~
fbcus Interface made a shift from an emphasis on
drugs to an emphasis on the family and started looking at
the ways in which family members interact with one another.
Most clients seen by Interface are runaways or potential runaways and their families.
One goal of Interface is
to respond to the crisis call within twenty-four hours as
it is believed that immediate response in crisis is vital.
It is also believed that effective problem solving takes
place when the whole family is involved as changes occuring in one individual can have an affect on all members.
Whenever possible the counselors involve the whole family
together in hope to come to a common definition of the crisis and hopefully create an atmosphere of trust where all
members will work toward a goal on finding a solution.
1977-1978 Interface runaway program serving the entire
The
·ventura County estimates serving 3,600 individuals.
Interface crisis counseling.
~risis
counseling is provi-
ded by paid volunteers (paraprofessionals), mostly college
educated, who are paid $5.00/six-hour shift.
a team of two.
They work in
Counselors are available every day from
10:00 A.M. to 4:00 P.M. and 6:00 P.M. to Midnight.
Face to
face counseling is offered dealing with the immediate presenting problem.
In order to assess clearly the situation,
counselors need to confront the situation at hand and make
quick.observation as to what is really happening.
Aguilera (1970) had outlined several steps in sequence
during crisis intervention process.
First, assessment of
.the individual and his problem; second, planning therapeutic intervention determining any further referrals;
third, intervention:
a) helping the person gain and under-
standing of his crisis, b) helping the person bring into
the open his present feelings to which he may not have access, c) exploring his coping mechanism, d) reopening his
social world, e) resolution of this crisis and anticipatory
planning.
Interface counselors work toward restoring com-
munication and reuniting families and they also incorporate Aguilera's steps in counseling.
Crisis counseling is active on the part of the counselors. They aim to create a warm atmosphere with the goal
that all individuals present will feel confident and free
to express all feelings going on, however painful this
might be.
Open communication is hoped for in order to get
into what is really happening.
At times when feelings around the crisis are too
strong, counselors can alleviate part of the pressure in
providing an option of temporary foster care home (Cool
Home) where the individual can reassess his situation and
cool down, also allowing the family to reassess the situation.
Interface crisis counseling is designed primarily
as short-term intervention and is recognized as the major
function of the agency.
Counselors may see the family for a maximum of three
visits.
If more help is necessary three appropriate re-
ferrals may be given to the individuals.
The Interface
agency does offer on-going counseling for individuals and
for families.
Restoring communication and reuniting the
families are the prime goals of the Interface counselors.
Through the help of crisis counseling it is hoped the individuals will learn new coping methods which could help them
help themselves in future similar crisis and thus gain personal insight and personal growth.
Cool Homes.
Cool Homes are temporary Alternate families
for the youths.
Cool homes are licensed by Ventura County
Social Services Department regulated by the California
Administrative Code, Title 22, according to Section 30003,
licensing jurisdiction.
Interface is finding through ex-
perience that a) cool homes allow built-in family role
34
modeling while runaway houses are often isolated groups of
youngsters without interaction between generation, b) cool
homes are accessable for today's runaways, c) cool homes
allow more significant community involvement, d) citizen
acceptance and trust of traditional runaway houses is low
as citizens feel that the houses are outsiders enticing
their youngsters to run away.
Cool homes have been readily
accepted as part of the community's attempt to solve this
problem.
To promote confidence in the program while the youngster is in a cool home, counselors
~eep
close contact with
him/her and his family, often by daily phone contact.
In
addition, they offer outreach crisis counseling with separate visits to the cool home and to the family home in hope
to clearly assess what the needs of the individuals are.
Reassessing the needs of each individual is vital to foster
growth.
CHAPTER III
!
.
Methodology
Desc~iptive
research was selected to collect the facts
and characteristics of the given population of adolescents
in order to identify problem areas and to determine what
could be done to benefit and improve future services and
needs of the teenagers and their families experiencing
crisis counseling. (Isaac
&Michael,
1971).
The following description of the methodological approach employed in this study includes:
a) the setting,
b) data collection procedures, c) sample description, d)
limitations of the study, e) survey research questions,
f) general research question, g) specific research questions, and h) operational definitions.
The Setting
The study is based on information gathered from the
Interface Community Agency, Newbury Park, California.
The
study sought to find key characteristics of the population
served by such an agency to better meet the needs of the
teenagers and their families who were experiencing crisis
counseling.
Data Collection Procedures
Data was collected from the Statistical Data Sheet
compiled on each client.
The variables selected for the
35
vv
survey to study specific characteristic problems were drawn
from the Client Confidential Record form developed by the
Office of Youth Development of the Department of Health,
Education and Welfare Office (1977).
Sample Description
A random sample was selected from approximately 500
cases seen by the Agency by using a table of random numbers
·(Matheson, Bruce
& Beauchamp,
1974) from clients who came
to the agency in the period beginning August, 1977 and ending February, 1978.
For purposes of confidentiality code
numbers were given to each client selected for the random
sample.
Coding is the term used to describe the transla-
tion of question responses and respondent information to
specific categories for purposes of analyses (Kerlinger,
1964).
Files with incomplete date were excluded in order
to facilitate and minimize the error factor.
Of the seventy-two adolescents randomly drawn from
the study population of approximately 500 clients, fortytwo (58 percent) were females and thirty (42 percent) were
males.
For purposes of data categories the random sample
was stratified wifh four groups according to age and sex:
(a) females 13-15;
(d) males 16-17.
(b) females 16-17;
(c) males 13-15;
Specific research variables were selec-
ted in two broad categories:
(a) parenting variables;
(b) adolescent adjustment variabl~s.
graphic variables were also included.
and
A third set of demo-
A)
Parenting Variables include:
(Parent figure or other adult in horne)
1)
CODE
Discipline Problems:
a) is too strict, too protective-youth desires more independence . . . . 20
b) emotionally neglects or
rejects youth . . .
•
•
•
fl
22
c) "threw youth out", pushed out/
ejected from horne . . . . .
2)
• • • • 24
Physical and/or Sexual Abuse:
a) physically abuses youth. .
.
.
.
. 30
b) threatens to physically abuse
youth; youth fears physical abuse . . . 32
c) sexually abuses youth
. . . . . .
34
d) threatens to sexually abuse youth;
youth fears sexual abuse .
.
e) physically neglects youth
3)
• 36
• • • 38
Unrealistic expectations:
Places high achievement demands
on youth.
4)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Communication Problems:
a) has poor or no communication with
youth; can't get along .
. . . . . 26
b) argues with other parent figure or
adult in horne; marital conflict;
possibility of divorce . . . . . . . . 46
'
5)
Alcohol and/or Drug Problems:
a) has alcohol problems . . . .
• • • • • 40
b) has drug problems (other than
alcohol) . . . . .
6)
• • • • • 42
Emotional Problems:
Has emotional problems
B)
. • . 44
Adolescent Adjustment Variables Include:
CODE
(Youth has . . . . )
1)
Sexual problems:
a) has pregnancy or suspected
pregnancy problems
...
b) has VD or suspected VD.
2)
. . . .
. . . . .
. 72
Peer relationships:
Has problems with peers;
including
fights at school .
3)
• 70
• • • 78
Love relationships
Has girlfriend/boyfriend problems . . . . . 10
4)
Alcohol and/or drug problems:
a) has alcohol problems . . . . . . . . . . 12
b) has drug problems (other than
a:icohol) . . . . .
5)
. . . . . 14
EmotiQnal problems:
Has emotional problems . . . . . . . . . . 16
6)
Sibling rivalry:
Has rivalry betweeri jouih and sibling/
other children in home under 18 . . . . . . 52
'
7)
Justice system:
a) has problems with justice system
for a status offense . .
. • • 66
b) has problem with justice system
for criminal offense . .
C)
• • • 68
Demographic Variables Included:
1)
Sex:
a)
Male
b) - Female
2)
Race/ethnic origin:
a) American Indian/Alaskan native . . . . 1
b) Asian or Pacific Islander. . . .
2
c) Black/Negro--not of Hispanic origin.
.
"7
.)
d) Caucasian/White--not of Hispanic
origin . . . . . .
e) Hispanic/Chicano
• • • 4
• • • • 5
. 6
f) Other. . . .
g) Don't know . .
3)
• • • 7
Home Composition:
. 9
a) Mother . . .
b) Stepmother
.
. .
c) Other adult females . .
. . 11
12
d) Father . . .
e) Stepfather
f) Other adult males . .
g) Children and youth under 18.
. 10
.
. . 13
14
. 15
h) Don't know . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 16
4)
School Status:
a) Attending school .
. 17
b) Truant . . .
. 18
• . .
c) Suspended. .
5)
. . 19
d) Expelled . . •
• 20
e) Dropped out.
. 21
f) Graduated
• . 22
g) Don't know .
• • 24
Runaway Status:
Current runaway episode:
(When the youth came to Interface this
time, was he or she ... )
a) Away from home without the permission
of his or her parents or legal guardian, or just returned home from current run . . . . . . . . .
b) Pushed
out/~jected
. . 25
from home . . . . . 26
c) Away from home by mutual agreement
of the parents or legal guardians
and the youth. . . . . . . . . .
. 27
d) Contemplating running away .
. . 28
e) In a non-runaway-related crisis. .
29
f) Here for another reason . . . . . . • . 30
g) Don't know . . . . . . .
. . . 31
Previous runaway episodes:
(Do not include current runaway episodes)
a) Did youth have previous runaway
episodes . .
b) Don't know
. 32
. . . 33
Limitations of the Study
Conclusions and generalizations drawn from the data
gathered in this sample field study should be limited to
the population served by the Interface Agency.
Interface
is known as a runaway agency thus biasing the reported
findings.
The number of cases was limited to 42 females
and 30 males with ages ranging from 13 years to 17 years.
This survey research represents an attempt to analyze, interpret and report the status of an institution, group or
area, in order to guide practice in the immediate future
(Turney and Robb, 1971).
Survey Research Questions
The following research questions reflect an attempt
to survey and discover if there are key precipitating
characteristics of teenagers and their families who experience crisis counseling.
General research question
The general research question of the survey was:
Does a survey of adolescents a~d their families seeking
crisis counseling
through
the Interface Agency reveal a
.
.
characteristic pattern of problems which may influence them
to become clients?
Specific Research Questions
The specific research questions were formulated to fit
the stratified random sample drawn from a pool of clients
seen by the agency over a six month period.
A list of va-
. riables to be surveyed followed the research questions.
They were:
1)
Does a survey of selected variables of 13-15 year
old females and their families seeking crisis counseling through the Interface Agency reveal a characteristic pattern of problems which may cause
them to become clients?
2)
Does a survey of selected variables of 16-17 year
old females and their families seeking crisis counseling through the Interface Agency reveal a characteristic pattern of problems which may cause
them to become clients?
3)
Does a survey of selected variables of 13-15 year
old males and their families seeking crisis counseling through the Interface Agency reveal a characteristic pattern of problems which
~ay
cause them
to become clients?
4)
Does a survey of selected variables of 16-17 year
old males and their families seeking crisis counseling through the Interface Agency reveal a charac-
teristic pattern of problems which may cause them
to become clients?
CHAPTER IV
Results
Introduction
Chapter four of this survey study includes the results which are presented in graphs followed by a discussion of the results in the text.
Bar graphs or histograms
are especially appropriate for presentation of discrete
data (Welkowitz, 1976).
The graphs in this study are de-
signed to reflect the research variables surveyed with respect to the general research question as well as the four
specific research questions (refer
top.~).
Graphed re-
sults are grouped according to the study's two. major categories of research variables:
lescent adjustment.
(a) parenting and, (b) ado-
A third set of results represents the
demographic findings.
A summary overview of the compara-
tive results of the four stratified sample groups follows
the
spe~ific
results.
Research Questions and Survey Findings
General Research Question:
Does a survey of adoles-
cents and their families seeking crisis counseling through
the Interface Agency reveal a characteristic pattern of
problems which may influence them to become clients?
(Refer to graph
p.~;
.discussion of survey findings
p._~).
44
Specific Research Questions:
1)
Does a survey of
selected variables of 13-15 year old females and their
families seeking crisis counseling through the Interface
Agency reveal a characteristic pattern of problems which
may cause them to become clients?
2)
Does a survey of
selected variables of 16-17 year old females and their
families seeking crisis counseling through the Interface
Agency reveal a characteristic pattern of problems which
may cause them to become clients?
3)
Does a survey of
selected variables of 13-15 year old males and their families seeking crisis counseling through the Interface Agency
reveal a characteristic pattern of problems which may cause
them to become clients?
4)
Does a survey of selected
variables of 16-17 year old males and their families seek·ing crisis counseling through the Interface Agency reveal a
characteristic pattern of problems which may cause them to
become clients?
46
,.
7
__
AU. CLIENTS
PAREIITiliG VARIABlES
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ADOLESCEl'T ADJUST:':EIIT VA:!IA3LES
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DEMOGRAPHIC VARll.BLES
l~r
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8
80
75
70
65
60
55
so
45
he
35
SEX
RACE
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51
Results on the General Research Question
(Refer to question on p._±l_ and to graph on
A) Parenting Variable Results.
p.~)
Of the parenting
vari~
ables surveyed, the most characteristic finding was communication problems.
The second highest problem area was
found to be discipline.
The third area of major concern
was the emotional stability of the parent.
1)
Communication problems.
61 percent of the adoles-
cents surveyed reported parent figure or other adult in
home had poor or no communication with youth and they could
not get along together.
2)
Discipline problems.
36 per-
cent of the adolescents surveyed reported parent figure or
other adult figure in home was found to be too strict, too
protective and the youth desired more independence.
15
percent of the adolescents reported parent figure or other
-adult figure in home emotionally neglected the youth.
14
percent of the adolescents reported that parent or other
adult in home "threw youth out";
home.
3)
Emotional problems.
pushed out/ejected from
15 percent of the parent
'figure or other adult in home surveyed had emotional pro-
.
blems themselves.
These finding are in accordance with the
review of the literature which does reveal these characteristics as being problematic.
Physical and/or sexual abuse, unrealistic expectations
and alcohol and/or drug
problem~,
·although identified in
the,review of the literature, were not frequently reported
~-
in the survey.
B)
reported
Adolescent Adjustment Variable Results.
characte~istic
The most
among adolescents surveyed was
found to be that of sibling rivalry, and second, that of
emotional problems.
1)
Sibling Rivalry.
22 percent of the adolescents
surveyed reported rivalry between youth and siblings/other
children in home under 18.
This finding appears to be a
relatively new area because the reviewed literature failed
to show this as pertinent and probably cause of adolescent
problems.
2)
Emotional problems.
21 percent of the
youths surveyed reported emotional problems.
This finding
is in accordance with the literature which did reveal adolescence as a period of emotional instability and conflict.
Justice system, sexual, peer, alcohol and/or drug
problems in this survey were found to be 8 percent and below which failed to support the review of the literature in
denoting these areas as being characteristic of adolescent
problems.
C)
Demographic Results. The sample surveyed was com-
psed of 58 percent females and 42 percent males.
This
breakdown was in accordance with the reviewed literature
which revealed that females are more apt to seek help than
males.
1)
Race.
75 percent of the adolescents surveyed who
sought crisis counseling were Caucasian/White--not of
Hispanic origin.
Ventura County is predominantly Caucasian
and this survey study does support this finding.
Composition.
2)
Home
83 percent of the adolescents surveyed lived
with their mother;
youth under 18;
82 percent lived with children and
52 percent lived with their father;
43 percent lived with both their mother and father.
and
These
findings support the literature reviewed in that almost
half of the adolescents surveyed were from single parent
families.
3)
School status.
60 percent of the adoles-
cents surveyed were attending school;
17 percent were
truant, and, 11 percent had dropped out;
were high school graduates.
and 3 percent
These results support the
literature in that school does seem to emerge as a problem
area for the adolescents.
4)
Runaway Status.
51 percent
of the adolescents surveyed were currently runaways or had
just returned home from running away.
cent had previous runmvay episodes.
Furthermore 50 perThe findings with re-
spect to the runaway status do substantiate the review of
the literature which depicted the adolescent as often
choosing to runaway when faced.with crisis.
One factor in
this study must be remembered--Interface Agency is known as
a runaway agency thus biasing the reported findings.
Results in the Specific Research Question--Females 13-15
(Refer to question on p. _±l_ and to graph on p. __!Z__)
A)
Parenting Variable Resrilts--Females 13-15.
survey results show that in the parenting area
The
l)Commu~
54
nication, 2) discipline, and 3) emotional problems and
physical and/or sexual abuses are the most significant
characteristics depicting the 13-15 surveyed adolescents
seeking crisis counseling.
1)
Communication.
54 percent of the adolescents sur-
veyed reported that parents or other adults in home had
poor or no communication with them and they could not get
along.
2)
Discipline.
27 percent found parent or other
adult in home too strict, too protective;
more independence;
youth desired
16 percent "threw youth out"; pushed
out/ejected from home;
15 percent emotionally neglected
or rejected youth.
Emotional problems and physical
and/or sexual abuse.
3)
19 percent of the surveyed reported
that parent or other adult in home had emotional problems.
19 percent of adults surveyed had threatened to physically
abuse the adolescents whereas only 4 percent of parents
actually reported direct abuse.
review of the literature.
reported.
These findings support the
No incidence of sexual abuse was
The review of the literature revealed that these
facts are usually withheld.
.
Unrealistic expectations and alcohol and/or drug problems are reported below 5 percent which shows that in this
study these characteristics found in the reviewed literature were not supported.
B)
13-15.
Adolescent Adjustment Variable Results--Females
Adolescent adjustment variables findings revealed
55
that the most characteristic problem of females 13-15 was
that cf (I) the youth having emotional problems and, (2)
sibling rivalry.
1)
Emotional.
27 percent of the youth surveyed re-
ported emotional problems;
2) sibling rivalry.
15 percent
reported rivalry between themselves and siblings and/or
other children under 18.
That the adolescents surveyed re-
ported emotional problems is in accordance with the literature.
However, rivalry between siblings was not a variable
found in the selected review of the literature.
Problems relating to justice system, sexual, peer problems, love relationships and alcohol and/or drug problems
were found to be 8 percent or below which fails to identify
these areas as being characteristically problematic for the
females surveyed in this study.
C)
Demographic Variable Results--Females 13-15.
The demographic findings of the adolescents surveyed show
1)
Race.
sition.
73 percent Caucasian dominance.
2)
Home Compo-
88 percent of the adolescents surveyed lived with
children under l8;
77 percent lived with their mother; 50
percent lived with their father and 38 percent lived with
both their mother and father.
The pattern of children liv-
ing with only one parent does support the same point found
in the review of the literature.
3)
School Status.
65
percent of the adolescents surveyed were attending school;
16 percent were reported as truant;
8 percent were sus-
..JV
pended;
and another 8 percent had dropped out which iden-
tifies school as being a source of problem for the 13-15
females surveyed.
4)
Runaway Status.
62 percent of the
13-15 year old females surveyed had previous runaway episodes which is the most of all four sample groups.
46 per-
cent were on current runaway episode or had just returned
home from current run, 16 percent were contemplating running away and 15 percent were away with permission of parent.
Runaway occurances in this sample group are high.
Runaway behaviors appeared in the review of the literature
as one of the focus of teenage girls who choose to run as
an acting out behavior in reaction to a crisis within the
family.
Results in the Specific Research
Question-~Females
(Refer to question on p. -42- and to graph on
A)
16-17.
p.~ )
Parenting Variable Results--Females 16-17.
The
results of this survey show that the most frequent problems
of the adolescents surveyed were 1)
Discipline; and 3)
1)
Communication;
2)
Physical and/or sexual abuse.
Communication.
69 percent of adolescents surveyed
reported poor or no communication with parent figure or
other adult in home and they could not get along together.
2)
Discipline.
38 percent reported parent figure or other
adult in home too strict, too protective and the youth desired more independence;
33 peic~nt of parent figure emo-
tionally neglected youth and 25 percent parent figure
"threw youth out"/ejected from home.
sexual abuse.
3) Physical and/or
25 percent parent figure or other adult in
home physically abused youth and 6 percent threatened to
physically abuse child.
These findings support the review
of the literature.
Sexual abuse, unrealistic expectations, alcohol and/
or drug problems and emotional problems were found to be 7
percent or below which fails to identify these areas as
being characteristically problematic for the 16-17 year old
females surveyed in this study, although prevalent in the
literature.
B)
16-17.
Adolescent Adjustment Variable Results--Females
The most frequent area reported by females 16-17
was found to be equally reported in two different areas-emotional problems and sibling rivalry;
peer problems were
reported as the third highest characteristic of the surveyed adolescents.
1)
Emotional problems and sibling rivalry.
25 per-
cent of adolescents surveyed in this group had reported
emotional problems just as 25 percent of them reported sibling rivalry.
3)
13 percent reported peer problems.
That
the adolescents surveyed reported emotional and peer problems is in accordance with the literature.
However, ri-
valry between siblings was not a variable found in the selected review of the literature.
Justice system problem, sexual problem, love relation-
.JO
ship, alcohol and/or drug problems all scored below 7 percent in this research study thus failing to identify these
areas as being characteristically problematic for the adolescents surveyed in this group.
C)
Demographic Variable Results--Females 16-17.
The
demographic findings of the adolescents surveyed in this
group show
Composition.
1)
Race.
69 percent Caucasian.
2)
Home
88 percent of the adolescents surveyed lived
with their mother, 75 percent lived with children or youth
under 18, SO percent lived with their father, 44 percent
lived with their mother and father and 38 percent lived
with stepfather.
Once again the characteristic of broken
home is prevalent for these youths and in accordance with
the review of the
literatur~.
3)
School Status.
SO per-
cent of the adolescents surveyed attended school, 19 percent were truant, 13 percent were high school graduates, 13
percent reported bad grades.
School problems seem impor-
tant in light of the truancy and reported bad grades.
The
review of the literature identified school as being an area
of problem for the adolescent.
4)
Runaway Status.
63
percent of the adolescents surveyed had previous runaway
episodes, SO percent were on curTent runaway episodes or
had just returned home, 19 percent were pushed out/ejected
from home and 13 percent were contemplating running away.
The literature pointed out that many adolescents select
this as a form of lifestyle.
Results in the Specific Research Question--Males 13-15.
Refer to question on
A)
p.~
and to graph on
p.~)
Parenting Variable Results--Males 13-15.
In this
category the findings most characteristic of the adolescents surveyed in this study were
discipline;
3)
1)
Communication and
Physical and/or sexual abuse, and 4)
Emotional.
1)
ed).
Communication and discipline (equivalently report-
SO percent of the adolescents surveyed had no or poor
communication with parent figure or other adult in home and
could not get along together.
Discipline.
50 percent of
the adolescents surveyed found parent figure or other adult
too strict, too protective and the youths desired more independence;
13 percent emotionally
negle~ted
youth, 7 per-
cent "threw youth out"/ejected or pushed out.
and/or sexual abuse.
3) Physical
20 percent of the adolescents sur-
veyed reported parent figure physically abused them and 7
percent reported threats of physical abuse.
4)
Emotional.
13 percent of the adolescents surveyed found parents to
'have emotional problems.
The parent or parent figure hav-
ing emotional problems seems to be in greater percentage in
younger adolescents than older ones in this study.
All of
these characteristics are supported in the literature.
Of the adolescents surveyed unrealistic expectations,
alcohol and/or drug problems weie.reported below 8 percent
and.did not constitute a major problem area for the males
60
studied in this group.
B)
13-15.
Adolescent Adjustment Variable Results--Males
Of the youths surveyed, emotional problems were
found to be the only important characteristic in this
group.
This finding is congruent with the literature which
revealed that adolescents have emotional difficulties in
coping at this stage of their lives.
Physical and/or sexual problems, peer problems, love
relationships, alcohol or drug problems, sibling rivalry
and justice system problems were reported below 8 percent,
thus failed to be major factors for the teenagers although
prevalent in the review of the literature.
C)
Demographic Variable Results - Males 13-15.
Of
the adolescents surveyed in this group, the demographic
findings show 1) Race.
Composition.
73 percent were Caucasian.
2) Home
80 percent of the adolescents surveyed lived
with their mother, 73 percent lived with their father, 73
percent lived with children or youth under 18, and 67 percent lived with both their mother and father.
This cate-
gory reveals the highest incidence of both mother and
father living together with the adolescent in this survey.
But, the findings still show a high incidence of broken
families.
3) School Status.
surveyed were
~ttending
73 percent of adolescents
school, 33 percent had bad grades
and 33 percent had attendance/tiu~ncy probelms.
School
seems to be a characteristics source of problem for the
tH
surveyed 13-15 year old males, which is in accordance with
the review of the literature.
4) Runaway Status.
67 per-
cent of the adolescents surveyed were on current runaway
episodes or had just returned home from current run and
47 percent had previous runaway episodes.
Running away
for the 13-15 year old males in this study seems to be a
dominant factor which was substantiated in the literature.
Results in the Specific Research Question--Males 16-17.
(Refer to question on P. 42
A)
and to graph on
Parenting Variable Results--Males 16-17.
p.~)
The
most characteristic findings in this category of the adolescents surveyed were 1) communication; 2) discipline;
3) alcohol and/or drug;
1)
Communication.
and 4) emotional.
73 percent of the adolescents
surveyed reported parent figure or other adult in home had
no or poor communication with them and they could not get
along.
2)
Discipline. 33 percent of adolescents surveyed
found parents too strict, too protective and the youths
desired more independence, 13 percent "threl'!
ejected from home.
3)
Alcohol and/or drug.
of adolescents surveyed had alcohol problems.
13 percent
4) Emotional.
13 percent of the adolescents surveyed had emotional problems.
Communication, discipline, alcohol and/or drug and
emotional problems are supported in the literature as
problematic for adolescents.
Of the surveyed adolescents,
alcohol problems were only found in this sample group.
Survey findings showed that unrealistic expectations
were 7 percent, whereas no physical and/or sexual abuse
were reported for these 16-17 year old males, therefore
failing to substantiate the review of the literature,
which reported these areas as being problematic for adolescents.
B)
16-17.
Adolescent Adjustment Variable Results - Males
The most characteristic findings in this category
of adolescents surveyed were 1) sibling rivalry; 2) emotional; and 3) alcbhol and/or drug and peer problems.
1)
Sibling Rivalry.
33 percent of the adolescents
surveyed reported rivalry between them and siblings.
Emotional.
2)
20 percent of the adolescents surveyed had
emotional problems.
3)
Alcohol and/or drug problems and
feer problems (equivalently reported).
13 percent had drug
problems (other than alcohol); 13 percent had problems with
peers, including fights at school.
The adolescents in this
category reporting emotional, alcohol and/or drug and peer
problems are supported in the literature as problematic.
,Sibling rivalry was not a variable found in the selected
review of the literature.
Of the adolescents surveyed,
drug and peer problems were only characteristic in this
sample group.
Lov~ relationships of adolescents ~urveyed were repor~
ed
belo~
8
~ercent,
whereas boyfriend/girlfriend, justice
system, and physical or sexual
probl~ms
were reported with
a zero score, thus failed to be a major factor for the
teenagers, although prevalent in the review of the literature.
C)
Demographic Variable Results - Males 16-17.
Of
the adolescents surveyed in this group, the demographic
findings show that 1) Race.
2)
Home Composition.
80 percent were Caucasian.
87 percent lived with their mother;
87 percent lived with children under 18;
33 percent lived
with their father, 33 percent lived with stepfather, and
27 percent lived with both mother and father.
The pattern
of children living with only one parent or one stepparent
does support the review of the literature.
Status.
3)
School
50 percent of adolescents surveyed were attending
school, 20 percent had dropped out, 13 percent were high
school graduates, and 7 percent were truant.
School seems
to be a characteristic source of problem for these adolescents surveyed which is in accordance with the review of
th~
literature.
4)
Runaway Status.
33 percent of the
adolescents surveyed in this sample group were on current
runaway status or had just returned home;
33 percent had
previously runaway, and 13 percent were away from home by
mutual agreement with parents or legal guardians and the
youths themselves.
Running away for the 16-17 year old
males surveyed in this study seems to be a dominant factor
which was substantiated in the review of the literature.
Summary Review of Four Sample Groups.
This is a summary overview of the comparative results
of the four stratified sample groups.
Parenting Variable:
1). Communication--highest gap
for older adolescents, both males and females (73 percent
and 69 percent respectively) reported poor or no communica. tion which denotes that as the adolescent gets older the
gap often does increase; 2)
Discipline--a higher percent-
age of younger males 13-15 (50 percent) found parents to be
too strict, too protective with the lowest incidence
ed with the younger females (25 percent).
abuse was highest among females
16~17
3)
report~
Physical
and lowest among
males 16-17, which may suggest that older females are more
prone to physical abuse while living in the home, whereas
the males might not be subjected to such abuse.
Fear of
abuse was highest among females 13-15 (19 percent) and nil
among males 16-17;
4)
Emotional problems were higher for
younger adolescents for females 13-15 (19 percent) and for
males 13-15 (13 percent).
This trait may suggest that
parents of younger adolescents may react in an emotional
way during this early phase of adolescence.
Adolescent Adjustment Variables:
1)
Sibling rivalry was
highest among males 16-17 (33 percent) and lowest among
males 13-15 (5 percent); 2)
Emotional problems in the
youth was highest in females 13-15 (25 percent) and 16-17
(25 percent) and lowest in males 16-17 (20 percent), 13-15
(15 percent).
Demographic Variables:
Horne Composition--youth living with
sibling and/or children under 18 was highest among males
16-17 (87 percent) and lowest among females 16-17 (75 percent).
The highest incidence of the adolescent living with
both Mother and Father was found to be with the males 13-15
(67 percent) and lowest among males 16-17 (33 percent),
which is also in accordance with the review of the literature stating that many
adolescent~
are faced with disrup-
tive and broken families, which seem to add pressure to
their own needs.
School Status:
1)
Drop out incidence was highest among
older males 16-17 (20 percent) and lowest among older females 16-17 ( 6 percent).
School does seem to be an area
of stress for these adolescents.
2)
Truancy was highest
among females 16-17 (18 percent) and closely followed by
females 13-15 (15 percent) and the lowest among the males.
Runaway Status:
1)
Males 13-15 (67 percent) reported
highest incidence of present runaway episodes, while males
16-17 reported the lowest incidence (33 percent).
2) Pre-
vious runaway episodes were more frequent with females of
all ages females 16-17 (67 percent) and females 13-15 (62
percent) while the lowest incidence was among males 16-17
(33 percent).
CHAPTER V
Discussion of Findings and Recommendations
Discussion of findings and recommendations for program improvement and future research follow.
The purpose
of this survey study was to research prevalent presenting
problems of adolescents within the family milieu in order
to identify those factors which may most frequently precipitate a need for crisis counseling.
A secondary purpose of this study was an attempt to
gain insight into the behaviors and the needs of the
adolescent and the members of the family in order to
clarify the situation at hand and thus prevent further
occurances of crisis or further deterioration of the family.
Parenting Variables
The major presenting problem found in the parenting
variables surveyed was the lack of communication between
parent and youth.
The second most frequent finding of this survey was in
the area of discipline problems.
The third problematic
area found was the emotional instability of the parent or
parent figure.
Communication dysfunction was a prevalent finding
throughout the research survey.
The home environment was
generally seen as highly tense due to struggles and mixed
66
67
messages occuring in both the parents and their teenagers.
Teaching parents effective active listening skills could
enable them to hear their adolescents better, therefore,
alleviate some frustration and hostility between all
parties involved.
Ineffective discipline measure was the second major
area of concern surveyed.
Often adolescents complained and
rebelled against their parents, whom they saw as being ineffective.
This gap often further alienated both the
parents and their children and many times emotionally
affects the whole family unit.
Some ineffective measures
of disciplines at times may take the form of both mental
and physical teenage abuse.
Parents Effective Training
classes (Goidon, 1970) could give the parents some guidance
to work effectively with their children.
This would in-
volve relearning skills in parenting.
Emotional instability of the parents was found to be
the third most problematic characteristic for the parents
surveyed.
Parents of adolescents tended to lack the know-
ledge and the understanding of normal child development
processes and often they reacted with much anxiety and
ambivalence about their own feelings of adequacy.
Teaching
parents the process of child development could alleviate
the sense of insecurity and emotional instability which was
a problem for them and thus a problem for the whole family.
Adolescent,Adjustment Variables.
The most significant
characteristic of the adolescents surveyed was that of sibling rivalry problems.
Over 75 per cent of all stratified
groups of adolescents lived with children under the age of
18.
This study revealed that sibling rivalry was perceived
by the adolescents as
b~ing
a major concern for them.
This
area did not emerge in the literature reviewed for the
research study.
Additional studies with specific attention
to the effect and need of siblings and youth under 18 living together in a family unit warrants further attention.
The second most troublesome area for the adolescents
in this study revealed the emotional stability of the youth
as being problematic.
Insecurity and ambivalence of feel-
ings were prevalent for these teenagers.
Educating the
adolescents and their families to acknowledge such emotional trauma could help them face each other and it is hoped
they could attend to each other's needs better when faced
with emotional difficulty.
As adolescents and parents
learn to recognize the upheaval and the changing emotions
of this stage of development as being a normal characteristic for all teenagers, they could perhaps relax and gain
better perspective of their status when faced with such
emotional trauma.
Learning to take responsibility for
their own needs is ~lso essential for individuals to learn
to effectively cope with life.
Eventhough the literature reported that adolescents
have major problems with parents placing unrealistic
achievement demands, threats of/and sexual and physical
abuse, alcohol problems and arguments with older adults
living in the home, this study failed to substantiate these
characteristics as being major presenting problem areas for
the surveyed adolescents.
Demographic Variables.
The most reported characteristic
finding-in the demographic variables in this study was
found to be that to the adolescents living in single
parent family units, the majority living with mother and
siblings or other children under the age of 18.
Assessing
and identifying the needs of the single parent family seems
essential.
More and more families are being disrupted with
. separation and divorce and new roles and new demands on the
part of each individual in the family are being created.
The added pressure of disruption and new demands all seem
to add to the pressure of day to day living and often
results in panic and crisis.
School attendance was reported as being a concern for
the surveyed adolescents.
Studies do show that school is a
problem area for the adolescents and their families.
Pro-
viding meaningful education and paying special attention to
the needs of the teenager in this .changing world could help
in having the adolescents rega1n interest not only in
school, but also in themselves.
Also suggested is looking
at the teacher's role - is he or she providing a trustworthy atmosphere to enc.ourage growth in the students?
Runaway plea for the adolescents has been a major
concern since the 70's.
This study further substantiates
the need to understand the cry for help many of these adolescents are voicing.
Many do choose to run in order to
call attention to the frustration they are experiencing in
their own lives.
As
th~
adolescent and his £amily learn to
interact with one another, they could regain their selfesteem and sense of belonging.
As the family grows in harmony together, not only do
the, individuals gain emotional stability, but the community
also benefits with stronger individuals, thus possibly
fewer incidents of delinquency.
As the individuals learn
to become more self-sufficient and trust their own judgements they can find more resources within themselves, thus
benefit the whole family.
Suggested further research.
First, more research and
studies are needed to look into the role of sibling rivalry
in the family unit.
Second, teaching parents and adoles-
cents the usual presenting problems of normal adolescence
,and looking into how·to effectively restore family communition to
p1~event
crises.
Third, assessing the needs and
demands placed on single parent families seems appropriate.
Fourth, further research comparing groups of normal adolescents with those experiencing crisis counseling employing
the major
~resenting
problems reported in this survey.
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