CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
SELF-CONCEPT AND ACHIEVEMENT:
II
AN EXAMINATION OF THE RESEARCH
AND RELATED LITERATURE
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Education, Elementary
by
lone Huber
June, 1979
The Thesis of lone Huber is approved:
(Dr. Rose Bromwich)
\
California State University, Northridge
i i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writer wishes to express her appreciation to
the individuals who gave of their time and talents in
the preparation of this thesis.
Gratitude is extended to Dr. Brenda Wash, Committee
Chairperson, for her assistance and constructive writing
criticisms; to Dr. Raymond Jung and Dr. Rose Bromwich,
committee members, for their guidance and advice; and to
Dr. Helen Fielstra for her instruction in research skills
and the organization of the materials used in the writing
of this thesis.
Sincere appreciation is extended to the staff at
Valley Presbyterian School for their encouragement,
support, and prayers on behalf of the writer throughout
the study.
Finally, to the writer's husband, Dennis Huber, and
her children, Denise and Jeff, deepest gratitude is
expressed for their patience during the many hours that
she was away from them while completing this thesis.
i ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION . . . . •
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Purpose of Thesis •
Description, Scope~ and Limitations
of the Study
Definition of Terms
. . . . . .
Organization of th~ Thesis . . . .
II.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON SELF-RELATED
TERMINOLOGY AND THEORIES RELATING TO
SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT . • . . .
Self-Related Termi~ology . . .
The Development of Self-Concept
III.
viV.
VI.
4
4
5
5
6
6
12
REVIEW OF THE LITERAJhlRE ON SELF-CONCEPT
AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEM~NT . . . . . . . . .
22
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON THE TEACHER'S
ROLE IN THE OEVELOPMEUT OF STUDENT
SELF-CONCEPT . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .
t~O
Teacher Self-Concept and Attitude .
Classroom Atmosphere and Teacher
Behavior . . . • . . . . . . . .
Affective Approach~s to Teaching . . .
V•
1
41
50
61
SUM t<tA RY
73
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
89
BIBLIOGRAPHY
94
iv
ABSTRACT
SELF-CONCEPT AND ACHIEVEMENT:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE RESEARCH
AND RELATED LITERATURE
by
lone Huber
Master of Arts in Education, Elementary
The purpose of this thesis was to: 1) review litera~
ture on self-concept development, 2) to determine what
research has shown to be the relationship between selfconcept and academic achievement, and 3) to examine the
teacher's role in the development of s2lf-concepts in
students.
\
The procedure for this ttudy was to review the professional literature on self-concept and achievement as it
relates to elementary-age children and the role of the
teacher in fostering healthy self-concepts in students.
The review focused on research reports and journal
v
articles that were published within the last ten {10)
years and various textbooks on self-concept.
The literature reviewed clearly shows that the early
years in a child's life are vital in the development of
his self-concept.
Persons closely associated with the
child play an extremely significant role in the development of his self-image.
Parents, teachers, and peers
are considered significant others in children's lives,
and have a major influence on the views children hold of
l
themselves.
Research has shown that there is a persistent and
s i g n i f i can t r e 1 a t i on s h i p between s e 1 f- concept a n d ai~ ~.9.?r.TIJ c
achievement.
This relationship has been demonstrated in
all subject areas and applies to both sexes.
The literature indicated that the teacher plays a
vital role in the development of healthy self-images.
The atmosphere created in the classroom, and verious
approaches to teaching have been factors that influence
children's self-concepts.
Another significant factor is
the teacher's attitude toward himself and toward his
students.
Based on the findings, it is recommended that attempts
be made to inform parents of the
i~portance
of the family
and early life experiences in developing healthy se1fconcepts.
It is also recommended that teachers, school
vi
administrators, colleges or universities that are training
teachers, and publishers of curriculum materials make
every effort to emphasize the importance of self-concept
and work toward the goal of developing a healthy selfconcept in every child.
\
vii
CHAPTER I
SELF-CONCEPT AND ACHIEVEMENT:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE RESEARCH
AND RELATED LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
The relationship between academic achievement and
self-concept has been of concern to many investigators.
Brookover, Thomas, and Patterson (1964) conducted an extensive study of this relationship across grade levels and
'~ t se lf -concep t.. o·f aca d ennc
•
cone l u d ecI ttH:t:
''I'·r ··.y
t
c~Dl
I
0
-~
s as:;ocl··
•
ated with academic achievement at each grade level,
This
finding was supported by the works of Coopersmith (1967),
Co 1 e ( 1 9 7 i'f ), .A 1 v o r- d ( 1 9 7 5 L
ne pew
and StenneY' ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 97 5 ~ l 9 7 6 ) .
( 1 9 7 6 ), a n d Ka t z e n H• e y t• (·
Pu r ke _v
ducted extensive:: research and rev·iewed
(
l 97 0 ), who e: c n .,.
litera.tu1~e
and
research prior to 19705 concluded that self-concept and
achievement are significantly related.
Although some studies (Nichols, ]977; Mintz and
Muller, 1977;,
!~arx
and
Hinne~
1975; and
Ligon~
et
a·i ·';
1977) did not reveal significant correlations between selfc o nc e p t a n d
a c h ·i e v em e n t , t h e ma j or 1t y o f t h e \'' e ~; E a r c. h r.;r s
agree that there is a strong reciprocal relationship
between the two.
The findings that there is
~
significant
potential significance for educational decision-making
l
\,//
2
concerning achievement in the
~lementary
grades.
For
example, this relationship seems to indicate that a favorable self-concept contributes significantly to academic
success.
Therefore, in order to improve academic perfor-
mance, educators must play a more conciously active role
in fostering self esteem in children.
The classroom teacher's role in the development of
healthy self-concepts cannot be overstated.
Combs (1969)
found that the teacher's attitude is an important factor
in self-concept development in children.
A teather's
attitude ·toward himself as well as his attitude toward his
students have been found to be significant in building
positive attitudes ·in students.
The teacher must v·ieH him"
self with respect and acceptance before he can bti11d selfrespect in his students.
(Purkey~
1970; Landry, 1974)
It is essential that the teacher believe in his
students' ability to succeed.
High expectations
~nd
con-
fidence in the students• ability to succeed is the real
key to educational success.
(Ellenburg, 1973)
Research
conducted by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) supports the
theory that teachers' expectations of their pupil's performance may serve as a self-fulfilling prophecy,
In
addition, Brown and Cleary (1973) and Soares and Soares
(1970) found evidence that there is a direct relationship
between studt'nts
1
ach-ievements and the percepUon of them
by significant others.
3
Not only is the teacher s attitude important in the
1
building of healthy self-concepts in students, but his
methods of instruction and teaching techniques can also
be
factors irt promoting positive feelings and self-respect in
the classroom.
Glasser (1969) suggests the use of class-
room meetings to teach the children self-worth.
Other
programs aimed at strengthening self-concept in children
involve circle meetings, as described by Elwood (1975),
and The Child Development Program which was implemented in
a New Jersey school system and is described by Roth.
(1970)
Instructional methodology has also been considered
a factor which may affect self-concept.
a~
It has been found
that self-concepts are enhanced through the use of activicy
based programs of instruction in reading and science.
(Kupec, 1977; Shymansky, et al., 1974, 1977)
The use of
puppetry (Carlson, 1970) has been successful i:1 raising
self-concepts and motivating children to read.
Carlton
and Moore (1968) employed self-directive dramatization as
a means to teach reading and enhance self-esteem in
students.~
Considering the fact that the literature attests to a
strong relationship between self-concept and achievement,
and because a favorable self-concept contributes significantly to academic success, teachers must be concerned with
/j
..
developing healthy self-concepts in students.
It appears
that the role of the teacher and the methods of instruction
employed by the teacher are important factors in building
self-esteem in students.
Based on the findings of research
and related literature, school personnel need to develop
programs based on an awareness that self-concept is a tool
for better learning.
The present study is designed to
further support the need for an orientation toward selfconcept development.
fJ:~!:J?_Q_?~__<2J_·t
h e Th e s ·i s
The purpose of the thesis is threefold~
1) to irves-
tigate theories relating to self-terminology and selfconcept development; 2) to determine Vihat
n~sea1·ch
and
additional literature has shown to be the relationship
between self-concept and academic development; 3) to
examine the teacher's role in relation to students' selfconcepts.
Descri~tion,
Scone) and Limitations of the Study
-------~--------·--···----S.::------------------·------·-------·--·-----0---
Major sources of infonnat"ion for this study ·include
recent ERIC reported
documents~
articles and reports of
and textbooks.
recent educational journal
research~
doctoral dissertations.
The reports of research and literature
examined and reviewed for this study focus on elementaryage children.
Most of the research reports and journal
articles were published within the last ten (10) years.
5
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study the writer has chosen
the definitions for
11
self-concept 11 and
11
Se.lf-esteem 11 as
defined by Good s Dictionary of Education (1973):
1
The ·individua1 s
i)-e t c epfTo n~-of h i ms e 1 f a s a p e r s o n ,
which includes his abilities,
appearance, performance in his job,
and other phases of daily living.
1
Self-Concept:
?.Elf-j:steem_: The judgement and
attitude an individual holds toward
himself. (pp. 524, 526)
In Chapter
2~
the literature concerning self-termino-
logy and the development of self-concept is explored.
Various defin-itions of terms
ui~e
revievH:d, and theor··ies
relating to the development of self-concept ns presented
by various authorities are discussed.
A review of the literature on the relationship cf
self-concept to achievement is covered in Chapter 3.
The
literature on the role of the teacher in the development
of self-concept is revievJed in Cha.pter 4.
A summary of
the findings is presented in Chapter 5. and conclusions
and recommendations are given in Chapter 6.
CHAPTER II
SELF-RELATED ·rcmiNOLOGY
REL/~TED
THEORIES
T!d s chapter vii
n
!~ND
TO SELF-CONCt:r'T DEVELOPi,1ENT
rev i evl some of the dcf'ir:i t ion::; of
self-related terminology that are found in the extensive
literature on self-concept.
Various authors
the deVt'!.iopment of se"lf-concc:pt vlill e1sc;
b;~
w~itings
1
on
d·iscussed.
The chapter is organized into two major parts:
A.
Self-Related TPrminology
B.
The Development of Self-Concept
Self-Related Terminologv
----r-~--------··---w------~-
a variety of self-terms are being used by
Currently~
seem to be the most widely used, hut other terms found in
1 i te rat u r e i n c 1 u de
11
"s e 1 f
"s e 1 f -·ide n t i ty
·~accept
an c €~
~ n
s e 1 f ·- p c r· c e p t ion , " lise 1 f-act lHt l ·j z at i c n ~ n
The term "se1f~concept 11
\1UiS
~
11
and ': s e ·1 f ·"· i mag(''.
11
coined by Raimy (1943)
while completing a doctoral thesis at the University of
Ohio.
(Calhoun, Morse. 1977)
Prior to this there were
many investigations into self theory, but the focus on
" s e l f - c o nc e p t
11
a n d p a r t i c u 1 a 't ·1 y i t s
ing is relatively recent.
l' e 1 a t
i on s h i p to 1 E! (H' n ·"
There are currently a number of
definitions for self-concept and other self-relaied terms.
6
7
LaBenne and Gr·een (1969) define self-concept as "the
person's total appraisal of his appearance, background and
origins, abilities and resources, attitudes and feelings
which culm·lnate as a directing force in behav·ior."
{p. 10)
It was their contention that a person's conscious awareness, or what he thinks and feels, is what primarily
guides, controls, and regulates his performance and action.
In an attempt to develop a definition of self-concept
from existing definitions, Shavelson, et al., (1976)
stated~
"In very broad terms, self-concept is a person's
perception of himself.
These perceptions are formed
through his experience with his environment, ... and are
influenced especially by environmental reinforcements and
significant others."
(p. 411)
A person's perceptions of
himself are believed to influence the ways in which he
acts, and his acts in turn influence the ways in which he
~erceives
himself.
~oopersmith
(lg67) defined self-esteem as:
•.. the evaluation which the individual
makes and customarily maintains with
regard to himself; i t expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and
indicates the extent to which the individual believes himself to be capable,
significant, successful, and worthy. In
short, self--esteem is a 11 personal" judgment of worthiness that is expressed in
the attitudes the individual holds towards
himself. It is a subjective experience
which the individual conveys to others by
verbal repnrts and other overt expressive
behavior. (pp. 4-5)
8
Coopersmith stated that this definition centers upon the
lasting estimate of genera·! self-esteem rather· than more
specific and transitory changes in evaluation.
lie felt
that the self-esteem of an individual remains constant for
at least several years.
Coopersmith pointed out that self-
esteem may vary across different areas of experience
according to such things as sex, age,
other role-
~nd
defining conditions.
Combs and Snygg ("1959) speak of tile
or the
11
phenomenal self.
11
11
pelnceived sen·n
They point out that the per··
ceived, or phenomenal self includes thos2 aspects of the
percept u a 1 fie 1 d to whi c h
v-1 e
Y' e f
e i~ \'!hen v-1 e say '' I '' or
11
i'1 en •
It includes far more than the physical aspects of self.
In discussing the phenomenal selfs the authors state:
Perceptions of self as strong, honest,
sophisticated~ just, guilty,
and a thousand other qualities may be a
part of the phenomenal self of a particular individual. We shall even discover
later that the phenomenal self may include,
by identification, persons and objects
entirely outside our physical selves.
For instance, we are quite likely to
react to attacks upon our sons, daughters,
wives, husbands, or parents, as though
these were attacks upon ourselves. Indeed,
for all practical purposes they are. In
short, the phenomenal self includes not
only a person's self but everything he
11
exper~iences as
me 11 at that instant.
good-humored~
(p. L't4·)
The authors maintain that what a person thinks and how
he behaves are largely determined by the concepts he holds
about himself and his abiliti2s.
The
~ay WG
act in any
9
given situation will be dependent upon how we perceive
ourselves and how we perceive the situations that we are
involved in,
variety of
(p. 122)
People perceive themselves in a
and many times the concepts a person has
ways~
of himself are completely at variance from the ways in
which he is regarded by other people.
A person might view
himself as a great wit, while outsiders actually are quite
bored with h·is
11
sense of
humo\~
11
•
Concepts of the se1f may
be held in common by an individual and by outsiders, or
they may be peculiar perceptions of the individual 1 s own
private world of experience.
People also
per~eive
(p_. 124)
themselves in terms of values,
which according to Combs and Snygg, are more important than
descriptions one might have of himself.
We view ourselves
as good fathers or mothers or as bad fathers or mothers;
as successful or unsuccessful, attractive or ugly, pleasant or unpleasant3 or in terms of many other descriptions
of greater or lesser degree of value.
The large number of
perceptions each person has developed are called concepts
of self, and they include all of the perceptions of self
which the individual regards as part, or characteristic,
of his be·ing.
The phenomenal self is the individual's ovut
unique organization of ways of regarding self; it is himself from his own point of view.
(p. 126)
Wilbur Brookover (1964) contributed the notion that a
person holds many
self-concepts~
one of wldch ·;s the
11
self-
Hl
concept of ab'i"!ity 11
He maintained that
•
11
\!Jhen app11ed to
the specific school learning situation, a relevant aspect
of self-concept is the person's conception of his own
ability to learn the accepted types of academic behaviors;
performance in terms of school achievement is the relevant
behavior influenced."
(p. 271)
Self-concept of academic ability can be characterized
as one of the many concepts of self) according to Shavelson, et al.
(1976)
They give the following definition:
"Self-concept of academic ability refers to behavior in
which one indicates to himself (publicly or privately) his
ability to achieve in academic tasks as compared with
others engaged in the same task,
11
(p. 422)
The author's
further report that self-concept of ability 1s dependent
on a particular role, area of experience, situation, and
time; is relatively stable under similar stimulus situations, and is primarily evaluative in nature .
. C~lhoun and Morse (1977) attempted to clarify the
d i s t i nc t i on between the
esteem.11
11
s e 1 f , 11
11
s e l f- concept , 11 and '1 s e '! f ·-
They pointed out that there is a 'lack of
agree~
ment among educators and researchers about self-terms, and
that the confusion of this terminology is evident in their
writings.
To reduce confusion, they advanced three
d i s c r e t e c o nc e p t s :
ca"ll
h·is;
11
_s elf_,
2_~i__-::.:-:_QF_c_Cept_,
a s t h e s um t o t a. 1 o f a ·1 l o n e c a n
the substantive descript-ion 'Hrdch
one employs to identify his nature; and self-esteem, one's
satisfaction with his self-·concept.!l
p. 320
They elabo-
rated on each of these t e l~m s and i nd i cat e d that the
n
s e., f
11
is established when a person is aware of being a separate
entity wh0 exists completely detached from objects within
Although the self is separate from
his environment.
objects, the authors point out that everything that belongs
to a person contributes to complete the existence of the
11
Self."
11
Se1f··concept 11 r·efers to how an ind·ividual per-
ceives himself in terms of such things as
worth, and limitations.
ability~
value,
It is also used by individuals to
compare themselves to others.
A child's early experiences
encountered through social interactions with those around
him will have a significant impact on how he tends to perceive himself.
The amount of success or failure encoun-
tered during this early developmental period vdl"l determine
how positive the self-concept will be.
trast the term
11
Se1f-estef.~ITI
11
w·ith
11
The authors con-
Self-concept 11 by
point~
ing out that self-esteem involves an additional evaluative
component~
'1 satisfaction.
11
This is an important e·lement
when reference is made to the degree of esteem one holds
for himself.
If a child can predict success in specific
areas, self-esteem results, and his feelings of personal
worth are enhanced.
In summary, the
one 1 s development.
a
11
self,
11
(pp. 319--320)
11
self" is acknowledged ver·y early in
After an individual becomes aware of
he develops a concept of that
11
self.H
The mo1"e
12
successful the experiences and social interactions achieved
from his early
encounters~
the more positive will be his
self-concept, and vice versa,
His self-esteem develops
after his self-concept, as self-esteem arises out of his
ability to estimate his own strengths and weaknesses.
It
refers, primarily, to how the individual values and regards
himse-lf.
Wylie (1961), expressed the belief that self-concept
develops before the age of five and remains basically constant while self-esteem is developed later and changes
according to the success or failure that the individual
encounters daily.
Close analysis of the terms shows that
self-concept tends to remain moie stable, while self-esteem
may more readily fluctuate from time to time.
Th__~Dey_~lQE.!~~pt of Self-Concept
Various authors have explored the growth of the self
and the factors that influence self-concept development.
Kenneth Gergen (1971) discussed the major processes involved in the development of an individual's conception of
self.
He maintained that:
1)
A person could develop
concepts of himself by simply labeling his dominant
behavior patterns.
After learning that certain behavior is
g e n era 1 1 y c l a s s i f i e d a s
11
sociable, 11
into a
3.
11
a n t i s oc i a l
11
a nd o t h e i~ b e h a v ·i or a s
person observes that his ovm behavior falls
~articular
category and labels himself in the same
way that others would in light of his particular behavior.
"! 3
2)
The appraisals received from others could be particu-
larly powerful in molding self-conception,
The extent of
this influence, however, was seen to depend on the credibility of the appraiser and the precise nature of his
appraisal.
3)
Social comparison can also have
an
effect.
People tend to compare their own beliefs and attitudes
about the world with those held by others in order to
assess the validity of their own position.
Th£refore, the
person's conception of self depends, to a significant
degree, on how he sees himself in relation to others.
4)
Role playing is equally important in forming selfconception.
Roles provide a base for self-identity in
every person's life and are often tied to particular social
structures.
In daily life one learns the behavior and
words that are appropriate for each occasion.
A person's
behavior in a particular role is influenced by what he
perceives to be the expectations held by others of that
role.
Jersild (1960), another notable writer in the field,
indicates that it is sometime during the first year that
an infant discovers himself and finds a place
from~
the outside world.
in~
yet apart
Among early signs of self-
awareness are those that appear when a child begins to
control things in his environment.
While exploring, the
child notices and manipulates things that are apart from
him and in the process becomes aware of his own body.
"j
After a child has learned to talk, signs of self-awareness
become increasingly apparent, and he correctly distingu·lshes between
11
1" and
11
you 11
,
for example.
The next notable phase in the child's development of
the self occurs when he begins to assert himself in opposition to others.
During this stage, which begins around
age two, the child may go through a phase when he is
especially obstinate or negativistic.
He then begins to
compare himself with his peers and to test his powers in
competition with them.
Jersild indicated that among the earliest experiences
which influence the development of the child 1 s view of
himself are those experiences with other people.
If a
child is accepted, and respected for what he is, he is
more likely to acquire an attitude of self-acceptance and
respect for himself.
his life--parents
5
But if people who are significant in
teachers, peers, and any other influen-
tial persons--belittle him, blame him and reject him, his
attitudes toward himself will likely be unfavorable.
In describing the developments of the ideal
self~
Havighurst, et al ., (1964) in a book edited by Hamachek
(1965), stated:
11
The ideal se1f commences in chi'ldhood as
an identification with a parental figure, moves during
middle childhood and early adolescence through a state of
romanticism and glamour, and culminates in later adolescence as a composite of desirable characteristics which may
4
15
be symbolized by an attractive, visible young adult, or may
be s ·imp 1y an i mag i nary f i g u r e . '' . ( p . 23 7 )
The authors
emphasized that the environment of the child has a great
effect on his ideal self.
Certain individuals in the
child 1 s environment influence his ideal self, particularly
if they are young adults, such as an attractive teacher or
youth group leader.
Evidence shows that the ideal self is
greatly influenced by association with people who are in
positions of prestige because they are looked upon by the
child or adolescent observing them as being older, more
powerful, and better able to get the desirable things of
1 i fe.
An investigation by Montemayor and Eisen (1977)
explored the development of self-conceptions from childhood
to adolescence.
Subjects were 136 males and 126 females
from grades 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12.
They were asked to write
20 different answers to the question
"l~ho
am 1?
11
The _young
children in the study described themselves primarily in
terms of concrete, objective categories such as their
address, physical
~ppearance~
possessions, and play acti-
vities, while adolescents used more abstract and subjective
descriptions such as personal beliefs, motivational and
interpersonal characteristics.
What appeared to be the
self for the child was only the set of elements from which
the adolescent inferred a set of personal beliefs and
psychic style that uniquely characterized himself.
16
A relationship between self-concept development in the
child and the child 1 s later ability to cope with life's
stress ha.s been suggested by Penticuff.
(1976)
"Chi1d;'·en
who view themselves as likeable and worthy of others
1
respect have a valuable inner resource that can offer sustenance during times of emotional strain.
Children who
view themselves as unintelligent or unpopular have much
less in the way of inner strength and may fare poorly when
conft~onted
with fr-ustration or· disappointment.!l
(p.
'15)
Penticuff points out that during childhood and early
adolescence the self-concept is derived largely from the
opinions of significant others in the life of the child.
The child 1 s view of himself results from the way his
parents, teachers, and peers view him.
--"""'K To some extent, .c:s discussed by Penticuff, a ch·lld's
feelings about his self-worth often stem from very early
life experiences.
If unfilled needs, such as hunger, cold,
or pain have not had the counterbalancing experiences of
being fed, comforted, held, and
lessness develop.
rocked~
feelings of worth-
Parents communicate attitudes to the -
child that promote his sense of self-worth by responding
to his needs with tenderness and affection and by encouraging the child's developing .independence.
Being able to
master basic skills such as tying one's shoes, and skipping
rope, etc. are important to the development of a positive
17
sense of self in young children.
Children need encourage-
ment from parents and teachers, especially if they have
not progressed well in the areas of motor control, language
and social skills.
Adults reinforce self-respect and self-
worth in the child by consistently recognizing the child's
worth as an individual.
Criticism shbuld be given as
constructively as possible, and if it is very negative5 it
should not be given in the presence of the child's peers.
Penticuff expressed the belief that a child's feelings
of self-respect may vary to some extent from day to day,
but the general view of self is relatively stable over
time.
Therefore, attempting to change a negative self-
concept is not easy, but can be accomplished over an
extended period of time.
Change in a negative self-concept
requires time, a trusting relationship, and the belief in
another•s self-worth.
I n T h r~ Ch i 1 d a n (LJlL~_.I l1J.. ~9 e , e d i ted b.Y Yam D.l:ftJ to ,
{ ·i 9 7 2 )
Carolyn Massad stresses the importance of communication to
the development of self-concept.
Both Verbal and nonverbal
communication are keys to understanding a child's selfconcept.
Communication, according to !v'iassad, "includes all
behavior, both conscious and subconscious. by which people
influence each other.
11
(p. 27)
Lanqua~Je~
actions, concepts
of time and space, laughter, and tears are all ways of
communicating and are generally believed to be processes
"j
related to concept and self-concept development.
It is
important that adults understand the child's feelings about
himself and his world, and that they communicate their
support of and interest in him.
By communicating to the
child that he is wanted and respected, adults can help
develop in him feelings of self-worth and self-acceptance.
The conditions associated with the development of high
self-esteem were studied by Coopersmith (1967) and reported
in his book The Antecedents of Self-Esteem.
He elaborated
on three major conditions that are associated with the
occurrence of high self-esteem:
acceptance of the child by his
1) total or nearly total
parents~
2) clearly defined
and enforced_limits, and 3) the respect and latitude for
individual action that exist within the defined limits.
(p.
235)
Definite and enforced limits were found to be
associated with high rather than low self-esteem:
families
that maintain clear limits allow greater rather than less
deviation fofm conventional behavior than do families without such limits, and they use less drastic forms of punishment.
It was noted that parents who have definite values,
a clear idea of what is regarded as appropriate behavior,
and are able and willing to present and enforce their
beliefs are more likely to rear children who value themselves highly.
These parents also are viewed with grenter
affection and respect by their children and have le5s need
to treat them harshly.
8
19
Coopersmith also found a relationship between high
parental self-esteem, acceptance, and high self-esteem in
the child.
If parents have a positive self-image they are
more likely to view their children positively.
If they
approve of the child, he is more likely to emulate them
than if they disapprove of him.
In addition, it was found
that children with high self-esteem are more likely than
others to be close to their parents, to confide in them,
to respond to the punishments they administer, to be
socially skilled and emotionally responsive.
Therefore,
the role of the parents is vital in the formation and
development of high self-esteem.
Combs and Snygg (1959) emphasize the impor·tance of
the family and the early experiences in the family in the
development of a child's concept of himself.
provides the child with his
self definitions.
ear~liest
The family
and most permanent
Vital experiences such as births,
deaths, family upheavals or great periods of happiness or
unhappiness have important bearings upon a child's perception of h·imself.
Howeveln,
tl1e _{LPthors_ cor1sjder the eveiny--
day interactions am6nq the members of a family to be of
even greater significance in his self-concept development,
It.~s the commonplace experiences which probably have the
deepest and most pr·ofound effects upon the deve·lopment o.f
self.
It is the family that provides early experiences
20
of adequacy or inadequacy.
The authot·s state,
11
As the
child is successful or unsuccessful in making his way in
his family, as he is loved and cherished or rebuffed and
rejected, the infant experiences his first perceptions of
adequacy ot' inadequacy.
11
It was pointed out that ·if a
child acquires negative self definitions, experience later
in life may change the concepts developed as a product of
family living, but not quickly or easily.
In fact, the
most basic of such self-concepts may be so deeply rooted
in the individual's organization that they cannot easily
be changed even by most drastic experiences later in life.
(p. 136)
The family provides experience of acceptance for self
and for others.
The capacity for acceptance is closely
related to the chilct•s experience of adequacy.
the feeling of
adequacy~
The greater
the greater the capacity for
acceptance of self and of others.
It is also the family that establishes early expectations.
The family conveys to the child ways of behaving
that are acceptable to his society and culture.
The child
develops goals, values, techniques, and concepts of appropriate behavior as a result of what his family expects of
him.
Many of the expectancies established early in life
have vital effects upon behavior for years afterward, and
later in 1ife for the individual's leve·l of aspiration.
21
Whatever goals are considered worthy of the individual
1
S
consideration are dependent upon the way in which he
regards himself and the self expectancies he has acquired
throughout his experiences.
According to the authors, the
development of the self for the most part is a product of
an individual's experience with his family.
It appears that persons who are associated with children in the early years have a unique opportunity for helping in the development of healthy self-images.
Parents
and teachers must be sensitive themse1ves9 thus encouraging
sensitivity in the children around them.
It is generally
accepted that what a child believes about himself is partly
a function of his interpretation of how others see him;
therefore, i t is the task of the persons who come in contact with children to see to it that a profound sense of
self-respect is nurtured.
CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
ON SELF-CONCEPT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Extensive research has been conducted to determine
the relationship between the self-concept of students a11d
academic achievement.
Purkey (1970) reviewed literature
and research that showed self-concept and school achievement to be significantly related.
The following review
of literature focuses on work completed during the pa5t
ten (10) years with the exception of a study conducted by
Brookover and his associates (1964), which was a landmark
investigation.
This study is discussed prior to a review
of more recent studies.
Brookover, Thomas, and Patterson (1964) conducted a
study which had three purposes:
(1) to determine wl1ether
the student's concept of his ability in school is significantly and positively related to academic performance;
(2) to see if the self-concept is differentiated into
specific self-concepts which correspond to specific subject
matter areas; and (3) to see if the self-concept is significantly and positively correlated with the student 1 s
perception of how significant others evaluate his ability.
The method used for the research was to study the self
reports of 1,050 male and female seventh-grade white
22
23
students in an urban school system.
Each child was given
the Self-Concept of Ability Scale to determine his concept
of his own ability, both in general and in particular
subjects.
After the I.Q. was factored out, the students'
reported concepts of their own ability and their grndepoint averages were four1d to be significantly and positively correlated.
Brookover and his associates concluded
that this relationship is substantial even when measured
intelligence was contro1led.
Moreover, there are specific
self-concepts of ability which are related to specific
academic areas and which differ from ·the self-concept of
general ability.
Finally, the self-concept is signifi-
cantly and positively correlated witl1 the perceived evaluations that significant others hold of the student;
however~
it is the composite image rather than the images
of specific others that appeared to be most closely correlated with the student's self-concept in specific subjects.
(p. 278)
In summarizing their
research~
Brookover and his
associates concluded that self-concept of academic ability
is associated with academic achievement at each grade
level.
Brookover's theory is supported by' Cole's study (1974)
which investigated the relationship between self-concept,
attitude, and achievement motivation of average third-grade
students and their academic achievement.
One hundred
24
students with intelligence scores falling at or between
96 and 103 were operationally defined as average and ased
in the sample.
The achievement areas used as criteria
were scores of reading, language,
spelling~
matics on a standardized achievement test.
and matheThe findings
of the study indicated that the personality variables of
self-concept and achievement motivation are important to
achievement of average third-grade children.
Cole states
in his implications for practice that these findings
emphasize the important role of affective variables in
the achievement of primary children.
He emphasized that
since a significant relationship was found between selfconcept and math achievement, this indicates that having
confidence in one's self contributes significantly to
willingness to work with math concepts.
Cole promotes
the idea that the time of educators wou1d be well spent
if more emphasis were given to the development of methods
which build affective traits, such as self-concept.
The relationship between academic achievement and
self-esteem with reference to possible sex differences
has been investigated.
Primavera, Simon, and Primavera
('1974) conducted such an investigation.
18.0 f·ifth and
sixth-gr~ade
students from a Cathol·ic schoo·l
in a middle-class neighborhood.
103 females.
The subjects wet'e
There were 77 males and
The Coopersmith Self-·Esteem Invent:or·y was
\
'
25
dependent variables.
Sex differences were also investi-
gated in another study by William E. Simon, who participated in the preceding study, and Marilyn G. Simon (1975).
Their study also explored further the relationship between
self-esteem, as measured by the SEI, (Coopersmith SelfEsteem Inventory) and standardized academic achievement.
The subjects were 87 fifth-graders attending a New
York City suburb school.
There were 45 male and 42 female
participants between 10 and 12 years of. age.
A signifi-
cant relationship between self-esteem and standardized
academic achievement was found for both males and females.
Simon indicated that a possible explanation for the difference in the results of these two studies might be attributed to the explanation that sex differences in the
relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement
may vary depending upon various sociological characteristics of different schools and/or various personality
characteristics of the students and teachers.
A variable
that few studies have examined is that 6f the teacher's
rating of a child's self-concept.
-rn
an investigation made by Theresa S. Chang (1976)
198 fourth, fifth, and sixth-grade students were studies
to determine the relationship between self-concept,
academic achievement, and teacher's rating of children's
self-concept.
The children's self-concepts were measured
26
by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concepts Scale.
The
data indicated a significant relationship between selfconcept and teacher's rating of self-concept.
It also
showed a significant correlation between teacher s rating
1
and academic achievement.
The self-concept scores were
not, however, correlated significantly with the scores of
reading and math.
No significant differences were found
between grade levels and between sex on self-concept,
academic achievement, and teacher's rating.
The significance of the relationship between selfconcept and achievement has been supported by the findings
of studies conducted by Katzenmeyer and Stenner (1973s
1975, 1976) that included the variables of race and IQ.
Their investigations were made to determine if Jensen's
position was valid when he proposed that the reason for
the relationship between self-concept and achievement
is that self-concept scores simply reflect a realistic
introspective assessment of a child's intellectual capabilities and would therefore be expected to correlate
highly with achievement.
Jensen took this position when
he stated:
What has not been at all consistently shown,
however, is that assessments of self-concept
(or self-esteem, etc.) jointly (a) differ
for Negroes and Whites, (b) are correlated
with IQ or scholastic achievement~ and (c)
al~e not merely a ref1ection of the pup"il's
more or less objective appraisal of his own
scholastic standing and aptitudes. (Jensen;
1973 p.
266)
27
Katzenmeyer and Stenner took issue with all three of
Jensen's assertions as their studies sought to determine
whether or not, among all the sex-race groups, selfconcept ·is other than "a more or less objective appraisal
of one's scholastic standing and aptitudes.
11
The exis-
tence of a relationship between self-concept and achievement would lend support to the hypothesis that selfconcept differences account for some of the difference in
achievement between black children and white children, in
light of the research showing significant relationships
between self-concept scales, family income, and race.
Katzenmeyer and Stenner conducted several studies that
attempted to determine if there is a relationship among
these variables.
The evidence derived from their studies
supported findings that were in direct contrast to
Jensen's conclusions by showing that assessments of selfconcept jointly (a) do differ for blacks and whites, (b)
are correlated with IQ and scholastic achievement, and
( c ) a r e _!!g t
11
me r e 1y a ref 1 e c t. i o n o f t h e p up i l ' s mo Y' e o ~~
less objective appraisal of his own scholastic standing
and aptitudes," but rather·, represent a new domain of useful information in explaining achievement differences.
Katzenmeyer and Stenner, 1976 p. 273)
The study showed
that self-concept would add significantly to the prediction equation for achievement over and above the contribution of intelligence.
I
•
28
Few studies have examined the relative contributions
of predictors of self-concept, such as personality characteristics, school achievement, intelligence, sex, and
ethnic background.
Mcintire and Drummond (1977) conducted
a study in which these variables were investigated.
Specifically, the contributions of demographic achievement
and global personality measures were assessed.
The sub-
jects were 144 fourth graders (72 boys and 72 girls) from
a suburban Main school district.
In each
group~
half of
the subjects came from bilingual families of FrancoAmerican origin, and at least one
the home.
paren~
spoke French in
The criterion instrument used was the Piers-
Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale.
It was concluded
that personality rather than achievement,
ability~
or
demographic factors tends to be predictive of self-concept.
According to the findings in this study, children with low
self-concepts tend to get emotional when frustrated, are
easily perturbed, tend to give up ea1·1y, and are changeable in interests and attitudes.
They also tend to be
evasive of responsibilities, obstructive, wrapped up in
themselves, and may exhibit signs of
and anxiety.
fatigue~
depression~
The authors found evidence that changes in
self-concept at the lower elementary level might more
effectively result from stress on affectively based
experiences,
It was concluded that specific affective
29
objectives need to be set for each child, and there should
be opportunities for children to develop their selfawareness.
If self-concept can be improved, and if this in
turn improves achievement, then programs in education
should be designed to promote a more positive self-concept
in students.
From the analysis of a study conducted by
Van Boven {1973), it may be concluded that self-concept
can be improved.
A program of instruction was designed
to promote positive self-concept in elementary school
students in order to test the hypothesis that positive
self-concept is necessary for academic achievement as well
as desirable behavior.
Twenty elementary students who
were performing at a year below grade level in reading and
math were selected for the study.
(The author did not
state the grade level of the subjects, but it is assumed
that they were from various elementary grade levels.)
The students received individual tutoring twice a week for
14 weeks from parent volunteers.
The students' self-
concept, achievement, and behavior were measured before
and after the tutoring program.
The measurement instru-
ments used were Rotter's Test of Self-Concept, the Wide
Range Achievement Test for Reading and Math, and questionnaires administered to the teachers.
The results showed
30
increases in self-concept, achievement, and desirable
behavior, but weaknesses in the design prevent the determination of a clear relationship between
t~ese
variables.
The author suggested that it might be reasonable to
specu~
late that the idea of being involved in the study may have
had some built-in positive reinforcement for the treatment
of the children, and since there was no control group,
this was not proven or disproven.
A control group also
could have determined if overall gains in achievement
which accompanied gains in self-concept were attributed
to the regular classroom instruction or the tutoring program.
Although it could not be concluded that gains fn
achievement could be attributed to increased self-concept,
the conclusion that self-concept can be improved is
encouraging.
It has been shown that the relationship between selfconcept and achievement is not limited to students in
American schools.
Depew (1976) found evidence that this
relationship is universal.
eighth grade students from a
His study involved a group of
~chool
system in Germany, an
equivalent class of students from Lansing, Michigans and
an equivalent class of students from an inner city American site in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
That the hypothesized
relationship between self-concept and achievement is
universal was tentatively confirmed through the use of
cross-cultural validation techniques.
31
The relationship between achievement and self-concept
was also supported by Alvord
(1975)~
who pointed out that
many of the studies relating self-concept and achievement
have possessed certain weaknesses which place limitations
on conclusions drawn.
Such weaknesses include:
Measuring
self-concepts at the beginning of the school year; using
small samples; exploring such relationships only at the
secondary level; and allowing classroom teachers to administer self-concept measures.
Alvorct•s research, while
employing procedures to avoid these weaknesses, focuses on
the relationship between academic achievement in science
and self-concept.
The sample consisted of all Iowa public
school pupils enrolled in special education classes.
Self-concept measures were the Self Appraisal Inventory,
Intermediate and Secondary Levels.
Alvord•s study
supper~
ed the findings that there is a relationship between selfconcept and academic achievement, but he pointed out that
this relationship does not necessarily result from a cause
and effect relationship between the two factors.
He
stated, however, that the volume of ever growing evidence
that the two influence each other cannot be overlooked.
This question of whether self-concept of ability and
the perceived evaluation of others was the cause or the
effect of academic achievement has been investigated.
Calsyn and Kenny (1977) attempted to determine this in a
32
study that involved 556 Caucasian adolescents in an urban
school system in Michigan.
They concluded that adoles-
cents' performance in school usually affects their selfconcept of ability and their perception of others' assessment of that ability.
Academic performance) however, is
not usually the result of the perceived evaluation of
others.
Self-concept, then, may be viewed as the effect
rather than the cause of academic achievement, if the
results of this study can be considered conclusive.
Further research in this area was recommended, which might
clarify the cause-effect relationship between self-concept
and achievement.
There appears to be empirical support for the
relationship between self-concept and achievement for
relatively normal learners.
Leviton and Kiraly (1976)
explored this relationship in young learning-disabled
children to determine whether the findings supported by
the majority of research could be generalized to this
particular group of children.
The subjects were
first~
second, and third-grade learning-disabled students from
all seven elementary schools in a suburban Minneapolis,
Minnesota school system.
The results of the investigation
indicated that there is no direct, positive relationship
for the students comprising this sample.
Therefore~
Leviton and Kiraly concluded that the findings of investi-
33
gations inVolving normal learners cannot be generalized
to learning-disabled children as well.
Research results are not always consistent and do
not always show a significant correlation between selfconcept and academic achievement, as shown by an investigation by Nichols (1977).
The purpose was to determine
if significant relationships existed between meast!res of
self-report, self-concept, and academic achievement for a
group of fifth-grade students.
50
students~
The sample consisted of
chosen by use of a table of random numbers,
who were enrolled in fifth grade in Benton County9 Mississippi.
Instruments used were the Piers-Harris Children s
1
Self-Concept Scale, the California Achievement Test, and
the Florida Key.
The resu1ts of the study showed no sig-
nificant correlation between self report, self-concept and
academic achievement.
Since these findings are not sup-
ported by the majority of the research, recommendation
was made that further studies be made using a larger
sample and older and younger students as subjects.
Another study that did not support the findings of
the majority of other investigations was conducted by
Mintz and Muller (1977).
They examined the correlations
between academic achievement and factor specific, as well
as global, measures of self-concept for 314 fpurth and
sixth-grade boys and girls divided into grade level groups
with and without Spanish surnames.
The researchers felt
34
p '
that certain specific measures of self-concept may be more
closely related to achievement than are global measures.
The Primary Self-Concept Inventory was used to measure
self-concept on six scales; physical size, emotional
state, peer acceptance,
self.
helpfulness~
success, and student-
A global self-concept score was derived by totaling
the scores on the six scales.
The results indicated that
a factor specific model of self-concept is of greater use
in assessing the relationship between self-concept and
achievement than is the global or undifferentiated model.
The results also suggested that academic performance is
related to those factors of self-concept that are most
specific to academic performance.
The results also indi-
cated that not all groups of children show the same
relationship between self-concept and achievement.
The
six-grade Spanish surname students seemed to be noticeably
different from the other groups in that no significant
correlations between self-concept and achievement were
found.
There was, however, a significant correlation
between peer-acceptance and achievement for fourth-grade
Spanish surname students.
The most startling result of
the study was the universally low correlations between
self-concept and achievement.
Mintz and Muller questioned
the effectiveness of school programs that seek to raise
achievement through self-concept enhancement.
They felt,
based on their research, that even if self-concept should
35
influence achievement, it does not have a profound effect
on it.
A related conclusion from this study was that
many students have inaccurate self-concepts.
Since child-
ren are not taught how to form accurate self-concepts,
they describe themselves in ways that are not related to
their actual behavioral qualities.
Marx and Winne (1975) conducted another study that
did not show a strong, positive correlation between selfconcept and achievement.
The participants in this study
were 38 fifth-grade and 60 sixth-grade students from a
school serving predominantly black, low socioeconomic
status children.
Measurement instruments used were the
Stanford Achievement Test and the revised Sears SelfConcept Inventory.
The results of the study suggested
that for the population sampled here academic self-concept
is more strongly related to social self-concept that it is
to academic achievement.
An unexpected finding was that
the achievement measures had significant negative correlations with social self-concept.
A possible explanation
given by Marx and Winne for this negative correlation was
that children who are visibly successful at school may be
rejected by their
self-concept.
peers~
which results in low social
Also, children who are regarded highly by
their peers may reject success in school as a means for
enhancing their self-esteem, whereas children who are
rejected socially might try to enhance self-esteem through
36
high academic achievement.
At any rate, Marx and Winne
concluded that the relationship between academic selfconcept and achievement is weak and that enhancing
students
to
1
self-concept probably will not lead directly
impi~ovement
in their achievement.
They
state~
11
The
goal of enhancing self-concept is admirable and should be
pursued for its own sake.
However, the expectation of
increased achievement as a direct result of attempts to
enhance self-concept in black, lower SES children in
grades five and six seems unwarranted." (p. 31)
A review of the research and the results of a study
on the relationship between affective and achievement
measures by
Ligon~
et al. (1977) revealed inconclusive
p a t t e r n s of c or r e 1 a t i o n s be t we en t h e two me a s u 1n e s .
Li g o n
pointed out that the research concerning the relationship
between affective factors and achievement is inconclusive.
He indicated that many studies demonstrate a direct
relationship, but other research concludes just the opposite.
He seemed to feel that the general trend
sugge~ts
a
small positive relationship between these two factors, but
the relationship between affective measures and academic
achievement on the basis of ethnic group membership is far
from being conclusive.
Ligon reports on a study by the
Austin Independent School District Office of Research and
Evaluation which was prompted by the inconclusive status
of the literature and the prominent role of affective
37
objectives in compensatory programs.
Analyses were
applied to data gathered at the kindergarten, elementary,
and secondary levels on four affective instruments and
four achievement measures.
The results showed that where
there is a relationship between affective data and
achievement data, it is small.
There were some patterns
that indicate definite differences by ethnicity.
Blacks
showed the strongest correlations in the elementary grades
and also at the high school level.
Anglos showed the
strongest correlations at the high school level.
Mexican
Americans showed no significant relationships at any grade
level above kindergarten.
Ligon emphasized that i t is difficult to provide
definite answers in this area, and discussed reasons for
this difficulty:
1)
The measurement of a self-concept
construct is difficult and especially so when the measures
are being used for students coming from a variety of
ferent cultures.
2)
dif~
Due to political and social
realities with which school systems and researchers must
contend, it is almost impossible to design a truly experimental study in this area.
3)
Most studies are corre-
lational and give no indication of the direction of the
relationship.
4)
The nature of these studies makes most
of them non-generalizable.
5)
The validity of affective
instruments is seldom investigated.
,.
\)
)
S t ud e n t s
ltJ
i 11
38
often respond to items in ways that are socially acceptable rather than ways that would yield them high scores
on a self-concept scale.
must be considered
~hen
research studies.
Ligon stated that these problems
drawing conclusions from the
(ED. pp. 16-19)
Although not all studies have shown a direct relationship between self-concept and achievement, extensive
research has concluded that such a relationship does exist.
In his book Self-Conceot and School Achievement, Purkey
(1970) reviewed research that had been conducted prior to
1970 that showed a persistent and significant relationship
between self-concept and academic achievement.
He con-
cluded from the numerous studies that he reviewed that
11
a student carries with him certain attitudes about him-
self and his abilities which play a primary role in how
he performs in school.
cuts both ways.
on the
Yet as we have seen, the sword
Scholastic performance has a heavy impact
~elf-concept
...
(p. 25)
Purkey pointed out that we
must exercise caution in assuming that either the selfconcept determines scholastic
performanc~
or vice versa.
His observations indicate that there is a continuous interaction between the self and academic achievement, and that
each is directly influenced by the other.
sion he states:
In his conclu-
''Although the data do not provide clear-
cut evidence about which comes firSt--a positive self-
39
concept or scholastic success, a negative self-concept or
scholastic failure--it does stress a strong reciprocal
relationship and gives us
rea~on
to assume that enhancing
the self-concept is a vital influence in improving academic performance.
(p. 27)
It has been shown in this chapter that there is a
direct relationship between self-concept and academic
achievement.
Con~iderin~
were made prior to 1970,
the findings of the studies that
~s
reviewed by Purkeys along with
the research reported in this chapter, we may conclude
that the evidence shows there is a reciprocal interaction
between self-concept and scholastic success.
This rela-
-
tionship can be found at all grade levels, has been
demonstrated in all subject areas, and, according to most
studies, applies to both sexes.
There is some evidence
that self-concepts differ among ethnic groups.
It has
also been pointed out that the direct, positive relationship found among normal learners could not be generalized
to apply to learning-disabled children.
Evidence suggests
that self-concepts can be raised, and improved academic
performance results.
This evidence does suggest that
enhancing the self-concept can be a vital influence in
improving academic perfbrmance.
The following chApter
reviews the role of the teacher in the development of
self-concept in children and how positive and realistic
self-concepts can be developed.
CHAPTER IV
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON THE TEACHER'S ROLE
IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT S SELF-CONCEPT
1
The classroom teacher at the elementary level is
c on s ·i d e r· e d to be a s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r i n t he l i v e s o f
students.
h ·i s
He is in a position to have a profound effect
o n t h e i r 1 ·i v e s .
r~ i
x e r a n d 1'1 i 1 s o n ( 1 9 7 3 ) s t a t e :
n
I n t he
lower grades the teacher probably will be perceived as an
extension of Mother! supporting the child emotionally and
physically, and acting as a haven of calm in times of
anxiety.
In later years, with increasing peer interactions
the teacher might be cast into a Father figure, filling
the
,~ole
of authoritarian and guide.
11
{p. 18)
Combs and
Snygg (1959) agree that the teacher can be most influential in developing positive self-concepts within a child.
Combs (1969) also found that tl1e teacher's attitude
toward himself and others is important for the building
of positive self-concepts in students.
The teacher must
view himse1f with respect before he can build self-respect
in his students.
He must also believe in the students
1
ability to achieve.
The review of the literature in this chapter focuses
on the role of the teacher in the development of selfconcepts in students.
It has been divided into three
40
41
three major parts:
A.
Teacher Self-Concept and Attitude
B.
Classroom
c.
Affective Approaches to Teaching
Atmosphet~e
and Teacher Behavior
Teacher Self-Concept and Attitude
It has been suggested that the teacher' • s attitudes
toward himself and others are equally as important as his
techniques, practices, or materials used in teaching for
the promotion of a positive classroom atmosphere in which
children can develop positive feelings about themselves.
Research has supported this belief through several studies
that have focused on teacher•s self-concept and attitude
toward himself and toward his students.
(Purkey, 1970;
Ellenburg, 1973; Edeburn and landry, 1974; Aspy and
Buhler, 1975)
Purkey (1970) maintained that the teacher•s attitude
about himself and his abilities is a significant factor
in building positive attitudes in students.
Much of the
research conducted in the l950ts and 196Q•s supported this
belief, and this research is cited by Purkey.
Based on this research Purkey concluded:
11
(p. 45, 46)
The way the
evidence points is that each teacher needs to view himself with respect, liking, and acceptance.
When teachers
have essentially favorable attitudes toward themselves,
they are in a much better position to build positive and
realistic. self-concepts in their students.
11
{p. 46)
42
There seems to be general agreement that before a teacher
is able to reach out to like and respect others, he must
have positive and realistic attitudes about himself.
More recent studies have also supported the findings
of those cited by Purkey.
Research conducted by Edeburn
and Landry (1974) concluded that a teacher's selfacceptance is related to the development of positive selfconcepts in students.
Sixteen self-contained
classrooms~
four at each grade level were selected from two mid-western
school systems for the study.
Subjects for the study
included 16 teachers and 295 students.
Self-concepts of
students were measured toward the beginning and end of the
academic year by the primary form of the "Se1f--appra·isa1
Inventory 11
by the
11
,
and the teacher's self-concepts were measured
Index of Adjustment and Va1ues.
11
The resu.lts
showed that students of highly self-accepting teachers had
a higher gain in self-concept scores than did the students
of teachers who had medium and low self-acceptance scores.
The results of this study suggests that the selection of
self-accepting teachers at elementary levels is important
to the self-concept development of children.
Another effect of the teacher's self-concept on his
students was studied when Aspy and Buhler (1975) investigated the relationship between the teacher 1 s self-concept
and the students' academic achievement.
There were 120
third-grade students and six teachers involved in the
43
study.
The cognitive growth of the students was
deter~ined
by pre and post testing through use of the Stanford Achieve-
ment Test.
The self-concept of the teachers was rated by
trained raters who observed the teachers in September and
again in March.
In September each teacher completed the
Fiedler's Q-Sort procedure as modified for teachers.
The
second measure of self-perception was obtained through a
procedure for obtaining the inferred self-concept by observing the teacher's behavior.
The general hypothesis that
there is a positive relationship between the levels of
teacher self-concept and the cogni.tive growth of the
students was supported.
The findings support the idea that
there is a need for assessing teachers on other than intellectual indices.
Since assessments were made independent
of teacher knowledge and ability, it is possible that
teachers having the highest levels of self-concept were
most knowledgeable, and it was recommended that future
studies incorporate such controls.
Both the positive and the negative effects of the
teacher's self-concept were discussed by Ellenburg (1973).
Ellenburg's observations indicated that when a teacher
understands himself, recognizes and accepts his own weaknesses, he can dare to change himself.
The teacher with
self-respect will show appreciation, understanding, and
acceptance of
himself~
innBr strength.
can usually face life, and has. great
He will not be overly disturbed by criti-
44
cism, can trust himself, and will have fewer doubts about
himself.
Because of this faith in himself, he will not be
withdrawn and self-centered, but will pay more attention
to happenings outside himself and will accept and trust
o t he r s .
T h e tea c h e r "" i t h a p o s i t ·i v e s e 1 f- c o n c e p t wi 1 1 be
empathetic towards the student, and will perceive the
world from the student's point of veiw.
This will enable
him to accept each child as a worthy individual and see
him in a positive light.
If each child feels love and
trust from his teacher, then he will be more inclined to
have these same feelings toward himself.
The real key to
educational success is a high expectation and confidence
in the students' ability to achieve; teachers must expect
the
best~
not the worst, from their pupils.
Ellenburg also discussed the negative effects of the
teacher's self-concept.
He pointed out that an authori-
tarian classroom is more likely to exist
has a poor self-concept.
wh~n
a teacher
An insecure teacher may be
afraid to be democratic because he may fear the loss of
respect.
Taking out hostility on pupils through sarcastic
remarks, ridicule or unfair discipline can destroy the
child's self-confidence.
In
addition~
the insecure
teacher may set unrealistically high standards that his
students are unable to meet.
Then the teacher feels he
has failed, and if the child fails to please the teacher,
he will probably be criticized and will feel rejected.
4-5
Therefore, the chilct•s self-concept suffers.
If a teacher
makes threats and does not convey warmth or a feeling of
acceptance to her pupils, the child may respond with
apathy, hostility, or aggressiveness.
The teacher's nega-
tive self-concept can cause damage to the children throug!1
the lack of a sense of humor, a lack of identity with
pupils, a lack of trust in himself and his pupils, an
authoritarian nature, his self-centeredness, and anxiety.
It was recommended by Ellenberg that teacher candidates be screened through psychological testings personality tests, and
observation~
and that college courses be
required that help future teachers understand and accept
themselves and others.
Administrators should watch
faculty members for signs of emotional illness, and assist
teachers that need help in getting it.
In-service studies
aimed at improving the teacher s self-concept and other
1
areas of their personality were recommended.
If children
are given teachers with wholesome, well-adjusted personalities, the classroom can become a place where feelings of
the children about themselves can be enhanced rather than
deteriorated.
Another study that shows the importance of teacher
self-conc~pt
was undertaken when Brantley, (1976) sought
to determine the relationships among teacher and pupil
self=concept and pupil reading achievement at the firstgrade level.
Pre and post tests were administered to the
46
students measuring self-concept and achievement.
Teacher
self-concept was also measured, and teacher's views of
the teaching profession as well as their views of children
as students were obtained.
The findings indicated that:
1) a positive relationship exists between pupil selfconcept and reading achievement; 2) factors of teacher
self-concept are related to changes in elements of selfconcept of first grade pupils; and 3) there is a positive
relationship between teacher self-concept, teacher's views
of the teaching profession, and teacher's views of children as students and pupil reading achievement.
These
results lend support to the idea that the focus in education should be to find teachers who feel good about themselves, about the teaching profession, and who demonstrate
a positive attitude toward their students.
The significance of the teacher's positive attitude
was substantiated by Purkey (1974), who also maintained
that positive teacher attitudes are more important than
methods, skills, techniques, performance, and competencies.
These positive attitudes are more likely to exist if the
teacher is confident and well adjusted.
The need for a teacher to believe in the child's
ability to succeed has been supported by the research
reported by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) in their book
f..l.gmal ion in the Classroom.
An experimental test of this
47
theory was carried out at a public elementary school in a
lower-class community of a medium-size city.
Teachers were
told that certain children would show dramatic intellectual
growth, based on the scores on a test of academic blooming.
The children were actually chosen at random.
It was found
that children's gains in IQ scores during the experiment
were correlated with
teachers~
perceptions of their class-
room behavior and the teacher 1 s expectations.
In summariz-
ing their speculations as to how teachers brought about
intellectual competence simply by expecting it, the authors
stated:
~ .. we may say that by what she said, by how
and when she said it~ by her facial expressions, postures, and perhaps by her touch,
the teacher may have communicated to the
children of the experimental group that she
expected improved intellectual performance.
Such communications together with possible
changes in teaching techniques may have
helped the child learn by changing his
self-concept, his expectations of his
own behavior, and his motivation, as well
as his cognitive style and skills.
(p. 180)
We may conclude from this experimental study that teachers'
expectations may affect student's performance.
Rosenthal and Jacobson's findings were substantiated
when Brown and Cleary (1973) found evidence that children's
learning abilities were misjudged by their teachers. because
of the children's low socioeconomic status.
The behavior
of the children prejudiced the teachers' attitudes about
the c h i 1 d r en ' s 1 earn i n g a b i 1 i ty , a 1 though there
\>J
as 1 i t t 1e
48
relationship between their behavior and their cognitive
potential.
The self-fulfilling prophecy
theory~
based on the
assumption that children will behave as others expect them
to behave, was supported by Soares and Soares (1970) who
also described positive relationships between students'
achievements and the perception of them by significant
others.
Rist, (1970) exploring student social class and teacher expectations, observed that the subjective evaluations.
that the kindergarten teacher made about the children's
academic potential were based on the teacher's determination of success factors that were related to social class
expectations, rather than measured ability.
The children
were observed from kindergarten through grade two, and it
was found that children were placed at tables on the basis
of their ability to interact with adults well, their
verbalizations in standard English, their leadership abilities, their neatness and cleanliness, their ability to
participate in a
group~
and the education, employment
background, and interactness of their family.
The teacher
paid more attention to the children put at the first table,
and by the end of the second grade, a self-fulfilling prophecy had occurred and the children's objective scores
matched their placement at the tables.
This study
revealed the operation of the self-fulfilling prophecy,
49
and showed that teacher expectations will be reflected in
children•s performance.
Snyder (Yamamoto, 1972) agreed that the attitude of
the teacher is of paramount importance for the total
social and emotional growth and adjustment of his pupils.
She pointed out that a teacher•s success in working with
children depends largely on his ability to gain insight
into and to accept his own emotions and behavior.
It has
been found that teachers who were less successful were also
less emotionally stable, more introverted, and more tense.
(p. 60)
Teachers• feelings toward themselves have been shown
to be related to students• self-concepts.
As the previ-
ously cited literature has indicated, if teachers feel
good about themselves, they are better able to accept the
children in their classrooms.
This acceptance, which is
revealed by warm, supportive behavior, has been related to
high child self-concept.
If teachers have negative
precon~
ceived ideas about children, it can be damaging to the
academic performance and self-concept of the students.
the other hand, if teachers show that they believe in
their students• abilities and communicate acceptance and
respect for the students, academic performance and selfrespect will be affected in a positive way.
On
50
f.l a ~_?.EJ!..9.:'Il___i.}_l:.!l!.~~ he r e
a n d Te a c h e r Be h a v i o r
The atmosphere created in the classToom by the teacher
is of prime importance in the development of positive selfconcepts in students.
Purkey (1970) outlines six specific
factors that are particularly important in accomplishing
this goal:
(1) challenge; (2) freedom; (3) respect;
(4) warmth; (5) control; and (6) success.
(pp. 50-56)
Purkey expressed the view that students need to be challenged, and that high academic expectations and a high
degree of challenge have a positive and beneficial effect
on students.
The second factor, freedom, allows the child to choose
and make meaningful decisions for himself.
a1~hen
Purkey states:
the student has a say in his own development and is
given personal decisions to make, he develops faith in his
judgments and thoughts.
11
(p. 51)
Purkey also emphasized
that the child must have the freedom to make mistakes, and
even be allowed to laugh at
~is
inadequancies.
Therefore,
freedom to try without fear of failing is essential to a
healthy atmosphere in the classroom.
Respect on the part of the teacher is vital in building positive self-concepts in students.
The teacher should
avoid embarassing and humiliating the students, and should
instead communicate a feeling of trust, positive regard,
and
respect.
51
The next factor discussed by Purkey, control, also
helps build positive self-concepts in students.
Cooper-
smith (1967) found evidence that children who are brought
up in a permissive environment tend to develop less self-
esteem than those brought up in a firmer and more demanding
atmosphere.
Purkey endorsed this idea and stated:
11
It is
important for the teacher to maintain discipline, for the
type of control under which a child lives has considerable
effect on his self-image.
It is yet another way of telling
the student that the teacher cares about him and what he
does.
11
(p. 54)
Purkey also noted that the leadership
qualities of the teacher are important, and he should be
prepared for class, avoid the appearance of confusion,
explain why things must be done, and strive for consis-
tency, politeness, and firmness.
If these leadership
qualities are present in the teacher, classroom control
will more likely be maintained.
The final factor, success, was
viewed by ...........Purke~as
...
,...
_,.,...,...,...
~~~~-"""~-.--.......
.,.,.,_"""'--·-~--·~-"""'=·~·=_
~~
the s ·j n g 1 e most imp or tan t step t h a~~~~--~?~ c~ ~-~-~---5-~-~--!-~~~~:-~__2_"
the classroom.
atr~osphE~t~
The teacher should provide an educational
_<:;Qr:Jduc;ive to success
ra.~h-~r
than to fa'i1ure.
I t i s n e c t.~ s s a_~_y__ t2 p o i n t o u t a r e a s o f a c c om p 1 i s hmen t ,
---------- ---~-
-- .. ~ .. -· ·-- --- ·----~ ---~---~ ~<------~----~---·--·· -·--- ---·-···- ""-- ~-- ,____ ·-· -·-~- ~--:-----------·-<"•--~--- ___ _,__._
Students should
~e
allowed to make mistakes without penalty, and teachers
•••
•·•
<-
•"
·-·
•
._o,' • •
•
-
·-·•••·•
•
•·;::_. .• ,,>,•,••
Lo
··-·'•'•'-'o>.W...'»
should make positive comments and give support and encour-
52
s ty~_e n_!_~___ IT!1Ls_LJJ e___wJ:t:t•J_f'l_ their0•• •· a b•• ·---i 1 it i e s so they wi 11 have
..............
·-·
•>-
'""--•-•~••••
~-~~·
·•·-·~- •"<•-<•->•:~ ><m~·'-•'-J<' ··~~--~-k~•-n ~ -•-•_.•-•·----·,-·-·--·~-~~-~
t h!__Q.P P_Q_!:'_~-~-~~-~ y___~__9_____e._~_p-~_r_i~n~_e_--.SJ.lC.C.e.s.s .
they are able
fr:gm_~y~cess,.
,..._~__,__-~---------"--~-~---~----·-~--~·
~__,
Pe oel~_J e._~_fJ}.___th_g t
n_ot..Lro.m...taJlu.r.e.
The idea that the classroom atmosphere is vital in
enhancing self-concept in students is strongly supported
by the research of Samuels.
(1977)
She states:
"If
generalized self-esteem is to be enhanced and maintained,
children need teachers who are accepting, who make them
feel secure, who have realistic clear behavioral expectations, and who encourage independence and responsibility.
(p. 184)
11
The teacher communicated to the child that he
is accepted by the way he talks to the child, by making
him feel important, by listening
rJ c-L, \J_,.,j-·\.
att~ntively
to him, and
by showing that he respects the child's sex, race, and
individuality.
Childrem can be helped to feel secure by
teachers who are secure themselves, and who understand
the capabilities and limitations of their students and
set goals for them that are within these limits.
must also learn how to control and express anger
Children
b~cause
security cannot be fostered if the teacher is not capable
of keeping children from physical attacks on one another.
Samuels expressed the belief that a sense of responsibility must be developed in children so that independence
can be encouraged.
She maintained that children should be
given chojces and tasks that are challenging,
interes~ing,
and deve 1opmentalJy approprJc,tie. . ~-~.2J2.Q._Q.Q_5n1gsL_QJJJ
53
Y'~-~-r:t_fi>_r C_f'~ ~_D__t __J:Jl<tt____ Lncu.ses
.... OJL__;;_J,Lf~-~-~~5
•
An a tm o sphere that
fosters security, acceptance, independence, and responsibility, and where warmth, praise, and appropriate limits
are present will result in better feelings of self-esteem
in the students.
Drews (1975) endorsed the idea that classroom atmosphere must be one in which children are given freedom to
grow.
She states:
To attain adequate mental health and to
develop into independent adults, children need to have freedom to find themse-lves and to grow; they need to learn
to make choices, to set their own directions, to follow their own interests,
to work at their own level and in their
own way. They will not and cannot become
a 11 Self 11 by imitating others. And they
can truly learn only that which they themselves choose and need; all other learning is temporary and superficial. (p. 57)
Drews pointed out that children will not deVelop this self
nor will they learn if they are manipulated, rejected,
·criticized, or attacked.
Instead, the classroom atmosphere
must be nonthreatening and flexible so that children can
learn through experiencing and inquiring.
They should be
given the opportunity to be C\neative and to respond in
their singular and special ways.
Teachers must show they
are interested in what the children have to give and should
be nonjudgmental.
The goal of the teacher should be to
54
help children find tasks that they can successfully complete and to give them the opportunity to make choices;
he must also be willing to show that he is interested by
being available to notice, listen, and respond when each
opportunity to do so arises.
Mixer and Milson (1973) agree that the teacher must
create an atmosphere of love and acceptance in the classroom.
They state that if the child feels that he matters
and has value because he exists and that he has something
to offer others, he can accept his lack of particular
skills without endangering his self-esteem.
Mixer and Milson discussed various areas of psychological safety that are necessary in the classroom:
(1)
honesty, (2) nonjudgment, (3) cherishing, and (4) freedom
to experience emotion, empathy, and unique growing.
(p. 348)
When a teacher•s words, voice, and body language
are not transmitting conflicting messages, honesty is
communicated.
In being nonjudgmental, behavior is sepa-
rated from the person.
It is better for the teacher to
say that he dislikes a certain type of behavior rather
than directing the judgment toward the person.
This will
help preserve personal worth in the student, since personal
worth should not be dependent upon performance.
The third
area, cherishing, can exist if the teacher helps the child
feel valued and special.
His personal worth must not be
tied to worthwhile performance in the classroom.
It is
55
also necessary for the child to feel free to experience
emotion without fear of disapproval.
It is necessary for
the teacher to feel empathy by understanding a child from
·his point of view.
The teacher must acquire sensitivity, or the ability
to sense what an individual feels about himself and the
world.
The authors pointed out that because teachers are
significant others in the lives of their students, they
play an important role in the nurturing of self-esteem in
their students.
Negative self-concepts are learneds
according to the authors, so they can be changed.
High
self-esteem results from the quality of the relationships
that exist between the child and significant others in his
life.
Therefore5 the teacher must work toward a positive
relationship by creating an atmosphere of love and acceptance in the classroom.
In the opTn-fon ~f Mattocks and Jew (1974), the
general goal of education should include encouragement of
the chi1d s dependence upon his efforts,.decisions, and
1
self-control through helping the child to develop a
healthy self-concept.
The authors asserted that the
relationship which is built between the student and the
teacher through the experiences in the classroom can help
towards the development of a healthy self-concept.
Several
suggestions for teachers were described and are briefly
discussed here.
These suggestions were directed mainly
56
to
kinderga;~an
and primary teachers, since foundations of
self-concept are laid early in life.
(1)
fjcking U_p___i;ues.
The teacher must develop sen-
sitivity toward picking up cues from the child as to how
he perceives himself in relation to others.
often comes to school with ideas of how he
The child
11
ought to be 11
according to the expectations of his parents, and sometimes those expectations are unrealistic in terms of the
child's abilities and needs.
(2)
Prom_C!__ting___l.Q_nsistency in Self-Concept Through
Teacher-Parent Contacts.
Some contact with the parent may
help to reduce anxiety and to promote a consistency of
the child's developing self-concept.
(3)
Promoting Conf·idence and
In~r_a_t_i_o.n.
In order
to gain a feeling of adequacy related to the self, children need to feel that there are rewards associated with
their efforts.
As the child functions in different groups
and different situations, he must shift roles according
to similarities in common with others in the group or
situation.
The
teacher'~
task is to promote self-confi-
dence so that the child will be able to experience success,
because i t has been shown that a feeling of confidence
in one's self plays an important role in achievement.
consideration must be given to children who have some
physical impairment or noticeable physical peculiarity.
57
~elp
It is best
the basis
about it.
c1;
the child and his classmates understand
he problem, rather than to avoid talking
· ;e goal of the teacher is to help the child
build a sense of adequacy and self-acceptance.
( 5)
£: nS:_o u r a g_j_r_:_9.
a
L e r n i n g by Do ii!.g__ a nd T h i n k i n g_.
Children learn best if given the opportunity to participate
in physical tasks as well as practice in thinking, rather
than listening to the teacher merely present rules, predigested information and dry facts for the rote learning
of the pupi 1.
(6)
Allowing for Mistakes as Part of Learnin[.
Children should be allowed to learn by trial and error,
and mistakes should be considered a necessary part of the
learning process.
It is also helpful if the teacher admits
his own errors so that children learn by example that mistakes are human and that one can learn from errors rather
than be defeated by them.
(7)
Avoiding Unreas9nable Demands.
A teacher should
try to understand where each child is in his limited experience, and should not expect any child to perform beyond
his capabilities.
(8)
~~ilizing
the Child's Natural Curiosity.
Rather
than discouraging questions from children, teachers should
channel and encourage the desire to know more toward
development of a self-concept where knowledge is a desirable part of living.
58
(9)
Developing the Correct Use of Reward and
Punishment.
In many instances, there is evidence that
reward is superior to punishment in promoting learning.
Anxieties about the anticipated punishment can affect the
child's thinking so that learning is retarded.
It can also
encourage the development of a self-concept of one who is
"bad 11 and deserving of punishment.
Therefore, the teacher
needs to use rewards and encouragement whenever possible
to counteract the destructive effect of the self-concept
suffered by a child who has experienced an overabundance
of punishment.
(pp. 200-204)
Mattocks and Jew state that too often teachers are
unaware of the child's self-concept and its implications
for education.
The teacher's role is extremely important
because many times the child comes from a home situation
that has caused him to suffer from an impaired selfconcept.
It is the teacher who stands as the next and
sometimes only hope of improving the child's self-concept.
The role of the teacher may be significant in the
prevention of negative attitudes toward one's self.
It
has been found that students go through certain periods
of stress that contribute to discouragement with academic
life~
and this often occurs at or about the fourth grade.
(Williams, 1976)
His study showed a slump in school
motivation and self-concept at this period.
He explains
that the reason for this slump is _that by fourth
grade~
59
fun and games in school end and in-seat, at-task work
becomes predominant.
Text and workbooks are used exclu-
sively for skill development while processes of curiosity
and imagination wane or wither.
{p. 24)
Williams found
that improved attitudes and dispositions towards school
can be maintained by teachers who have been trained in the
strategies and processes for enhancing self-concept.
The
program implemented by Williams diagnosed the needs of
pupils while considering their strengths and talents and
building upon these with positive reinforcement.
All
lessons were integrated with both affective as well as
cognitive education, so that learning was encouraged while
dealing with feelings, rather than trying to accomplish
these two goals separately.
It was shown that stimulation
through opportunities for creative achievement can be
powerful enough to prevent the fourth grade slump, and
trained teachers can create a rich, innovative climate that
will produce positive feelings among students towards
school and themselves.
The necessity for a teacher to understand the
studen~·
self-concept has been pointed out by Dinkmeyer, Carlson,
and Koval (1975).
They emphasized that the elementary
school years are a significant time in which to intervene
in the lives of children, as these years are crucial in the
development of positive attitudes toward self, others, and
society.
It is during this period of time that the child s
1
60
characteristics are most subject to change.
The authors
made reference to extensive research that supports this.
(p. 180)
It is during the elementary school years that
teachers are a significant force in children's lives, and
teachers need to understand their students and aid them
in understanding and accepting themselves.
The teacher should establish an atmosphere that is
nonthreatening, warm, trusting, accepting, and
c~ring.
According to Dinkmeyer et al., the teacher is the single
most important factor in facilitating the socio-emotional
development of students.
(p. 182)
The opinion that teacher behavior influences selfesteem was supported by Peck, Fox and Marston (1977) in
an investigation of teacher effects on student achievement
and self-esteem.
It was concluded that self-esteem is
sensitive to teacher behavior and to teacher attitude.
The findings of Kash, et al., (1976) strongly supported
this conclusion in a study on teacher behavior and pupfl
self-concept.
Kash, et al., concluded from their investi-
gation that pupils who are perceived
~s
worthwhile, parti-
cipating, and contributing members of the small society
of the classroom will eventually reflect that perception
of themselves as members of the greater society.
(p. 9)
As the literature cited in this section seems to
indicate, the atmosphere created in the classroom is vital
to the development of positive self-concepts in students.
61
It should be a goal of every teacher to provide an atmosphere that will contribute to children's positive feelings
toward school and toward themselves.
Af1~~1iY~~~proaches
to Teachin[
Educators are becoming increasingly aware of the need
to educate the whole child and to consider affective components such as feelings, values, and attitudes rather
than viewing achievement as the only goal of education.
This section focuses on various approaches in education
that have been designed to improve self-concept.
In his book Schools Hithout
FaiJ~e,
Glasser (1969)
suggests the use of classroom meetings in a nonthreatening
environment to teach the children self-worth.
By getting
together with their classmates and sharing ideas, children
are given the opportunity to listen to their peers, consider their own ideas and to express themselves.
This
helps them to become involved with each other and each
other 1 s ideas and gain respect f6r themselves and others.
Sandl'a Elwood (1975) described a pilot project
developed by the Ottawa Board of Education in 1969-1970
that was based on Dr. Glasser's model.
Class meetings,
or circle meetings as they were known in Ottawa, were set
up for the purpose of fostering or strengthening each
child's positive self-concept.
The teachers who partici-
pated in the program reported that not only was the
objective achieved, but that numerous academic skills were
62
improved.
Children grew in their abilities to listen care-
fully and to verbalize.
Reading skills also improved.
Teachers reported that the atmosphere within the classroom
improved as students listened to each other more carefully
and with greater respect, and tension and fights between
students decreased.
It was concluded that circle meetings
do not by themselves change a child•s negative self-concept,
but they have helped many children who participated develop
a better feeling about themselves.
/\nether program aimed at developing positive selfconcepts in children, The Child Development Program, was
implemented in a New Jersey school system.
Jay Roth (1970)
described this program as being developed to combat the
destructive negative self-image of children with developmental and perceptual difficulties by stressing acceptance,
/
openness, informality, and success. CJhe advantages of the
program were that children continued in their regular
classes~
developed a feeling of being within a second group
within the school, felt attended to, and were able to meet
with success often and individually.
They began to view
school as a place with an increasing range of possibilities
for enjoyment and success.
It was also found that the
children felt increased peer acceptance.
The classroom
teacher was able to learn more about the child from the
Child Develo0ment Teacher, and vice versa.
In order to
accomplish this, teachers had to learn how to deal with
63
the problems of the children, and to establish a warm one
to one relationship which would be therapeutic in that the
child could feel worthy and valuable, regardless of his
functioning.
There was a strong emphasis on the continual
in-service training of the teachers, and the teachers had
to have the ability to relate to others, to exhibit warmth,
interest, and facility for feeling with the persons with
whom they worked.
It was felt that the program had a
major positive influence on the behavior and performance
of the children, as 57 out of 124 were released and reports
indicate they were doing well in school while others continued to function in the Child Development Program.
Test-
ing instruments used ih the program were the Wepman
Auditory Discrimination test, the Clymer-Barret test, the
Bender-Gestalt, the Ravens Progressive Matrices, the
Metropolitan Readiness, the Stanford Reading, the Betel
Word Recognition, and the school system's own test they
~ad
developed for fine and gross motor performance.
control group was utilized as a comparison.
No
The effective-
ness of the program was credited to the program's esteem
in the eyes of the child, which seemed to affect his sense
of self-·worth.
Readinn and Self-Concent
--~·~--·;;;1.__.--,·----------~.r:::._:..
Reading is the foundaticn for achievement in many
academic areas.
Therefore, much time and effort have gone
into developing effective reading programs.
Unfortunately,
64
by the time many children are identified as poor readers,
they have already formed negative academic self-concepts.
In order to achieve success in reading, they must regain
self-confidence and a feeling that they are capable of
succeeding in learning to read.
(Wirth, 1977)
Several authors have discussed techniques that can
be used by classroom teachers to enhance self-esteem and
to help students reach their academic potential in reading.
f ,-c: N'
~irth
(1977V described a remedial reading program and its
effects on underachieving students' perceptions of respon/
sibility for achievement.
The subjects consisted of 95
students in four public and three nonpublic elementary
schools from a predominantly white, low socioeconomic area
in a mid-western city.
The remedial reading program empha-
sized affective elements in the learning environment with
emphasis on building self-esteem.
Features of the program
included weekly group counseling sessions, specially
trained staff with training in interpersonal communication
skills, assessment of reading problems, and techniques for
teaching underachievers; an emphasis on allowing the
students to explore choices available to them; and parent
involvement through weekly discussion-group meetings in
which parents learned to develop better relationships with
their children and to help build self-esteem in them.
It was found that motivation to achieve in school is
indeed influenced by the kinds of experiences a child has.
65
Marked changes in students' attitudes during the course
of the school year were observed)
_,;'
The counselor played
a significant role in providing affectively oriented inservice consultations with the teachers, individual and
small group guidance, and parent education groups.
Instructional activities designed to enhance self-esteem
\ver'e
based
on
the following assumptions:
(1)
Children should be partners in determining what$ how~ when, and how well they learn.
When children have a part in what is going on,
in helping to shape their destinies, then a
sense of responsibility is developed. Coop~ration depends on mutual involvement.
(2) Learning depends on the emotional climate engendered by the teacher-student relationship; a climate characterized by empathy
ar.d r·espGct fo.r e::J.ch other, as wel"l as awareness of one's own needs, will be most conducive to learning.
(3) Children learn that they are capable
from experiencing success and develop the
confidence to try more difficult tasks.
Mistakes are inevitable and are accepted
without judgment.
(4) Much encouragement, praise, and recognition of accomplishments must be given for
the child to develop a sense of self-worth.
Expectations by the teacher that the child
can and will learn will help to promote selfconfidence in the learner. (p. 39)
The study indicated that children can
b~
motivated and
can achieve if experiences in school are provided that
emphasiz~
affective elements.
Authors Quick (1973) and Henderson (1977) agree that
affective approaches to reading instruction are of central
66
importance in promoting positive self-concepts and achievement in reading.
Quick discussed some specific strategies
that can be used by teachers to promote n1ore effectively
the development of positive self-concepts through reading
instruction.
He stressed the importance of demonstrating
a sincere liking for each child; letting each child know
you are aware of him as a person and are willing to listen to him and help him; taking time to communicate with
each child privately or semiprivately about his interests
and concerns; and serving as a model of respect and selfrespect.
In guiding each child through the reading
process, Quick suggested setting the purpose of instruction and letting each child know what will be expected
of him, and that you are confident that he can accomplish
each task; finding the instructional reading level of
each child and providing material that is at his reading
level so that he can experience success; and guiding each
child toward successful experiences and enabling pupils
to have some immediate feedback so they will realize they
h~ve
mastered each step.
Quick also emphasized the importance of establishing
a positive instructional setting by evaluating each student's progress in reference to previous accomplishments
and not by comparing him to other students; by putting
positive comments on written work; and, by praising pupils
for their successes.
Children should be involved in
67 .
planning, in charting progress, and in evaluating performance.
ThEY also need freedom to explore, discover, and
make mistakes, (pp. 470, 471)
Henderson's strategies are in agreement with those
suggested by Quick.
She includes a table that is a design
for enhancing reading related behavior and self-concept.
The table is made up of a checklist for student behavior
objectives, teaching strategies, and self-concept factors
involved.
(pp. 319-325) Henderson concluded that if our
pupils are to continue to read after passing through our
educational institutions, it is necessary that they
associate pleasurable feelings about themselves with the
act of reBding.
(p. 326)
An experimental investigation was undertaken by
Kupec (1977) in an attempt to determine whether primary
grade pupils who participated in an activity-based reading program would exhibit a higher level of self-concept
and reading achievement than did those pupils who did not
participate in that type of program.
The findings indi-
cated that pupils in all three primary grades that were
in the activity-based group achieved higher scores in
self-concept than those in the control group.
The find-
ings also indicated that experimental group pupils in
grades two and three with the exception of males in grade
three, attained higher mean gain scores in reading than
did those
s~udents
in grades two and three in the control
68
group.
The
u~~a
indicated that the treatment was very
successful and that reading activities in the classroom
can be meaningful and beneficial in promoting reading
achievement for both male and female students.
(\
~tarlton
and Moore (1968) studied an approach to teach-
ing reading that was also designed to enhance self-esteem
in the students.
dr~amatizat·ion,
Their approach involved self-directive
which ·is defined as
11
the pupil's own origi-
nal, imaginative, spontaneous interpretation of a character
of his own choosing in a story which he selects and reads
cooperatively with other pupils in his group which is
formed for the time being and for a particular story
only." (p. 10)
Self-directive dramatization involves all
of the children in the classroom.
It involves selection
of stories from a wide range of reading materials at
different levels that are available to the children at all
times.
Through the use of self-directive dramatization,
children were found to assume more responsibilities, to
acquire values of personal integrity, and to increase
their personal esteem.
The authors stated that pupils
acquired good feelings about themselves and others, and
significant progress was made in reading.
There was some-
thing about self-directive dramatization that freed the
pupil from his worries, his fears, and his dislikes so
that he could reach an area of safety in which he did
produce.
(pp. 58, 59)
69
Carlson (1970) promoted 'the idea that self-concepts
can be raised through the use of puppetry, and that puppetry can be used to motivate children to read orally.
This
approach to reading can help to protect the child's selfesteem, because if a mistake is made, the puppet can be
the "culpr·it 11
•
onto his puppet.
Thus, the child's feelings are projected
The author states that puppets are one
means of improving a child's self-concept and helping him
to accept academic subjects.
(p. 349)
It appears that certain approaches to reading instruction can be a means of enhancing self-concept.
All authors
agree that the role of the teacher, the teacher's attitude,
and the type of atmosphere created by him are important
factors in encouraging positive self-concept growth.
Science and Self-Concept
It has been suggested that the science classroom can
&e· ··a-·~iTS e f u 1 to o l for en ha nc i ng s e 1 f - c on c e p t .
Re s e a r c h
studies by Shymansky, et al ., (1974, 1977) and Krockover
and Malcom (1977} indicated that the activity-oriented
science programs help elevate the way a child feels about
himself.
The authors stated that perhaps this type of
program enhances self-concept by encouraging creative,
innovativet independent thinking--factors that contribute
to an environment conducive to self-concept development.
(Krockover and Malcom, p. 299)
Jaus (1977) supported the
idea that activity-oriented science programs help students
70
develop positive attitudes toward school.
De Vito, Krock-
over, and Malcom (1977) pointed out that science is
ideally suited to produce effective cognitive learning as
well as to emphasize the vital lessons of the affective
domain.
(p. 685)
De Vito, et al., discussed some of the
characteristics of science education that make it an
effective tool for enhancing self-concept.
oriented science
~rograms
The activity-
involve the seeking, receiving,
and processing of information.
The programs are consis-
tent with current views of the intellectual development of
children and can be characterized as
process
oriented.
Children become involved in actual manipulation of materials and experimentation.
Mixer and Milson (1974) pointed out that while a
child's own concept of his world may be cold and lonely,
scientific discovery can be warm, social, childishly
exciting, personal, and strengthening to a child's selfimage.
They expressed the view that science, based on
nature, taught in a relaxed atmosphere of listening and
helping, can enable children to feel safety in learning
and growing.
What a child can or cannot do is largely
determined by how he feels about himself.
(p. 21)
It
appears that science can be a tool for meeting the emotional needs of students, and that helping them build high
self-esteem should be the goal of every science teacher.
71
This ch· ,ter has pointed out the many ways that the
teacher influences self-concept development in children.
Research has shown that it is necessary for the teacher to
have a
posi~ive
self-concept before he can be in a posi-
tion to build positive concepts and attitudes in students
toward themselves.
his students
1
The need for the teacher to believe in
abilities to succeed was shown to be an
·important factor in the development of self-concept.
The atmosphere created in the classroom by the teacher
can produce feelings of positive--or negative--self-worth.
Positive self-concepts can be maintained if teachers are
accepting~
make the children feel secure, respect them,
are sensitive to their needs, allow mistakes, avoid unreasonable demands, and allow freedom to grow.
The child-
ren must be challenged, and they must be allowed to
experience success.
Proper discipline must also be main-
tained, as this shows that the teacher cares.
The teacher
must create an atmosphere that is loving and accepting,
and is nonthreatening and nonjudgmental.
Teachers must play an active role in fostering
healthy self-concepts in students.
In many cases, home
situations are damaging to a child s self-image, and the
1
teacher stands as the next and sometimes the only hope of
improving this damaged self-image.
cannot be
ov~r-stated.
The teacher's role
One of the goals of education
72
should be to find ways to enhance the self-concepts of
children, and the teacher is the one person who is in
the best position to do so.
CHAPTER V
SUt1fv1ARY
The purposes of the present thesis were to a)
in~es-
tigate theories relating to self-terminology and selfconcept development, b) explore literature on the relationship of self-concept to academic achievement, and c)
'
.
investigate the
rol~
of the teacher in the development of
self-concept in students.
The thesis reviewed the available recent literature
concerning self-concept development, the relationship of
self-concept to
achievement~
and the role of the teacher
in the development of healthy self-concepts in children.
This summary chapter contains the findings considered
most significant.
f
i F].-9 i n_92_J~ r Q_fl}_ t h e L i t e r a t u r e a b o u t S_!- 1 f - T e r mi n o 1 o g y
The literature revealed a variety of self-terms being
used by authors ·interchangeably.
and "self-·f'steem
11
The ter'ms
11
self-concept 11
seem to be the most widely used.
Although there has been an interest in self theory
for some time, the focus on self-concept and particularly
its relationship to learning is relatively recent.
(1943) coined the term self-concept.
Raimy
Most of the research
on self-concept and its relationship to academic achievement apparently has been conducted since that time, the
majority in the past two decades.
73
74
Various authors have attempted to define the term
''self-concept" or other self-related terms.
Most agree
that self-concept is a person's perception of himself, and
that these perceptions influence the behavior of the individual.
(LaBenne and Green, 1969; Shavelson et al ., 1976)
Combs and Snygg (1959) elaborate on the "perceived
self" or the "phenomenal self. 11
They maintain that the
perceived or phenomenal self includes not only the physical
aspects of self but everything a person experiences as
"me" at a particular moment.
Most authors agree that
~n
individual's behavior is
greatly influenced by the concepts he holds about himself
and his abilities.
Brookover (1964) concluded that a
person's perception of his own ability to learn influences
his performance in terms of school achievement.
This
"self-concept of ability" is reported by Shavelson, et al.,
(1976) to be dependent on a particular role, area of experience, situation, and time.
Some authors have made a distinction between the
terms "self-concept" and "self-esteem."
Calhoun and Morse
(1977) concluded that "self-concept" refers to how an
individual perceives himself in terms of such things as
ability, value, worth, and limitations.
It is strongly
affected by the amount of success or failure encountered
by a child during his early developmental period.
The
authors contrasted the term "self.-esteem 11 with "self-
75
concept 11 by pointing out that self-esteem ·invol'ies an
additional evaluative component,
11
satisfaction," which
refers to the degree of esteem one holds for on2self.
Self-esteem develops after self-concept and tends to fluctuate more readily than self-concept.
Wylie, (1961) in
agreement with this idea, stated that self-conce}t develops
before the age of five and remains basically constant,
while self-esteem is developed later and changes according
to the success or failure that the individual e;;counters
daily.
Findi.!!__9_?__from the Literature about Self:-Concept Deve·lopment
The
literat[1i~e
indicates thatearly life experiences
are most significant in the development of a child's concepts of himself.
....
---------~ "
•.. -""~~-----~
Most authors agree that the family's
attitudes and acceptance of the child are vital in
th~
formntion and development of healthy self-concepts or
self-esteem.
(Combs and Snygg, 1959; Coopersmith, 1967;
Penticuff, 1976)
In exploring how self-concept comes
about~
Gergen
(1971) discussed the processes involved in the development
of a n i nd i v i d ua 1 ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f s e 1 f .
He po i nted o u t t ha t
a child determines which behavior is generally classified
a.s "antisocial 11 or "sociable 11 in his observatior:s of
others, then observes his own behavior and labe1s himself
in the same way that others would in light of his particular behavior.
The appraisals received from othErs would
76
also be part)cularly powerful in molding self-conception.
Thirdly, Gergen pointed out that social comparison, or a
person's view in relation to others could be influential
in the building of
self~concept.
Jersild (1960) suggests that early signs of selfawareness are those that appear when a child begins to
control things in his environment and notices and manipulates things that are apart from him.
aware of his own body.
He then becomes
In further development, be begins
to assert himself in opposition to others, then compares
himself with his peers.
The attitudes of significant
people in his life--parents, teachers, and peers--toward
a child greatly influence his self-concept.
If he is
accepted, approved, respected, and liked by them, he will
acquire an attitude of self-acceptance and respect for
himself.
Havighurst, et al., (1946) emphasized the importance
of a child's environment in the development of his ideal
self.
He also pointed out that the child's association
with other people greatly influences the ideal self
because the child will look up to people whom he admires,
and consequently will want to emulate them.
Montemayor and Eisen (1977) found that cognitive
development proceeds from a concrete to an abstract mode
of represeni.tion.
terms of co;i.
~ete
Children's views about themselves in
categories such as their address,
77
physical appearance, possession, and play activities, while
adolescents
use more abstract descriptions such as beliefs
and motivational and interpersonal characteristics in
describing themselves.
The ability to cope with stress later in life was
suggested by Penticuff (1976) to be related to a child's
self-concept development.
If he views himself positively,
he will be better able to cope with frustration and disappointment.
Penticuff viewed early life experiences and
the attitudes of parents and teachers as important factors
in developing feelings of self-worth in children.
She
pointed out that changing negative self-concepts requires
time, a trusting relationship, and the belief in the individual's self-worth by others.
Massad (1972) stressed the importance of communication
to the development of self-concept.
Communication may be
both verbal and nonverbal and includes all behavior, both
conscious and subconcious by which people influence each
·other.
Adults must understand the child's feelings about
himself and his world, and communicate their support of
and interest in him in order to help develop in him feelings of self-worth and self-acceptance.
The conditions associated with the development of high
self-esteem were studied by Coopersmith (1967).
He empha-
sized the importance of total or nearly total acceptance
of the child by his parents, clearly defined and enforced
78
l i mi t s , a nd t ;1 ': r e s p e c t a nd 1a t i t ud e f o r i nd i v i d u a 1 a c t i o ns
that exist within the defined limits.
Coopersmith support-
ed the belief that families who maintain clear limits help
to develop high self-esteem.
Parents with definite values,
a clear idea of what is regarded as appropriate behavior,
&nd who are able and willing to present and enforce their
beliefs are more likely to rear children who value themselves highly.
The importance of the family in the development of
self-concept was also discussed by Combs and Snygg (1959).
They maintain that the everyday interactions among the
members of a family are of even greater importance than
vital experiences such as births, deaths, or family upheava1s.
The family provides the child with his earliest
and most permanent self definitions.
The development of
the self for the most part is the product of an individual's exper·ience with his family.
The literature clearly shows that the early years in
a child's life are vital in the development of his views
of himself.
Persons closely associated with the child
during those years play an extremely significant role in
the development of '}he a 1 thy se 1f ..:'i~ma~s
.fin_9_j__!:l_g__?___f_r_or~_ the
Litet~ature
.c:x~:'i
Pertaining to
c.
,
,j
\
th_~_B.§_lation?hi_r.
IS e_! w? en _.?._~lf_:-_C once p t and Acad em i c Ac h i ~ vem en_!_
The present study reviewed reports· of research from
1970 to the
D ·~sent,
with the exception of the review of
79
a study conducted by Brookover and his associates (1964),
which was a landmark investigation.
Brookover's study
determined that the student's concept of his ability in
school is significantly and positively related to academic
performance; that there are specific self-concepts of
ability which are related to specific academic areas and
which differ from the self-concept of general ability;
and that
.SJ~JJJ:O~J> nDJ': RJ
i s s i g n i f i cant l y and p o s i t i vel y
correlated with the perceived evaluations that significant
others ho1d of the student.
It was Brookover's conclusion
that self-concept of academic ability is associated with
academic achievement at each grade level.
Purkey (1970) reviewed extensive research that had
been conducted prior to 1970.
His research indicated that
there is a persistent and significant relationship between
self-concept and academic achievement.
He stated that a
person carries with him certain attitudes about himself
and his abilities that play a primary role in how he perfo!'ms in school.
Purkey cautioned against assuming that
either the self-concept determines scholastic performance
or visa versa.
He did conclude, however, that there is a
strong reciprocal relationship between the two.
Cole's investigation (1974) revealed a relationship
between self-concept, attitude, and achievement motivation
of average third-grade students and their academic achieve-
80
ment.
He concluded that affective variables are important
in the achievement of primary children.
Investigations into the relationship between academic
achievement and self-esteem with reference to possible sex
differences were conducted by Primavera et al., (1974) and
Simon and Simon (1975).
Both studies showed a relation-
ship between academic achievement and self-concept; in
the Primavera study the relationship held for the females,
but in only one out of seven cases for the males.
Weak-
nesses in the design were noted by the authors to have
contributed to the differing results.
Numerous other studies support the belief that selfconcept and academic achievement are related.
Chang (1976)
found that the teacher's rating of self-concept, selfconcept, and academic achievement are significantly
related.
Stenner and Katzenmeyer (1973, 1975, 1976) found
that assessment of self-concepts differ for blacks and
whites~
are correlated with IQ and scholastic achievement,
and represent a new domain of useful information in explaining achievement differences.
Depew (1976) found that
the relationship between self-concept and achievement is
universal.
Alford (1975) found a relationship between
academic achievement in science and self-concept.
While the majority of studies have shown a relationship between self-concept and achievement
have not supported these findings,
3
some studies
Studies that showed no
81
significant relationship between the two variables were
conducted by Nichols (1977), Mintz and Muller (1977),
Marx and Winne (1975) and Ligon, et al., (1977).
Ligon
pointed out some of the reasons for the difficulty in
providing definite answers based on research and for the
differing results obtained from various studies:
Measure-
ment of a self-concept construct is difficult--especially
when used for students coming from a variety of cultures;
political and social realities make truly experimental
studies of this type difficult; the nature of these studies
make most of them non-generalizeable; affective instrument validity is seldom investigated; and students often
respond to items in ways that are socially acceptable
rather than ways that would yield them high scores on a
self-concept scale.
Even though there are these difficulties that must be
considered, as indicated by Ligon, et al,. there seems to
be ample evidence to support existence of a positive
relationship between self-concept and achievement.
The
majority of the findings support such a relationship, and
most researchers have taken steps to eliminate weaknesses
in their studies.
Findings.from the Literature about The Teacher•s Role in
the Development of Student•s Self-Concept
This section of the findings from the literature in
relation to the teacher•s role has been divided into three
82
major parts:
1) teacher self-concept and attitude, 2)
classroom atmosphere and teacher behavior, 3) affective
approaches to teaching.
Teacher Self-Concept and Attitude
It was pointed out in the literature by Purkey (1970),
Ellenburg (1973), and others that the teacher's attitudes
toward himself and others are equally as important as his
techniques,
practices~
or materials used in teaching for
the promotion of positive self-concepts in students.
Studies that revealed the importance of the teacher's
self-concept in relation to his students were conducted by
Edeburn and Landry (1974) and Aspy and Buhler (1975).
Edeburn and Landry reported that a teacher's self-acceptance is related to the development of good self-concepts
in students.
Aspy and Buhler (1975) concluded that a
positive relationship extsts between the levels of teacher
self-concept and the cognitive growth of his students.
Both studies show that it might be wise to assess the
teacher's self-concept when considering him for a teaching
position.
Ellenburg (1973) discussed both the positive and the
negative effects of the teacher's self-concept and pointed
out that when a teacher understands himself, recognizes
and accepts his own weaknesses, and has a positive selfconcept, he will be empathetic towards his students and
will perceive the world from their point of view.
If the
83
student feels love and trust from the teacher, he will be
more inclined to have these same feelings toward himself.
An insecure teacher may take out his hostility on his
pupils.
He may set unrealistically high standards that
his students are unable to meet.
If the child feels he
has failed, his self-concept suffers.
Research has shown the need for the teacher to believe
in the child's ability to succeed (Rosenthal and Jacobson,
1968; Brown and Cleary, 1973; Soares and Soares, 1970;
Rist, "1970)
Each of these studies supported the theory
of the self-fulfilling prophecy, based on the assumption
that children will behave as others expect them to behave.
In all four
st~dies
teacher expectations were communicated
to the students, and their performance met these expecta-
tions.
This section has shown the need for teachers to have
a positive self-concept.
They will then be better able to
accept their students, which in turn, will help enhance
the feelings of the children about themselves.
Teacher
attitude towards .the students' ability to succeed was also
found
to be significant in the development of heaJtbyself__
,
~.
concepts.
If teachers believe i.n their.students'_abilJ-
tiess accept and respect them, improved
aca-dem~Lc., ..perfor-
..... J.J.JJ-.tma rn>e·~-a-nd..~s.e-lf--=~res p e-c t --wi--11---J:.e-s-u-~-. .U
,
l \ \
84
Ciassroq_!!!_A_tmo~~ere
and Teacher Behavior
Several factors have been pointed out in the professional literature that are essential for establishing an
atmosphere that is conducive to building positive selfimages in students.
The factors that appear to be most
significant in the opinions of the various authors will be
reviewed in this section.
(1)
ft~ill? n~.
1-1
i g h a cad em i c expect at ·i on s and a hi g h
degree of challenge have a positive effect on students.
(Purkey, 1970)
( 2)
Freedom.
Children must be given the opportunity
to make choices and decisions for themselves. ·(Purkey,
1970; Drews, 1975) Freedom to make mistakes and to learn by
trial and error are also a necessary part of the learning
process.
(3)
(Mattocks and Jew, 1974)
Re~pect.
Respect on the part of the teacher is
vital in building positive self-concepts in students.
(Purkeyt 1970; Samuels, 1977)
It is important to show the
child that he is accepted and respected for his individua1 i ty.
(4)
Warmth.
Warmth can be communicated in an atrnos-
phere that is psychologically safe and supportive of the
student.
The classroom atmosphere should be nonthreaten-
ing, accepting, and caring.
(Purkey, 1970; Dinkmeyer, et
85
(5)
Control.
Maintaining discipline is important
for the development of healthy self-concepts.
smith~
1967; Purkey, 1970)
(Cooper-
In many instances, reward is
superior to punishment in promoting learning.
(Mattocks
and Jew, 1974)
Success.
(6)
It is essential that the child expe-
rience success rather than failure in the classroom.
{Purkey, 1970)
The teacher's task is to promote self-
confidence so that the child will be able to experience
success.
(Mattocks and Jew, 1974)
~~1esty.
(7)
When a teacher's words, voice, and
body language are not transmitting conflicting messages,
honesty is communicated.
(8)
Nonjudgment.
(Mixer and Milson, 1973)
It is better for the teacher to
direct disapproval toward behavior rather than toward the
person.
If the child is judged, personal worth will be
dependent upon performance.
(9)
Se n s i t i v !_t y .
(Mixer and Milson, 1973)
The tea c he r mu s t a c q u i r e t he a b i -
lity to sense what an individual feels about himself and
the world.
(Mixer and Milson, 1973)
The teacher must
develop sensitivity toward picking up cues from the child
as to how he perceives himself in relation to others.
Also, the teacher must be sensitive to the body image of
the children, paiticularly if there is a child with some
physical impairment.
(Mattocks and Jew, 1974)
86
The atmosphere created by the teacher in the classroom must be one in which the children will be able to
develop positive attitudes about themselves.
Dinkmeyer,
et al. (1975) pointed out that the elementary school years
are crucial in the development of positive attitudes
The teacher is a signi-
toward self, others, and society.
ficant force in the lives of his students during this time.
Therefore~
it is essential that the teacher create an
atmosphere in the classroom that will aid each child in
understanding and accepting himself.
Affective Approaches to Teaching
This section focuses on various approaches in education that have been designed to improve self-concept.
Glasser (1969) suggested the use of classroom meetings to
teach children self-worth.
Elwood (1975) described a
project used in Ottawa that was based on Dr. Glasser's
model.
She concluded that the meetings were useful in
helping children develop a better feeling about themselves.
Another program, The Child Development Program, was
implemented in a New Jersey school system for the purpose
of combating negative
~elf-images
of children with develop-
mental and perceptual difficulties.
(Roth, 1970)
The
program was described as being a success, as children•s
sense of self-worth as well as their performance in school
showed improvement.
87
Several approaches to teaching reading with the emphasis on self-concept improvement were described.
Wirth
(1977) described a reading program that emphasized affec-
tive elements in the learning environment with emphasis on
self-esteem.
It was found that motivation to achieve in
school is influenced by the kinds of experiences as child
has.
Quick (1973) and Henderson (1977) supported the belief
that affecti·ve approaches to teaching reading are important
in promoting positive self-concepts and achievement in
reading.
Kupec (1977) found that pupils who participated
in an activity-based reading program exhibited a higher
level of self-concept and reading achievement than those
not participating in that type of program.
~arlton and Moore (1968) used self-directive dramatization for teaching reading, an approach designed to
enhance self-esteem in the students.
Through the use of
self-directive dramatization, children were found to
assume responsibilities, to acquire values of personal
integrity, and to increase their personal esteem.
The use of puppetry was found by Carson (1970) to be
an effective tool for teaching reading and improving selfconcept.
By projecting his feelings onto his puppet, the
child's self-esteem is protected.
Research has indicated that the science classroom can
also be a tool for enhancing
~elf-concept.
It was found
88
that
~ctivity.based
science programs can help elevate the
way a child feels about himself,
(Shymansky, et al .,
1974, 1977; Krockover and Malcom, 1977)
Jaus (1977) and
Mixer and Milson (1974) supported the view that science
programs can help students develop positive attitudes
toward school.
It was pointed out that scientific dis-
covery can be warm, social, exciting, personal, and
strengthening to a child s self-image.
1
The findings of research studies and the review of
literature included in this summary have many implications
for school administrators, supervisors, and teachers.
Conclusions and recommendations have been generated that
convey these implications.
These conclusions and recommen-
dations are presented in the next chapter.
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations made by the writer concerning self-concept and
achievement.
The conclusions are based on research find-
ings and related literature considered relevant and significant.
Recommendations for education and educators and
for further research are provided.
Conclusions
_S e 1 f- Co D.S2.§'J2 t De vel o pm en t
1.
Self-concept begins to develop very early in life,
and early-life experiences are significant in developing
feelings of self-worth.
2.
!he parents and family of an individual play a
vital role in the development of self-concept.
3.
Teachers, being considered significant others,
often are second only to parents in influencing a child's.
self-concept.
4.
The changing of negative self-concepts requires
time and a trusting relationship.
-Self-Conceot
.~------·-~~----1~
1.
and Academic Achievement
----
There is a significant reciprocal relationship
between self-concept and academic achievement at all
elementary grade levels.
89
90
2.
The relationship between self-concept and achieve-
ment has been demonstrated in all subject areas and applies
to both sexes.
3,
A rise in self-concept usually results in improved
academic performance.
The Teacher's Role in the Development of Students'
Self~
Concepts
1.
The teacher's attitude about himself and his
abilities is a significant factor in building a positive
self-concept in students.
2.
students~
If teachers have a positive attitude toward their
academic performance and self-respect will be
enhanced in the students; if teachers have a negative
attitude towards their students, academic performance and
self-concept of the students are usually damaged.
3.
The atmosphere created in the classroom by the
teacher is of prime importance in the development of
positive self-concepts in students.
4.
Vnrious approaches to teaching that have been
designed to improve self-concept have been effective.
The following examples emphasize affective elements of
learning and have helped children build positive selfimages:
a.
The use of classroom
~eetings
nonthreatening environment
in a
91
b,
The use of puppetry, self-directive
dramatization, and activity-based programs for teaching reading
c.
Activity-oriented science programs.
It is undeniable that the teacher is in a potent
position to exert influence on the child's developing
self-concept.
Therefore, i t is important that teachers
become aware of the significant role they play in shaping
the self-concept of the child.
Teachers must examine their
own attitudes, behavior, and teaching techniques and work
toward the goal of building healthy self-concepts in their
students.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions of the present
thesis~
1.
the following recommendations are made:
Educators should inform parents of the importance
of the family and early life experiences in developing
healthy self-imuges.
2.
School districts should sponsor in-service classes
designed to:
a.
Inform teachers of the significance of
self-concept as related to achievement.
b.
Present practical advice for helping
teachers implement approaches and practices in the classroom designed to
improve self-concept.
92
c.
3.
Help teachers evaluate and improve
their own attitudes and other personality characteristics that are impot~­
tant for establishing a warm, nonthreatening, learning environment.
Colleges and universities where teachers are
being trained should require courses that are specifically
Aesigned to train teachers in affective approaches to
.ed ucat ·ion .
4.
Teachers being interviewed for teaching positions
should be assessed on personality characteristics such as
sel~-concept
and attitude toward children, rather than
being evaluated solely on academic, cognitive-type skills.
5.
School district personnel need to choose curri-
culum materials and guides that will assist teachers in
developing self-concept in students.
6.
Publishers should make a more conscious effort to
include in their materials guidelines and helps for
teachers that will aid in the development of self-concept
in children,
Recommendations for Further Research
The writer recommends that further research be conducted including the following:
1.
Studies that more accurately describe the nature
of the cause and effect relationship between self-concept
and achievement.
93
2,
Studies that isolate classroom practices that
affect self-concept as it is related to achievement; also
the effects of grading, grouping, and retention practices
on self-concept.
3.
Studies that determine the effectiveness of
various programs of instruction designed to promote positive self-concepts.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alvord~ Dav·;
BetvJe\~!;~
;?_~_}_Q.!JS~:
11
.). and Lynn~~. Glass.
Relat·ionships
/cca.demic Achievement and Se"if-Concept, 11
.J_dJ:I_i=_~ t ·i 0 n , 58 : 1 7 4- 1 7 9 , 1 9 7 4.
Aspy, D., and Buhler, June.
"The Effect of Teacher•s
Infen··ed Se.!f-Concept Upon Student Achievement,"
The Journal of Educational Research, 68: 386-389,
197 5-~------
11
Bloom, BE:njamin S,
Affective Outcomes of School
L e <1 r n-i n g , f_hi Del t a-~~ an , 59 : 1 9 3- 1 9 8, 1 9 7 7 .
11
Bond, Guy L. and Miles A. Tinker.
Reading Difficulties:
Their Di ag nos is and Con~ect ion-.NeWY ork-:--Appletonce-ri-fury~-c;.ofts, 1957.
Brantley, Ve~~na l..
"Relationships Among Teacher and
Pupil Self-Concept and Pupil Reading Achievement
at the First Grade Level , 11 Dissertation Abstracts,
37-7:
4111-A.
Briggs, Dorthy C. Your Child's Self-Esteem.
C·i t y , N • Y • :
Do u b 1 e day , --1 9 7 0 •
Garden
Brook ov (-:l~, vJ. B. and others. lJD_prov i ng_l._caq_em i c Achieve!T!.9_ilLJ:.b!_~~-9l~?_t u d_§_n t ~-- • S e 1 f- Con c e2_!. En h_it~ c e~]_~2!_!.:
~e·L:t.::_t::_onc~B~~-of Abi 1 i ty and Schoo·! Achievement.
East Lansing, Michigan.: Michigan State University
Press) 1955.
11
Self-Concept of Ability and School Achieve~~~·i~logy_pf Education, 37: 271-278~ 1964.
Br own ) J . A. and C1 ear y , ~L A·. '' The Imp a c t of Tea c her
Consultation on the Self-Perception of Elementary
S c h o o 1 Ch i ·1 d r e n , 11 .[: d u c a t i_9_!l , 9 3 : 3 3 9 - 3 4 ~i , 1 9 7 3 •
Calhoun, G., Warren, P., a n d Ku r f i s s , J . ,. A Com p a r i s o n
of the Self-Concept and Self-Esteem of Black and
White Boy Scouts,
Clea~ing House, 50:
131-133,
11
1976.
94
95
Ca 1 h o u n , lJ r , ~ !•1 o r s e , Ge o r g e a n d \4 i 11 i a m. 11 Se 1 f - Co n c e p t
and Se ·1 ·f -·Esteem : Another Per spec t i v e , 11 Psycho.l.2..9._y
j n___t_!1 e -~~Jl.2. o 1 ?,_, ·! 4 : 3 1 8 ·- 3 2 2 , 1 9 7 7 .
Calsyn, R.J. and Kenney, D.A. 11 Self-Concept of Ability
and Perceived Evaluation of Others: Cause or Effect
of Academic Ach·ievement?
Journal of Educational
11
~_y_s:_h..!~l2_g_y,
6 9:
1 3 6- l 4 5' 1 9 7 7 •
Canfield, J. and Wells, H.C. 100 Ways to Enhance Selff_gnc~_Et in the. Classroom:
a Handbook for- Teachers
and Parents. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1976--:-----
R.K. 11 Raising Self-Concepts of Disadvantaged
Ch i 1 d r e n t h to u g h Pu p p e try , 11 _E 1 em e n t a r y En q 1 i s h ,
47: 349-355, 1970.
Cal~"lson,
Ca. r l to n , L . a n d ~1 o o r e , R. H. Be a d i n 9...2__~e 1 f -_Q_i r e s..:ti v e
Dramatization and Self-Concept. Columbus, Ohio:
Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1968.
Case, D.A.
49:
Teachers--Provoke Not.
380-382, 1976.
11
11
Clearing House,
Chang, T.S.
Self-Concepts, Academic Achievement, and
Teacher ' s Rat i n g , 11 Ps y _c ho 1 o gy ·j n the Schoo 1 s , 1 3 :
"111-113, 1976.
11
Combs, f~oW. (Ed.), _Perceivi_Q_9..LJ?_ehaving~. Becoming: A
New Focus for Education. Washington, D.C.: Associat i on for S u per v i s· i o nand Cur r i c u 1 um De v e 1 o pmen t ,
1962.
Combs~
A.W. and Snygg, D.
Individual Behavior: A PercepNe w-Yo r k :
Ha r p e l'' a n d
_!;_~_~]_ J\ p p r o ~c h ~~~ h a v~i o r_.
Row, 1959.
Co mb s , A • ~J . , e t a l • F 1 o r i d a S t u d i e ~_jB__ __~ h e He 1 p i n g
Professions. Gainesvill: University of Florida
e
p r· s s-~~-196~~r.
Cole, J.L. 11 The Relationship of Selected Personality
Variables to Academic Achievement of Average Aptitude
Th i r· d Gr a d e r s ~ 11 J o u r n R l o f Ed u c a t i o n a 1 Re s e a r c h ~
67: 329-333 ~ 19"TLrJ"____
-----
96
Coopersmith, S.
Francisco:
The Antecedents of Self-Esteem.
W.H. Freeman and Co., 1967-:--
San
Day, B. and Brice, R.
"Academic Achievement, Self-·Concept
Development, and Behavior Patterns of Six-Year-Old
Childr·en .·in Open Classrooms," Elementary School
~9ur~i~_l, 78: · 132-139, 1977.
DepevJ, D.F.
"Self-Concept and Achievement: A Cross
Cultural Validation Study in Germany and the United
States, 11 Dissertation Abstracts, 37-2: 1234-A
11
De Vito, A., Krockover, G.H. and Malcom, M.D.
SelfConcept Research:
Implications for Elementary
Science Teachers," School Science and Mathematics,
77: 683-689, 1977.
Dinkmeyer, D., Carlson, J. and Koval, C.
"Increasing the
Teache1···s Understanding of Students• Self-Concepts,"
Education, 96: 180-183, 1975.
Drews, E.t~.
"Freedom to Grow, 11 Today•s EducationL64:
56-57, 19?5
Edeburn, C.E. and Landry, R.G .. 11 Self-Concepts of Students
and a Significant Other, the Teacher," Psychological
.t<epor!_~, 35:
505-506, 1974.
11
E"llenburg, F.C.
Pupils Will Be Mirrors of the Teacher•s
Setf-Concept,n People ~latching,. 2: 32-35, 1973.
11
Elwood, S.
Circle r~eetings: A Time When Every Child Has
Worth)" £9_ucat·ion Canada, 15: 42-46, 1975.
Finlayson, H.J.
••Nonpromotion and Self-Concept DevelopPhi Delta ~~ 5 59: 205-207, 1977.
mGnt,11
Gergen~
K.J. The Concept of Self. New York:
Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1971.
Ginott, H.G.
1972.
Teacher and Child.
New York:
Glasser, Wm. Schools Without Failure.
and Row, 1969.
Good, C.V •
Hi11~
.Q.i£t.!.Q_!lary of Educat-ion.
1973.
Holt,
MacMillan,
New York:
New York:
Harper
tkGraw-
97
Gordon , I . J . "Chi 1 d r en ' s Vi e V.J s of Them s e 1 v e s .
091633, 1974.
11
ERIC
Gr-een be r' 9 , Herbert fvt • Teach i n g__\i.:L_~!~ Fee 1 i n g_:_ __~_o mpass i on
and Self-Awareness in the Classroom Today. New York:
Fia'Cin i
n-,--19 6 9 •
.
rra
Guest, G.R. and Thomson, E.W.
"A Model for the Growth of
Self··Concept, 11 _Canadian Counsellor, 6: 45-49, 1972.
Hamachek, D.E. Encounters With the Self.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1~71.
Hamachek, D.E. (E:d.).
New York:
The Self in Growth, Teaching and
h_e a r n 1_n_g_:_____~~-L~. c t §j_ Re a ~1.!'~~·
Prentice-Hall, 1965.
o
En g 1 e wo d Cl i f f s , N • J . :
Hamilton., D.T.
nEar·ly Ch·ildhood--I'm Me!
Instructor, 86: 76, 80, 82, 1976.
I'm Special, 11
11
Hare, B.R.
Self-Concept and School Ach·ievement: The
Illinois Teacher of Home
Ro.!e of the Teacher,"
E~onom·ics, 21:
170-172, 1978.
11
Harvey, R.C., and Denby, R.V.
Life at an Ear·ly Age:
Nourishing Self-Concept in the Classroom," Elementary
Enqlish, 47:
993-1001, 1970.
--...h--p~·----
Ha v i g h u r s t , R. J . , Ro b i n s o n , M. Z . , a n d Do r r , ~1 . " Th e
Development of the Ideal Self in Childhood and
Adolescence," Journal of Educa.t·iona·l Research, 40:
2 41-2 57 ' 1 9 4-6. - - - - - - - - - - - - - · - - 11
Henderson 5 ~~.A.
Read·ing While Becom·ing: Affective
Apptoaches, :_Journal of Rea_din_g_, 20: 317-326, 1977.
Horn 5 D. 11 Se 1 f- Image Boosters , "
1976.
Jaus~
Ins t
n~ tor_,
86 :
170 ,
H.H.
"Activity-Oriented Science:
Is It Really That
Good?" Science a_nd Children, 14: 26-27, ·1977.
J ens en , A. R. I9_~ cab i 1 i t y and Gr ~~ i f fer en c e s .
and Row, New York, 1973.
Harper
Jersild, A.l.
"Social and Individual Origins of the
Self," fbj_L<l__E_~chol.2.£.t· 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 1960.
98
Ka s h , M. 1\1 - and 0 the r s . 11 Teacher Be h a v i or and Pup i 1 S e 1 fConce.pt. 11 fRif 124 540, 1976.
Katzenmeyer, W.G. and Stenner~ A.J. Self-Observation
Scales--Intermediate Level. Nation~testing Service,
-ou-r h-a rn~N:-t~--~-T97T:-------
Estimat-ion of the Invariance of Factor
------S t r-L£ c tu r e s Ac r o s s S e x a n d Ra c e vd t h I mp 1 i c a t i o n s f o r
Hypothesis Testing, 11 Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 1975.
11
11
Strategic Use of Random Subsamp1e Replication and a Coefficient of Factor Replicabi1ity, 11
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 35:
19--29, 1975.
--------
Self-Concept, Ability, and Achievement in
----a.··-samp1e of Sixth-Grade Students, 11 Journal of Educa_:Ll_~_t Research, 69:
270-273, 1976.
11
11
----- Phi___ fl~lta
Self-Concept Development in Young
Kappan, 58: 356-357, 1976.
Kr o c k o v e r , G. H • , a n d
Childl~en.
~1 a 1 c om
, [v1. D. 11 Th e Ef f e c t s o f t h e
Science Curriculum Improvement Study on a Chilct•s
Self-Concept, 11 Journal of Resear·ch in Science Teach.i.!lJl.' 14: 295-299' 1977.
Kupec~
P.A.
The Effect of a Reading Activities Program
Upon the Self-Concept and Reading Achievement of
Pr·imary Grade Pupils, 11 Dissertation Abstracts, 38-4:
1875-l876A.
---
LaBenne,
11
and Greene, B.I. Educationa~tions
.2.f_~~~-Lf.:S: o l"!_s:~U h e 2..\:1..
P a c i f i c P a 1 i s a d e s , Ca 1 i f . :
Goodyear Publishing Co., Inc.~ 1969.
·
~LDq
L e v i to n , H .
The Imp 1 i c a t i o n s o f t h e Re l a t i o n s h ·j p Be tween
Self-Concept and Academic Achievement. 11 Child Study
Journal. 5: 25-35, 1975.
11
Leviton, H., and Kiraly, J.
Achievement and Self-Concept
i n You n q L • D • Ch n d r en , ..
Ac a d~T he i~ a py ~ 1 0 :
453-45~)~ 1975.
11
Ligon, G. a.l;< Others. A St~ of the RelationshiP___!ietween
Affective and Achievement Measures. ERIC Document
Rei:n"oa·t:;·'",~1on Service, ED "137-361, 1977.
11
99
11
f•1arx, R., and ~~inne, P.H.
Self-Concept and Achievement:
Implications for Educational Programs, 11
Integrate.s!_
E~atiQ_Q_, 'i3:
30-31,1975.
11
fv1attocks, A.L., and Jew, C.C.
The Teacher•s Role in the
Deve·Jopment of a Healthy Self-Concept in Pupi1s, 11
Ed~cattQ!!_, 94:
200-204, 1974.
tk I n t ir· e , ~L G. , a n d Dnt mmo n d , R . J .
of Self-Concept in Chi1dt~en,
~g_l s_, 14: 295-298, 1977.
11
11
t~ultiple Predictors
Psycholo.9_L in the
~Iintz,
11
R., and Muller, D.
Academic Achievement as Func··
tion of Specific and Global Measures of Self-Concept, 11
Jhe Journal of Psychology, 97:
53-57, 1977.
~1·1xer,
11
A.S., and t~ilson, J.L.
Teaching and the Self,
Cl e_a r_j n g House , 4 7 : 3 4 6- 3 50 , 1 9 7 3 .
uself-Concept in the Science Classroom,..
- - - S ~J e n c ~ a n d ~1 a t h em a t i c s , 7 : l 6 - 2 1 , 1 9 7 4 .
11
School
11
Montemayor·, R., and Eisen, !v1.
The Development of SelfConceptions from Childhood to Adolescence,.. Develo!?_~le~J_t~_l_.._Psych2_lQ.illf_, 13:
314-319, 1977.
t1oon, M., and ltJilson, D.
Teacher-Counselor Cooperation:
Bu ·i 1 d i n g S e l f - Co n c e p t s a n d Con f i d e n c e i n Ch i ·1 d r e n , I!
T b~_s c ~_2_~Uo u n s e 1 or, 1 7 : 3 6 4- 3 6 6 , l 9 7 0.
11
Nicho"is, J.S.
A Study of the Relationship Between SelfConcept: Both Self-Perceived and Inferred and
Achievement of Fifth-Grade Students, 11 Dissertation
t~b~!_r.acts, 38-7:
3816, 3817A.
11
Peck, R.F., and Others. Teacher Effects on Student
Achievement and Self-Este~m.
ERIC Documentation
1fep't:;odu c f10n-- Se r·v ices ED 1 41 7 2 3, 1 9 7 7 .
11
Pe n t i c u f f ~ J .
0 e v e 1 o p me n t o f t h e Co n c e p t o f S e 1 f 11 I mp 1 i cc.t·ions for the Teacher 1 s Role in Mental Health, 11
_Educatjon_£J Horizol}j_~ 55: 15-18, 1976.
11
Pr·imavera, L.H., and Simon, W.E.
The Relationship
Between Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement: An
I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Sex Di f f e 1~ e n c e s , 11 f_s y ~h o 1 og_y_j_0_!_h e
~-0 1__~' 11 ~
21 3- 21 6 , 1 9/' 4 .
100
Purkey ~~.W. -~~lf-Conce2_t and School Achievemer:t_"t_,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970.
5
Building Self-Concepts in Students and
----T e a ch e r- s ,
Un i v e r s i t y o f F 1 o r· i d a Un p u b 1 i s h e d Pa p e r ,
1974.
15
11
Quick, D.M.
Ieac~er,
11
Tovvard Positive Self-Concept, 11
26: 469-472, 1973.
The Reading_
Raimy, V.C. "The Self-Concepts as a. Factor in Counseling
and Personal Organization, 11 Unpublished Doctoral
Dissertation, University of Ohio~ 1943.
Rist, R.C. 11 Student Social Class and Teacher Expectations:
The Sel f-Ful fi 1·1 i ng Prophecy in Ghetto Education, 11
Harvard Educational Review, 40: 411-451, 1970.
Rosentha 1, R., and Jacobsen, L. ft_gmal_i op in th_~~_lass_­
room: Teacher's Expectations and Pupil's Intellectual
p__e ve 1 0 I? me·n--c:-NeWYork-:--f-1 0 11·;-- R; ne ha r· t and wi n s-t 0 n,-1968.
"An Intervention Strategy for Children With
Developmental Problems, 11 Journal of__j~J- Psycho19~1, 8:
311-314, 1970.
Roth, ,J.
Samuels, S.C. Enhancing Self-Concept in Early Childhood:
}_h_e~ _
_gndPracTice. NevJ York: Human Sciences Pre-ss,
1977.
.
Sears, P.S., and Sherman, V. In Pursuit of Self-Esteem.
Be 1 mo n t , Ca 1 i f . : Wa d s wo r t h P u b l i s h ·i n g Co • , ·1 9 6 4 .--Shave1son 5 R.J., Hubner, J.lJ., and Stanton, G.C. 11 Se-lfConcept: Validation of Construct Interpretations, 11
Rev}eyj_Of E_ducational R~~earch, 46: 407-441, 1976.
S,, and 0 Rourke, R. 11 Every Child Has High Worth-Pr o ve I t ,
h_e a r nl!!il.., 4 " 4 6 - 5 0 , 1 9 7 5 •
Simo!'l~
1
11
Simon, W.E,, and Simon, ~1.G. "Self-Esteem, Intel'ligence,
and Standardized Academic Achievement, 11 _Psychology
if1_~_th~:.. Schq_9]_~, 12:
97-99, 1975.
l 01
Shymansky, J.A., Matthews, C.C., Good, R.G., Penick, J.E.,
Kolebo.s, P.R., and Allen, T.E. 11 A Study of SelfPerceptions Among Elementary School Students Exposed
to Contrastin9 Teaching Strategies in Science, 11
Sci e r_1_c e__I_d t~c a.t i .Q_!l, 58 : 3 31 - 3 4 l , l 9 7 4 .
Shymansky, J.A., Matthews, C.C., Good, R.G., and Penick,
11
J.E.
A Study of Student Classroom Behavior and
se-lf-Perception as it Relates to Problem Solving,
~ o 1:! rna l of_ Research i n Science Teach i n g , 1 4:
l 91 - l 9 8 ,
1977.
11
11
Smith, N.B.
Some Basic Facts in Reading Difficulties of
the Disadvantaged, 11 _Read~mprovement, 11: 3-9,
1974.
Soares, A.~ and Soares, L.~l.
Self-Perception of Cultura 1 l y Di sad vantage d Ch ·i 1 d r en , 11 Am e r i can Ed u cat i on a 1
Research Journal, 1970, 7: 631-63~1970·.
11
11 Affective Objectives in Reading: The Se1fTreat, J.E.
Concept,11 Reading_Improvement, 14: 229-232,1977.
Van Boven, J.
''Improving Self-Concept: A Possible Aid to
Increased Ach·ievement and More Desirable Behaviot~,~~
ERIC 114 724, 1973.
Yam am o to , K• , ( e d • ) • Th e Ch i 1 d a n d Hi s I ma~.
Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972.
t~est,
Bo s to n ,
11
J.L.
An Investigation of Children's Self--Concept
Variance in the Elementary School Grades One, Three,
and Six, 11
D·issertation Abstracts, 37-5: 2616A.
11
Williams, F.E.
Re.discovering the Fourth-Grade Slump in
a Study of Children's Se1f-Concept, 11 Journal of
Cr_e at~ v e Be h_a vi o ~~, 1 0 : l 5- 21 • 1 9 7 6.
~iirth,
S.
"Effects of a Multifaceted Reading Program on
Se1f-Concept, 11 Elementary School Guidance and
Counseling, 12: 33-40, 1977.
~fylie,
R.C. Th~~_lf-Concept.
of Nebraska Press, 1961.
Lincoln, Neb.:
University