CALIFORNIA S'l'ATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
BASIC
VOCABULARIF~S
FOF~
ENGI1ISH
AS A SECOND IJANGUAGE
.A -th&sis ;::;-c(bmi ttG·4. itl p?r"':i9.l na tisfaction of' the
req;.;;.irement;3 f'or the degree cf' Master of Arts .1.n
Second.ary Eauea tion
by
Augu~~t,
1979
The Thesis of Mary-·Faith Albert is approved:
1Date)
~Date)-----·-··
Califo::::·ni.a State University, Northridge
ii
.
ACKNOwLEDGMENTS
Much research and writing is done in gradu.a te
courses and professional J.ife, but the writing of a thesis
is both a culmination and a beginning work.
Groups of
individuals assist in many ways that cannot be detailed
but should be recognized.
A most grateful acknowledgment is extended to
Dr. Luis F. Hernandez, Dr. Christine C. Smith, and
Dr. C. Ray Graham for their professional advice, the
benefit of their expertise in the field., and for their
encouragement in this project.
Other individuals deserve mention.
Two secre-
taries, Mrs. Freda Krogstad and Mrs. Frances Foy, were
constantly available for information and assistance.
i\1r. Erwin Vertlieb acted as an excellent research assis*tant.
Gratitude is also offered to Ms. Mary Findley at
the university librar·y and to Ms. Susa.n Odencran.tz,
1\'Irs. Beatrice Wolchak, and l'ilrs. Helen Head. of the Los
Angeles p-,J.blic Library.
Finally, the thoroughness and
compet.sncy of' Mrs. Bessie R. Strauss, a professional
typist,
L~
d.uly acknowledged.
iii
'
This thesis is dedicated
to Sylvia who began as a
loving friend, continued
as a pressured typist,
concluded as a perceptive,
encouraging collaborator,
and is still a loving friend.
iv
~i_lABLE
OF CONTEN·rs
Pa.ge
PRKL D1IN.A.RIES
Ap:proval Page
1.1.
A c. . know1 edgmen ts
Dedication
iv
C o:n:te~~ ts
Ab~.rtract
...
.l.J.~
..
v
vii
Cha~pter
IN1'RODUC:J.1ION
II.
.,
.L
Pu.rpose of the Study
1
E:;d;ionale for the Study
1
Uses for the Vocabulary Lists
5
HEVIE\~
01" LITERATURE
Pion2er Period
.
p erJ..c·
. d.
.t;xpan.:::non
8
9
11
Criti.cEl Appraisal Period
1'7
-'
Page
Chapter
III.
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...
METHOD • • • . .
Introduction .
Purpose of the ESL List
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19
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19
•
~
•
lit
•
Selection Criteria for Comparative
23
Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......
........
ESL Mathematics List .
IV.
FINDINGS • • • • . • . •
Symbols and Sources for the ESL
Core List . . . • •
...
I
Symbols and Sources f'or the ESL
Mathematics IJist . . • . . .
..
ESL Mathematics List . •
8
t
•
•
II
Analysis of the Findings
.....
Criterion Validity . .
.
Content Validity .
..
..........
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . .
•
•
t
Recommendations •
........
•
•
•
..
.
•
Ql
•
•
.
I
I
•
•
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vi
75
82
85
86
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Summ2.ry • • • •
BIBLIOGRAPHY
•
74
83
ESL Mathematics List .Analyzed
v.
28
28
...
~
26
88
88
88
91
ABSTRACT
BASIC V0CABUTJARIES FOR ENGI.ISH
AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
by
IVIary--Fai th Albert
Master- o.f Arts in
Second.ar~r
Education
This wor-k is a comparative study of 10 different
vocabulary studies for the purpose of compiling basic
vocabularies in English and mathematics for secondary
students of English as a Second Lang·uage.
After a review
of the significance of vocabulary related to concepts and
to the phonology, morphology, and s;)rntax of a language, an
examination is made of some of the major periods and. research in the histcry of vocabulary investigation.
'l'he specific criteria and methods are then estab-
1 is.hed fo:c the selection and comparison of 10 word lists.
A to-tal of .5,07:1 words of high frequency is compared from
vocabulary
st~dies
and. oral 1angu<:.o.ge.
in primar·y reading, corrective reading,
The word studies involved ar8 ~
Dolch,
19.36; Thorndike, 1921; Int0rnatim:al Kindergarten Union,
vii
"'9,.)8
l. .:.. ; Fitzgerald, 196.3; Murphys 1957; Harris and ,Jacobson,
1972; Stone, 1950; Durrell, 19Jl.r; Fry, 1957;
Dt1rTr
1977.
The ESL Core List from these comparisons is presented, as is an ESL Mathematics List developed from a
comparison of the Buswell and John ( 19.3'1) arithmetic list
and an elementary mathematics list from Harris and
Jacobson ( 1972).
'I'he core list of ?32 words is arranged
alphabetically with source data for each word.
The mathe-
matics list includes an alphabetical listing of terms and
phrases and a list of the cardinal and ordinal numbers
which appear on the Murphy (1957) and Kindergarten Union
( 1928) lists for young child.r,::ln.
I:n. the analysis of
findb1gs, the ESL Core List and the mathematics list are
comparGd with other lists to determine their degree of'
correspondence with valid lists.
The limitations of the
core list are discussed in terms of omiL'Wions for language
and concept development.
The omission of modern math and
secolld.ary level word.s in the mathematics list is noted.
The writer conelvdes with an alternative to the
traditional method of vocabulary study.
The approach is
one which combines scientific method with field expertise,
and. one which would be facilitated by computer tecrmology.
A computerized search of the high frequency items in
various ca tego:ries of ¥rords is suggested.
In that way,
a basic ESL list would include not just the most common
viii
structure words, but also the highest frequency nouns,
adjectives, and miscellaneous words needed for the language and concept development of English aB a Second
Ilanguage students •
ix
CH..L\.PTER I
INTRODUCTION
Purnoss
of
·--·---·
. . the Studv
. -... _. ___ .,.
·----,t'-~-~
----~--
One Df the. oldes-t a.nd most prevalE;'Ylt .f'o:i.'"'Ins
educational research
ha~~
been the investigation of vocabu-
laries, bLlt the appJ.ieation of thf..: findings to the field of
English as a Second. Language has been peripheral and arbitrc>. . rJ. · Only two studies have yielded vocabulary lists f'or
ESI.;, and both of these
•
'
.
lrnel"J:t
c .+'. :·
'1..
"t1lJ.s
hav~;
been for
adult~3.
It was the
.
t•1.ga te
. s.no.' compare 1 ei:t d.T11g
paper t o ll1Ve:3
studies of high frequency vocabularies for the compilation
of lar1guage and rna thema tics lists at the seconr.lary ESIJ
level.
~J.lhe
basic question was whether these ESIJ vocabu-
lar:l.es ·would. meet the instructional needs for the language
&nd (;oncept development of the
non-l'~nglish
speakers.
'l'od2..y, ','!ith -thG increased enrollment of .nvn-J:..nglish
S?e<:tkGrs in ~3c?wo1s a.nd with the legislation cf bilingu.n.lE;3L instructicr;,
it
seemr~d
imperativE: that the st:Jcly of
eurrir::ular area be approached \•Lith 't.b.e
ns.me cor11bina tion. of scientLfic 2.nd field
characteristi~
expel~i;ise
oi' many "'{ocab'ulary :Lnvestiga tions
1
that is
.t'o:~
2
lang·uage arts.
Over the years, ESL teachers and writers of
ESL textbooks have modified language arts studies for
instructional purposes.
'Ihe development of vocabulary is important to both
non-Englit.-;h speakers and speaJrers o:f English as a first
O'Rourke (.1974:14) emphasized:
langu.age.
Vocabu1ary development is a vital
part of each s~udent's life. It affects
thought;:;~,
his
~:>.ctions, aspir.::.tions, a~d
Tn
o-E"'l':'P""'""l
suc~e"'s
t;.:'Lf\;-i t
.~.J.
:::_";!
, :• ...,,..,)...,_..__'
.
._,·
0
biC! "ll··c·-o.cQ
O)_~+'tE"r'
•
.·--1.
..:'> ,.~1,.,~
-1.--}..J
1n r:any ax-eas,
ach1.evement.
ln a world exp~'ndi:1g fast in ev·ery field.
the :nr:-ed to ezpe.:r:.d and enrich students'
vocabularies is cmEpellingly apparent.
wJ."th.words_ms;:;~J::; succe~s
~)?.rt.:.cula.r.J. y l:n ar:adem1c
Dno might add that, for ESL students, it is not just a
'I!Sl ttf~r
o:i' enrichment.
It is the more serious matter oi'
provi..::U;-.tg ec l.B.nguage background for social ar:d. :personal
su.:;::-vi 'Jal.
nerstones
Tbo choice of the vocabulary words, as the corOJ-::-
conL'I'lurd_e:-9. i;ion, must reflect the needs for
language dev,::;lo:pmt::n.t an.d self-concept in th.ese pupils.
It was these concerns for :t.'SL
stude~ts
and the
absence of materials in the 1950's that init5Bted the
writer's interest in vocabulary studies for second lan..:
Using a curriculum guide in foreign
of the classic lists of high frequency
wo:r.·ds,
~clw
writer
compil<~d
the first guide for ESL teac!dng
in tho public schocls of Newark, New Jersey.
was
2x1
'I'he attempt
emergency e:ffort, lacki:rlg expertise from. the f':i eld
and scientific methods.
Over the year:3, with ex_pcriences
2.0
a
teacher~
supervising teacher, coordinator, and consul-
tant for bilingual and ESL instruction, the writer revised
the ESL list of words until it lost many of its high
frequency features.
The current research utilized a more
scientific approach of content analysis B.nd comparative
study.
A list of g.:..ncral
wo~ds
.for English as a Second
Language must incorporate the typical sounds, concepts,·and
structure words of the language and culture for which it is
intended.
This was a basic assumption related to the
development of a core list of words for ESL.
A fundamental list of mathematics terms was chosen
for sever-al s:1.gnificant reasons.
Varied legislative man-
dates concerning the education of non-English speaking
pupils were being implemented in schoo1 systems throughout
the nation.
Language and mathematics courses were being
developed for ESL programs.
Unlike science, special
studies, or other subject areas, mathematics could afford.
the ESL student !_Tlore opportunity for concept acquisition.
There is a universality to the language of computation, 8.nd
generally with minimal preparation.
The student can find. a
sense o.f achievement in -chis area of study.
The key factor for success in rna thema tics_s_e_ems____t.o______
be preparation, and the problem is not unique to
s~~ud.ies "by
that "
EST.~
p1..1.pils.
Lyd,a a1:1d Duncan ( 1967:291) led. to the con.clu. sion
. . . direct study of quantitative vocabulary
4
contributed significantly to growth in problem solving."
Over forty years ago, Buswell and John (1931:]) wrote:
'reachers of arithmetic cannot
ignore the .fact that their subject
makes constant use of a technical
voeabulary which goes beyond the list
of words commonly used in reading and
spelling and that the building-up of
adequate concepts of the terms used is
an important obligation.
Such conclusions were based, in part, upon an extensive
review of vocabulary studies o:f that time, but they hold
true today, too.
Fev; of the technical words for rna the-
matics .appeared in the language arts lists of high
.frequency words for children in the elementary grades, as
a review of two typical lists (Carroll, Davies and
Ric.b.rnan, 1971; Harris
&
Jacobson, 1972) will show.
Their
lists of mathematics words, however, presented another
problem, that of being too tecr..nical for a beginning
student of English.
Both lists also excluded phrases that
are common in this content area.
A list, based on high frequency counts, of the
basic
v.rord.:.:~,
phrases, and symbols in the study of ma thema-
tics for yot:m.ger children would be of special value in the
•
+
' .
J_ns
,_,ruc-clon
o......p non-English speaking students at higher
grade levels.
Such a list could do much to help acceler-
ate the process of concept acquisition and the development
of a positive self-concept related to academic success.
5
Uses for the Vocabulary
L~_sts
v'Vhile this research vr..1n designed primarily for ESL
teachers at the secondary level, it can also be of assistanee to teachers dealing with the content areas.
Discussions of vocabulary in terms of -p_;s:L :i.nstruct.ional
needs may provide information a-oout second language tech:niques that can be applied by regular teachers with ESJJ
pupils.
The lists, as measures o:f high freque:1.cy wordf.l of
oral and reading vocabularies or of mathematics, can ce
used to assess the level of complexity in words from
lessons or textbooks.
In order to avoid the pedagogical pitfalls of
preferences for one method over another, the w:riter should
clarify two other assumptions at this point:
(a) the
effectiveness of a method is determined, in part, by the
enthusiasm and expertise of the teacher presenting the
method, and (b) vocabulary is best used. in conjunction
with a variety of methods based. upon the needs,
:i.nt~~rests,
and learning modalities of the students.
A yocabulary stugx is the investigation of words.
It may take the form of a critique of exizting studies,
the development of lists through a:1 original study, or the
comr.ila
tion of lists from other list sources.
-"
Nfost often,
a Jist c·f words is developed .for· a specific purpose and. is
taken .from
~.ce_~
that represent that objective.
The
6
words may be from oral, reading, or writing sources such
as recordings of speech, reading materials, or writing
samples of subjects.
The sampling procedure for an inves-
tigation is based upon estimates of the total population
of words in a specific category and the related percentage
of samples and words needed to be representative of that
pupula tiun.
rrhe entire consecutive listing of words in a
sample is called the number or running words, and the
grand total of words is referred to as the total of
running words.
oi'
The m ..unber of
freg~encies
or occurrences
a word. are tabulated, and the data is often presented
with each word.
Two of the technical terms developed as the result
of computer technology were described. by Carroll et al
(1971:xix) in the introduction to their American Heritage
Intermediate Corpus (AHI):
.A tvpe is a -oarticular word counted.
just o:r.1c-e-;-reg?..rdless of how many times
it occurs; a token is any of the individual
occurrences o:f the type. For example, the
type t~l~- has .37 3, 123 tokens (occurs 373, 123
times in the AHI Corpus. (Emphasis theirs)
If the number of tokens (hereafter called occur£.§1)£~;..~
OI'
or frequencies) of a word are computed. by the base
roc.t word only, then the list is defined. as a lexical
}-lfi.i·
If, however, the root and its regular forms are all
counted. separately, then the list is called an inflected
list.
For pronunciation or spelling purposes, irregular
forms like do or does" and this or .thesG are uBually
7
recorded separately in both types of lists.
The 1"orma t
of the final listings may present words and data in
alphabetical order, by .frequencies, by categories from the
original sources, or by combinations of these methods.
Categories can include such diverse sources as grade
level, oral or reading vocabularies, or subject matter
.s.-reas such as rna thema tics.
The type of lexical or inflected list is determi.ned by purpose.
Lexical lists are shorter and more
manageable for comparative studies or instructional uses.
I,is-08 such as the AHI, done by computer for dictionary
compilation, are lengthier, inflected ones.
F'or purposes of general readership, other technical terms for ESL or vocabulary development have been
kept at a minimum and defined. in context throughout the
thesis.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Jntroduction
In order to afford the reader insights into the
area of vocabulary study, a review of' the major trends is
appropria. te.
The historic2.1 periods suggested. by· Ary,
J·acobs, and Razavieh (1972:32-36) for educational research
·were applied broadly to the development of vocabulary
research.
According to these authors, the era from the
turn o:f the century until shortly after World War I was a
pioneering period, during which time the quantitative
v~s
approach to research, testing, and survey instruments
introduced.
The second period, that of expansion, was
established for the years 1920 to 1945, and this era
\V'd.S
characterized by an increase in research and in the dis.
t .J.on
.
. ~
t 1.011
.
t"
.
J.s,
sem.1.na
o·f 1.n:t:o.rma
·urough JOurna
and
commEn~c:tal
sources.
.
• •
un1.vers1.t~es,
The final period of critical ap-
-oraisal continued from 1945 to the present and has :featured
both refinement o:f research and private or govern..11ental
support for research projects.
3
9
Pioneer Period
The application of these parallels to the history
o.f vocabulary development led to three periods with char-_
acteristics similar to the above analogy.
From the period.
from 1900 to 1931, frequent citations in the literature
referred to pioneer studies, many now extant, in such
speciali?ed areas c>..s spelling, geography, history, a.r..cl
arithmetie;.
No study in vocabulary attracted internation--
al a ttentior1, however, until an extensive investigation on
reading was prepared by Thorndike (1921).
This 1921 study of Thorndike involved the sampling
of 4,565,000 total running words from close to 50 sources
cf a.d'.J.l t and children's lite:ca ture.
A list of the 10,000
most used words in English vra.s produced.
studies in 1931 and
19L~LJ-
Subsequent
added more current sources and
brought the word list to a final count of 30,000 words
(Thorndike & Lorge, 1944).
These three investigations, at
ten yec..r i.nt·?:cvals, have been major sources for reading
instruction, :for methods of vocabulary study, and for
comparisons among vocabulary lists.
During this early period of pioneer efforts in
the 1920 • s, two noteworthy investigations of' oral vocabulary were introduced.
E. Horn (1925), a student of
rrharnd.ike, refined two of his own previous studies and
:;;Jroducecl a published list of 1:082 of the most common
words in the spoken vocabulary of children.
More widely
10
used than the Horn oral list of 1925 was the classic
International Kindergarten Union List (1928).
This effort
oi' a national committee of experts in the teaching field
was chaired by lVI. Horn (1926) who introduced the first
1,083 words o:f highest frequency in a journal article.
Verba tim recordings at home and mostly in kindergarten of'
89.3, 266 running words were reduced to the 2, 596 words with
the highest frequencies.
The total list was published by
Horn and her comm.i ttee in 1928.
It was E. Horn's 1926 list of words from adult
writin3 that became another classic source for many analyses and uoli:parisons cf lists in the literature.
These
major sources of' adult writing were business and
persor~al
correspondence, employment applications, periodicals, and
miscellaneous materials.
The published list recorded
10,000 base words with statistical rankings applied to the
frequency counts.
Still another classic list appeared in 1926.
this time Gates (1935), published. a list of'
for reading in the primary grades.
1~500
At
words
Divided into three
sections oi' the first, second, and. third. highest frequency
words, the list was subsequently revised by Gates in 1935.
Gates utilized the 1921 Thorndike and other previously
published studies to compile the original list.
Expert
judgment about children's usage led to some revisions for
the final 1935 study.
11
The pioneer period developed major methodology as
well as word lists for the field of vocabulary development.
For the first time the textbooks of children were subjected
to a scientific examination of their word usage, and quantitative methods of high frequency counts were made to
determine the most common words in that usage.
The size of
vocabuJ.ari.es for the various grade levels was being considered by Thorndike (1921), and methods .for measuring the
complexity of vocabulary of textbooks were being investigated by Lively and Pressey (1923).
:f::xpansion Period
Several minor studies in the expansion period of
the 1930's have been related to the research in vocabulary
:for
ESIJ instruction.
Buswell and John (1931L at the
University of Chicago, produced two lists of the most
common 100 and 500 words .from arithmetic texts and previous
studies.
I:r;_ 1932 two basic word lists appeared for use
with adults in ESL.
While the word. list o.f Ogden (1968)
was Jlart of his international system for second language
learn3.ng rather than a vocabulary study, the list of 850
basic words was included here as an example of one of the
few available lists for English as a Second Language.
that same year,. Faucett
In
and Maki (1932), working together
in Japan, combined the reading vocabulary of Thorndike
(1931) and the writing vocabulary of Horn (1926) for purposes of skill development in both reading.and writing.
12
The list gained brie.f attention in the literature for its
ratings of words by meanings, but is no longer in general
circulation.
The list has been used, with modification,_ by
, the '.vri ter a.nd other teachers for instruction of adults in
ESL classes.
It was also used by Durrell (1934) for a
corrective reading list.
Children's usage of words in writing vvaG the subject of a Fitzgerald study in 1934.
This was the first
comprehensive list of words utilized by children
writing in nonacademic situations.
~or
More than 3,000 person-
al J.etters from children in the intermediate grades
produced 461,321 running words and a basic list of 2,106
different words.
The words were listed with their fre-
quency of· usG and their frequency of error by children.
Comparisons of word lists and lists of combined
vocabularies became prevalent in the 1930's.
Dale (1931)
produced a list of 769 easy words from a comparison of the
frequencies for words in the first
1~000
words on the 1921
'l'horndike and the 1928 Kindergarten Union lists.
The
problems of older children with reading difficulties was
recognized by Durrell in 1934 when he produced a corrective
reading list based on high f'requency word use by children
and adults.
The ratings for word value by Faucett and Maki
(1932) of the Horn (1926) list and the Thorndike (1?21)
list were eompared with index of difficulty from the
Fitzgerald list (1934).
The result was a remedial reading
13
vocabulary of 656 words.
Durrell, working with Sullivan,
(1938a, 1938b,) a colleague at Boston University, also
produced graded vocabularies for the fourth, fifth, and
sixth grades.
Words :from 56 readers and social studies
textbooks were recorded.
Those which appeared in seven or
more books and were not among the primary words on the
Gates (1935) list were omitted.
The 2,065 words were
placed in lists of 691 words for the fourth grade, 525
words
±'or the fifth grade, and 849 words for the six-th
grade.
A classic investigation of lists done b;y· Buckingham a:nd. Dolch (1936), established a combined oral, reading,
and writing vocabulary of known words at various grade
levels.
This extensive study developed the Free Associatim
iJiford List,. an original study of the spontaneous writing of
chi.ldren.
The high frequency words from Horn (1925), the
Kindergarten Union ( 1928), Gates ( 1926), Thorndike ( 1931),
and otb.er previously published lists were also incorporated
into the study.
Approximately 10,000 of the published list
of 19,000 total words were alphabetized and presented with
the appropriate symbols for source lists and grade levels.
Lists with limited numbers of words began appearing at this time.
One of them, an early California study,
gc,.ined national recognitio1:.. in the literature.
Hockett
(19J8) prepared a list of 322 words common to ten or more
readers in the California elementary schools of that time.
14
A noteworthy contribution to vocabulary investigations was
the list of sight words by Dolch (1936 , 1948).
list of
1~000
words also appeared in 1950.
A Dolch
The list of
220 basic words and a secondary list of 95 common nouns
have been used for reading instruction for more than forty
years (Johns, 1974, 1977; Jolmson, 1971; Hildreth, 1948).
In 1942 Stone presented a list of 2,164 words divided into
ten cumulative levels and intended for reading in the
varied primary grades.
A summary of the expansion period of the 1930's
and early 1940's reflected several important trends.
Interest in specifie areas like reading, writing, an.d. the
primary level continued, but combined studies took place.
In adcti·tion, concern was genera ted for topics that previously received minimal emphasis:
reading in the intermediate
grades, rcmedic:;.:L reading, and analyses of vocabulary lists
and their methodology.
Attention to the meaning of words
was revealed in the inclusion of semantic ratings with
words (Faucett
&
lVIaki, 1932; Thorndike
&
Lorge,
194L~),
and
in the considerations of the pronunciation and meaning of
·high frequency words (Gates
Q_ritical Appraisal Period
&
Russell, 1938).
/
The technological advances of World War II ushered
.l.n the current period of refinement in re,search methods and.
~:..nstruments.
A major vocabulary o.f writing was produced by
Rinsland ( 1945) who compiled an extensive list of' words for
15
grades one through eight from the writings of children
f'rom all over the United States.
In the same year, the
growing interest in the readability of' readers and text,...
books w&s interpreted f'or writers of these books by Krantz
(1945) who listed close to 2,000 words that were common to
369 textbooks on the primer to third reader level.
Attention to the meaning of words in vocabulary
lists was reflected in two studies of the 1950's.
Knipp
(1952) compared her own and other word. lists ,on the pri·rn.ary level, developed a vocabulary of 2, 646 words, and
illustrated the meanings in sentences and phrases.
West
(19_53), using the frequency and semantic counts from
':::'ho::cnd.ike and Lorge (1944), produced a list of 2,000 words
for use in the instruction of adult ESL.
Definitions,
examples of usage, and. the frequency percentages for
common uses of words were given.
Another word list for corrective reading ¥ra.s published in 1957.
Fry (1957), using expert judgment and the
word counts from Thorndike and Lorge (1944), Rinsland
(19'+5), Faucett and Maki (1932), and Horn (1926), developed six levels of "Instant Words" for basic use with
older, remedial readers.
Almost thirty years after the 1928 Kindergarten
Union IJist o.f the oral vocabulary, Murphy (1957) worked
with a group o.f grs.duate students to produce a comparable
ora.l list of approximately 12,726 words.
The list of
16
words, phrases, people, places, and cultural references
reflected. the interests of children in the primary grades
during that period.
The concern about children's usage and comprehension of words was found in a six year study by Dale and
Eichholz (1960).
Words were assigned to levels for the
.intermed.ic, te grades and were based upon tests of 200 pupils
per grade.
A comparison of the five hundred most frequently
used words on the Kindergarten Union List (1928) and the
Gates (1935) primary list resulted in an integrated core
vocabulary by Fitzgerald (1963) of 644 basic words for
listening, speaking, reading, and writing purposes.
Continuing from the late 1960's through the
present years, an advanced system of statistical analysis
of vocabulary and sources had been introduced.
The use oi'
data processing systems facilitated the possibilities of
more extensive sampling procedures and the development of
word analysis by linguistic and content areas.
The Kucera
a.nd Francis (1967) conputer study of words was an example.
A word list of over a million words from reading materials
f'or
adults was reduced to half a million words.
Two
lists, one alphe.betical and the other in order of highest
frequency, c.i ted. the total nu.rnber o! occurrences for each
1
categories, and. gave linguistic: information.
The American
17
Heritage lll[ord Book by Carrol, Davies and Richman ( 1971),
intended as a word study f'or dictionary purposes, was an
extensive computer effort.
Ten thousand samples of 500
running words each were tabula ted from a wide assortment _--··
of juvenile literature and textbooks.
The alphabetical ..--:
list and the order of frequency lists contained 86,741
words,
in~luding
syllables, groups of initials, abbrevia-
tions, and proper names.
Durr (1973) compiled a computer
list of 3,220 words from books that were designated by
librarians and teachers as the most common choices of primary children for free reading.
His list of the 188 most
frequent words for that study was published in 1973·
ccmpu.te~
approach was used by Harris and
~Jacobson
A
( 1972)
for the preparation of vocabularieE; for basic reading,
English, science, mathematics, and social studies.
Based.
on an analysis of 127 textbooks, this investigation produced 7;:63 words that were arranged in grade level lists
and in content area lists.
'I'he general alphabetical list
cited eaeh word by level and by occurrences in textbooks
for reading or subject matter.
Throughout the history of vocabulary investigation
the prevalent studies were for reading at the primary
level.
Language arts and mathematics lists designed spe-
cifically for older children were at
B.
minimum.
ESL lists
18
for elemer.tary or secondary use we-;_·e ::tlso absent in the
literature.
l\u original
~:;tud_J,-
of the vocabulary of ESL
textbooks was reported.
In general, a cyclical pattern was evident in this
review of t:i1e pioneer, expansion, and current eras in the
history of' vocabulary development.
There was renewed
replications,
and compa:r·a ti.ve studies attested.
th~~
\1Jith data processing and
sophisticated retrieval systems for in:forma tion, a
variety of methods and investigations can be publicized
and critiqued.
The current critical concern toward ter-
minology and methodology may be indicative o£ the development of a science of vocabulary investigation.
CHAPTER III
METHOD
The basic question of this research was whether a
compariso~
of word lists from existing studies would pro-
duce vocabularies in English and mathematics that were
sui table :for ESL instruction on the secondary level.
A The method for comparison of selected studies for
vocabulary development involved the following basic
considerations:
{a) the purpose of a list for second lan-
guage development, (b) the selection criteria for valid
and reliable studies, and (c) the tabulation procedures
and symbols for the development and presentation of the
ESL
Core and Ma t.hema "Gics JJists from the comparison study.
Purnose of the ESL List
-·-----l-·-----~---J
The development of vocabulary iP- a person proceeds
through the two basic stages of impression and expression.
Several categories that were implied in the general stages
were described by Durrell
a!'1d
Sullivan (1938:139):
20
Two types ot~ vocabularies aro possessed by· each individual: vocabularies
involving the intake of ideas. a11d vocabularies concerned with the ou-tput of
ideas. The vocabularies for taking in
j_ :1 ?2 s a:-e those . of r~2.ding. and hearing~
VihJ_lc tne outpu-c of ldeas 1s cared i'or
by.t~e vocabularie~ of.speaking and
.
W:t'ltJ.I:.g •
• the r;ea:rlng vocabulary lS
r~~abably the largest, followed in descending order by reading vocabulary, speakipg
\>ocabu1a.r.·y, and writing vocabulary.
For many years now, specialists in the teaching of
read.i:ng have nmphasized these different vocabularies and
the natural sequence of listening and speaking, followed
by read.il'1.g and then wr5.. ting skills.
ir1 the primar;y
voc.ahu].ary of
g~~ades,
o-::.~al
v1as to .utilize the large, kr1ovm
language in order to f'acili t8. te the
new, ccmp1 ax process oi·~ rea d.1ng.
i~1depcndent
The intent, especially
As the op:portuni. ties f'or
and silent reading increased in the intermed-
iate grades, the emphasis upon oral vocabulary development
usus.lly dec:::.·ea.sed.
For older pupils with reading problems,
however, con.t:im;ed. emphasis on a basie oral vocabulary for
readi:r1g vvas still recommended (Durrell, 1924; Dolch, 1936;
Fry, 19.57; Johns, 1972, 1977).
The:ce vvere important similarities and. distinctions
"tl-~at
arose in a comparison of' the
l:?~nguage
development for
f"lusnt and n.on--fluer1t speakers of a languag8.
_·FJ1r.·""'
...... ··bJ. l• .....
,::. h
,-~"
i.J
}'
·:.1rl"-r.g
8c.-;:>..
.• ~ •
'""tudnn+
.:>
J~
\•
::11· a'
(_
•
•
The non-
the large hearing
ar;.cl 1..lTid(3r"Stet:nding vocabulary of a fluent speaker of' the
language.
rFi'w knowledge and practice of -the basic pho:no-
logy ( scu~·1cls), morphology
(words)~
an.d S;)l:n.tax (structure
21
patterns) :for that language must be. systematically developed (.Allen, 1965; Croft, 1972), and must be accomplished
in a short period of time.
The aural, oral, reading, and
vvriting sequence was given high priority by authorities in
the teaching of a second language (Finocchiario, 1974;
nh•1ng, 1 9,..,6\
r 1.
0
1":C1e low levels of self-ccncept and concept acquisi-
tion for the ESL student have been the sources for recent
re-evaluation of language teaching.
At a minimum, sugges-
tions were being made to develop meaningful communication
practice instead of the standard, purely mechanical drills
.for developing sentence patterns (Paulston
&
Bruder, 1975).
The interaction of pupils from non-English and fluent-English backgrounds dictated the need for personal and·
emotional vocabularies that were once typically excluded.
(1tvest, 19J6:x) in ESL works.
The increased stress in
modern education upon the affective domain, the learning
styles of pupils, and small group instruction seemed to
dictate the need for a more basic vocabulary for social
and emotional growth.
The approach, in a general sense,
was similar to that of corrective reading, in·that concentrated efforts were made to develop the elemental skills
and content needed by older students for personal, social,
c.i.nd academic success.
Much has been written in the literature of ESI1
about the similarities and differences .of basic sounds in
22
the first and second language.
Ching (1976) compared the
sounds o:f English with those in other languages, especially in the Asian languages.
Olguin (1968) did the same
comparison with the Spanish language.
sc~w~,
Sou..YJ.ds like the
the 1, the sh or ch, and other consonant, vowel,
and blend sounds produced interference in second language
learning fo:c the student whose sound system was difi'eTent ~
Words that illustrate such areas of dif'.ficulty should
appear on a basic word list for non-English speak,ing
students.
The structure of a language was another consideration.
.A basic vocabulary should include the most common
words for the formation of typical sentence patterns in
I.
the language.
Typical patterns in English included:
noun
plus verb, noun plus verb plus adverb, and numerous combinations of the parts of speech in meaningful order.
Structure words are those conjunctions, prepositions,
modal auxiliaries such as can or will, verbal forms of
to be or to haye, personal pronouns, and
such
detei~iners
as a, ·the, or this, which facilitate the use of key words
- - -
in a sentence.
_ _ .,._..
I
These structure words were the most
commonly used words in the English language (Dolch, 1936;
Hunter, 1975).
The suggestion was made by Dolch (19J6:
457-459) that the emphasis in sight and beginning reading
should be upon these ;;tool" words rather tha:n the co:nstantly changing nouns which they assist.
23
Card and McDavid (1965) analyzed the frequency
ra ti.ngs of structure words in lists oi' children's and
aduJ.t;s 1 vocabularies.
They found that many of the high_
frequency occurrences for structure words were justified
in terms of differences for mature and juvenile concepts.
7hr::• structure words of the ESL Core List from the comparati ve stlld.ies were checked against the Card and McDavid
1 .
.
.-l.S"'t.
SeJ..~_g_t_io:l}_ Cri teri.a for Com para ti ve
Ijists
----One of the initial considerations in compiling a
vocabulary list from comparative studies was that of
determining the size of the list.
Lorge and Chall ( 1963 s-
11.1-7) described the discrepancies in research abo'Jt the
known vocabulary of children at various grade levels.
es-~ima tes
grad.es.
The
ran from 14, 000 words to 36, 000 words for some
Adult ESL lists were placed at the 850 word level
by Ogden (1968) and at 2,000 words by West (195J).
Yearly
increases in vocabulary were estimated at 800 to 1,300
·words by Thorndike (Thorndike & Lorge, 1944).
other aspects of this indefinite science, the
relied upon his or her own judgment.
compil~r
Other authorities
have done the same (Buckingham & Dolch,
1957 :4_56).
Here, ;as in
1936~10;
Fry,
It was decided that a list of approxim;..:::tel;y
BOO words would be ofmanageable size for instructional
_ ..,~'~k-- _ _ _ ......,._.._~,.:.;.~·~~,.~"--..~~""'~""-........-........~------"'-'----·------·---~·~~~-~
I>~lE.E2.~.r::-~. ! ........'!!. C?~:~_?: ...:!?~ .....§.~P.P1.§.!.TI.~Il:tQ_g, ___:t.?Y.... :t.h~..-Yg9.~.?:L.t.1.c.>:.J:')L.. g.f_...................... __
•.-,-. ~c·.,.,
24
textbooks, and vwuld be within the suggested range t'or
vocabulary,increases of students.
Since lists for specialized purposes were
fE!W
in
m.unber, the choice of all i:rlflected or all lexical lists
was rarely possible.
As a result, the frequencies for a
root fo:cm and its inflected f'orms were combined on the
main list of words.
'rhe disadvantage for ESL was that the
inflected forms 1Nere important for word expansion.
The
decision was made to list all the d.er·i ved forms in parentheses next to the word.
In this way, the usual forms for
plural, compara ti-va, and tense were noted., and frequencies
£or any of these ware combined with the root word.
Com-
bi:ning of f"requencies for similar forms allowed for more
original words on a list.
As Hillerich (1974:355) noted,
"Jnflected forms rank much higher on a le:i'.fcal
list than on
.. .,.,.-...._
-··!'"·'·-··--'~
an inflected list ... "
---.-~J.l:.~E.~---~~~.f:1--.~~-~g.. J:i:tt1.€:L..lill.i.;LQ.£ffi_~.t.Y.____9:~_9AK . . .J:i.9.:tJ?. in
terms of the types of word inclusions.
.... _ _
v•h~V
D"
~ ~ ~ ~ ...-.~ ~' ~ ~- ,_.-~~~-~~"
pound words
1
_ _ vu~·~-~
Contractions, com-
·~--··~-~ . . . . ~ .............. ,-,~-- ... ·~
phrases, abbreviations,
9!1C>rnatopq~ic
vm:rds,
and slang were on some lists (Murphy, 1957) a:nu not on
oth€·rs ('Thorndike, 1921).
ESL list were:
The general incll!sions i'or the
base words, contractions, irregular forms
as separate entries, abbreviations 1 proper names, and
numbers.
Excluded. from the list were slang, colloquial-
isms, phrases, non-standard spellings of English, compound
words, onomatopoeic words, hyphenated words, and nonsense
25
words.
All the excluded words from a list were recorded
separately, so that (a) they could be re-entered if most
lists used them, and (b) the final ESL list could be
compared with each list generally and for statistical
purposes.
Qpod-by(e) was an example of a hyphenated word
that was retained with two spellings.
E.;LV]_~:g
rrhe word ---thanks'"-<PI)e:J.red with and without capi t.als and was retained
with a capital T in parentheses.
the parentheses included:
Typical forms placed in
(a) the s,
and. ies for
_§!S,
plural or verb forms, (b) the er and est for comparatives
and superlatives, (c) the er for agents, (d) the Jng for
nou11, verb or adjective forms,
~d.,
(e) the d.,
and. ied. for
tenses or adjectives.
Most of the comparative studies that were reviewed
produced lists that, alone, were not suitable for an ESL
list.
It was determined that the ESL Core List would be
compiled from a. larger number of lists than one or two.
Adult and writing studies were excluded in favor of
children's studies.
It was assumed that a combination of
o:ca1, reading, primary level studies, and corrective
reading studies would provide a balance suitable for ESL.
~'Vi th
the above criteria in mind, the writer re-
viewed numerous studies in terms of'_
~~l~~:r
purpose, sources, methods; and results.
sui tabi:L_~~y_q:f
The ten f:i.nal
selections reflected reliable and valid studies.
based upon origina:L . .9!:'
com:p<3,~a tiye. ___ f:1i;udie_s
All were
.. with.. 9. .. total . o.f
t:''"'6
'-.
tive sources of materials from children's language.
The
studies included two corrective reading lists {Durrell,
1934; Fry, 19.57), one basic sight reading vocabulary
(Dolch, 1936), two oral vocabulary lists (Kindergarten
Union, 1928; Murphy, 19.57), one reading list based upon
Ghildren'G coice o1' books (Di.:d:-r, 1977), and three reading
1ists from the primary level (Harris
Stone, 19.50; Thorndike, 1921).
&
Jacobson, 1972; ·
Two of these (Harris &
Jacobson; Durr) were computer studies.
The symbols for
-the source lists and the number of words compared from
each list were recorde·~ with the list.
Final inclusion in /
the ESL Core List was based u.pon three or more occurrences
oi~
a word on the comparison lists.
One exception, based
upon ESL instructional needs, vras made.
Words that didn't
meet the criteria for inclusion but that had related forms
in the core list (i.e.:
tooth and teeth, know and knowQ)
were retained and designated with an asterisk.
ES:L Nla thematics List
The selection of vocabulary size and study sources
for thr• rna thema tics list was limited by the availa.bili ty
o:f high frequency studies in mathematics and 'by the general p:coblem of correspondence among lists.
The
d.lspar~
encies and complexities of specialized vocabularies have
been noted (Harris
&
Jacobson, 1972; Mallinson, 19 52;
2'7
Stauffer, 1966).
Random sampling of' 50 words from several
lists verified this problem.
The 1972 Harrison and Jacobson mathematics list,
with additions from their general elementary vocabularies,
proved more basic than the mathematics vocabulary words
f'rom Carroll et al, ( 1971) or Kucera et al, ( 1967).
A
1931 lir.:t of the 500 highest freqvency words in arithmetic
studies by Buswell and J'ohn was used as a base list.
~1lords
from this list which also appeared in the Harris and
J·a.eobson vocabularies were retained.
Since Harris and
Jacobson did not include phrases in their study, all the
Buswell and John phrases were used.
Another comparative study was done for the compilation of ordinal and cardinal numbers.
Any number which
was found in Harris and Jacobson (1972) or in the kindergarten lists of Murphy (1957) and the International
Kindergarten Union List (1928) were listed in this section.
Sig·ns and s;ymbols from the Buswell and John ( 19.31) list
were not based on frequency counts and were omitted.
ThG ESL Core List and the ESL Ma tnema tics IJist
are presented with symbols in Chapter IV.
CHAPTER IV
THE FINDINGS
Introduction
The results of the comparison of language arts and
of mathematics studies led to the compilation of the ESL
Core List and the ESL Mathematics List that are presc-:!ltnd
in this chapter with the appropriate symbols and
sourc~s.
Immediately following the lists is the analysis of' :find·ings which is related to the criteria for second language
instruction and vocabulary development.
Svmbols and Sources for the
ESL Cor~ List
~
D
Th
KD
--~~~~~~~~~~
= Dolch, 1936; sight reading; 315 words compared
= Thorndike, 1921; reading; 500 words compared
= International Kindergarten Union, 1928; oral;
500 words compared
F
= Fitzgerald,
1963; oral, reading, and writing;
64l4- words compared
lVl
= Murphy et al, 1957; oral;
6JO words with 100 or more
occurrences compared,
HJ.
= Harris and Jacobson, 1972; primary level only;
reading; 883 words compared
28
29
__
__
W()RIJS
D
~PH
KU
F
a
X
X
X
X
,.
a;::>le (st)
about
X
X
above
X
across
X
add (s ing ed)
X
a:fratd
X
X
X
,
H,T
C'
....
DD
FR
DU
X
.X.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
M
X
X
X
X
X
X
after
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
again
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
air
X
airplane (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
almos·t
X
X
X
X
X
X
alone
X
X
X
X
X.
X
along
X
X
X
X
X
all
X
X
X
\.).)
Cl
D
WORDS
TH
already
also
KU
F
M
X
X
X
X
}f,j
C'
h.i
DD
E.B.
DU
X
X
X
X
always
X
X
X
X
X
X
·X
X
X
am
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
an
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
and
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
animal (s)
another
X
X
X
answer (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
any
X
anything
X
X
X
X
X
X
apple (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
are
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*aren't
arm.
\S
ed)
,.'
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X ..
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
around
X
X
X
X
as
X
X
X
X
X
\.....)
1--'
HJ
s
DD
FR
DU
X
X
X
X
X
~r
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
lf.DJiDS
D
TH
KU
F
lYI
ask (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
·x
at
X
X
X
X
X
ate
X
X
X
away
X
X
baby (ies)
X
back (s ing ed)
X
bad (ly)
ball (s)
X
X
X
X
X
balloon (s ing)
bank (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
basket (s)
X
b13ar ( s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
b13a t ( s ing en)
b<3autiful (ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
barn (s)
. bt3
X
X
X
X
X.
X
\_,..)
!\)
s
wORD§.
D
TH
KTJ
F
M
HJ
because
X
:x:
X
X
X
X
bed (s ding d.ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
bee (s)
DD
FR
X
X
X
X
DU
been
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
before
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
began
begin ( s)
X
X
X
X
*beginning (s)
*begun
behind
X
being (s)
X
X
believe (s ing ed.)
X
bell (s)
X
best
X
bet tar
X
between
big (ger gest)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
·x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
'vJ
w
WORDS
-·--·
bird (s)
D
TH
J.(U
F
X
X
X
X
birthday
X
X
X
black (s er est (B)
X
X
X
X
*blew
block (s ing ed)
X
blow (ing y)
X
X
HJ
s
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
IVl
DD
FR
DU
X
X
X
X
*blown
blue (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
b~Jught
X
X
X
bowl (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
board (s ing ed)
boat (s ing)
X
book (s)
both
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
box (es ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
boy (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
bread (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
\.....)
.{::::"
TH
H.£
KU
----·
F
break (s ing)
X
X
breakfast (s)
X
X
bridge (s)
X
X
X
bright (er est ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.}NC;RDS
bring (s ing)
D
X
X
broke
M
s
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
build (s ing)
X
*built
X
X
x·
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
bunny (ies)
butter (ed)
buy (s ing)
X
X
bump (s ing ed. y)
but
DU
X
brought
brown (s)
,¥'R
X
*broken
brother (s ly)
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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\..V
v-~
lrWRDS
D
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....,
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by
X
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X
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:;'{
X
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X
cake (s d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
call (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
came
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
can (s ning ned)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
candy (ies ied.)
X
X
X
can't
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
----~-
car (s)
X
card (s)
care (s ing d)
X
carry (ies ing ied.)
X
cat (s)
X
X
catch (es ing y)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*caught
X
causa (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.X
chair (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
chicken (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
\...;)
a-.
il\lfiHDS
n
j..J
child
children
X
~.tl
KTT
-'-'
F
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
chimney (s)
church (es)
X
circus (es)
X
X
clear (s ing ed er est)
X
X
X
X
HJ
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
clock (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
clown (s)
coat (s ed.)
X
cold. (s er est ly)
X
color (s ing ed.)
come (s ing)
X
li'R
X
X
X
clothes (clothing) (d.)
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
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X
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...,..
DU
X
climb (s ing ed.)
X
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X
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close (s ing d r st ly)
c;
....
X
X
city (ies)
clean (s ing ed)
M
X
w
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WORDS
---
D
TH
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.. u
cook (s ing ed.)
cookie (s)
F
rvr
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~
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
corn
X
X
X
X
could
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
couldn't
count (s ing ed)
country (ies)
X
cover (s ing ed)
X
cow (s)
X
crayon (s)
cross (es ing ed ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
cup (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
daddy (ies)
dark (er est ly)
day (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
DU
X
X
X
X
X
?R
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
DD
X
X
cry (ies ing ied)
cut (s ting)
s
X
X
X
X
·X
X
X
'v..>
en
~nJORDS
----···
dear (s er est ly)
d~~ep
D
( er est ly)
did.
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X
X
X
M
X
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DD
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
didn't
X
X
X
X
d.ffferent (ly)
X
dig (s ging)
X
X
dinner (s)
X
X
d".:Lr t y (.~es J.e
. d'.,
X
X
X
X
dish (es ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
do (ing)
X
X
X
X
doctor (s) (Dr.)
does
X
X
*doesn't
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
dog (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
doll (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
done
X
X
X
X
X
don't
X
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X
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DU
X
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drive (s ing)
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dry (ies ing ier iest)
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early (ier iest)
X
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(-j_y y)'
ear -'-h
~, .
X
X
.X
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X
X
X
X
egg (s ing)
X
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X
X
X
X
eight (s)
X
X
X
elephant (s)
X
X
else
X
X
X
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WCPLS
eat (s ing)
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*eaten
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X
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X
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X
X
end (s ing ed)
X
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X
X
X
enough
X
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X
X
X
X
even (ly)
X
X
X
X
ever
X
X
X
every
X
X
X
X
X
X
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fc;,c e ( s ing d)
X
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fair (s er est ly)
X
X
X
everything
eye (s ing d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
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,......
.{:::'
WORDS
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X
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X
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X
farm (s ing ed)
X
X
X
farmer (s)
X
X
fast (er est)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
fat (ter test)
father (s)
X
X
X
X
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feed (s ing)
feel (s ing)
feet
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
fE!ll
*felt
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
few (er est)
X
X
field (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
{::"
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WC:RDS
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fill (s ing ed)
find (s ing)
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fine (s ing d r st ly)
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finish (es ing ed)
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X
DD
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
fire (s ing d)
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
first (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
fish (es ing ed y)
X
X
X
X
X
X
five (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
fix (es ing ed)
X
*flew
X
X
X
X
floor (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
flower (s ing ed.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
food (s)
X
X
X
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X
foot (ing)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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*flown
fly (ies ing)
for
X
X
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X
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~­
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found (s ing ed.)
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X
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f'our ( s)
X
X
}~
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
X
X
·x
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
fox (es)
friend (s)
from
X
front (s)
full (er est y)
X
f1m
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
fur...ny ( ies ier iest)
X
X
X
X
X
X
game (s ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
garage (s)
garden (s ing ed)
X
X
gate (s)
X
X
gave
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
~
X
X
glet ( s ting)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.X
X
girl (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
give (s ing)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.t:~
V'JOHDS
---·-
D
*given
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DD
X
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X
X
·X
X
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X
X
X
X
TH
DU
X
X
X
glad (ly)
go (es ing)
X
goat (s)
gold
X
gone
good (s ly)
X
good.- by( e)
X
got
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
.I'>.
'V'
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
grandfather (s)
X
grandmother (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
gx-a0s
F'R
(es y)
X
X
gx.-ay ( s ing)
great (er est ly)
greer. ( s er est)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
i~"grew
ground (s ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-{:::"
\.jt
WORDS
--
D
grow (s ing)
..,..
A
TH
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H'
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DD
FR
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
DU
i:·grovm
guess (es ing ed)
had
X
X
X
X
I.
il
*hadn't
hair (s y)
X
X
X
half
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
hand (s ing ed y)
X
handle
happy (ier iest ily)
X
hard (er est ly)
X
X
X
has
X
*hasn't
hat (s)
have (ing)
X
X
haven't
hE;
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
..{::"
0\
D
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---·
TH
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*h!3 1 d
ru::ad. ( s ing er)
h!~ar
....v·
(s ing)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
]{
X
X
X
h1::ard
heavy (ier iest ily)
X
X
*held.
I
I
I•
I
...,
I
A
X
X
X
*ht3 'll
ht:::llo
help (s ing ed)
X
X
hen (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
h19r ( s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
h<9re
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
h~sre'
s
he's
*h.id
X
X
X
X
*hidden
hide ( s
.
)
.~ng,
X
X
..{.~
---:;
WORDS
D
high (s er est ly)
TH
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X
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F
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DD
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X
"V
~
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X
X
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DU.
hill (s y)
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
him
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
himself'
his
X
X
X
hit (s ting)
hold (s ing)
X
X
hole (s d)
home (s ly)
X
X
hop (s ping ped py)
hope (s ing d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
horn (s ed y)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
horse (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
hot (ter test ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
house (s ing d.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
how
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*how's
.{:::'
co
I'
I
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----
D
TH
KU
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*hung
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DD
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X
hungry (ier iest ily)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ice
X
X
X
X
I'd
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I'll
X
X
X
X
X
I'm
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
hurt (s ing)
X
I
X
if (s)
in (ner)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
'
I
into
1,
X
X
X
X
iron (s ing ed.)
is
X
X
X
X
*i::m't
it (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
it's
X
X
X
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I've
X
X
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X
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X
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X
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+=-
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TJ'JORDS
---
D
TH
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.X
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X
X
X
DD
F'R
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jump (s ing ed)
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just
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
J:
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
kE~e:p
( s ing)
*kept
kill (s ing ed)
kind (s er est ly)
X
X
X
kite ( E?)
kitten (s)
know (s ing)
X
*known
X
.X
.X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
lady (ies)
X
*laid
land (s ing ed)
X
X
X
large (r st)
X
X
X
last (s ing ed ly)
X
X
X
X
X
late (r st ly)
X
X
X
X
X
laugh (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\.rt
0
WORDS
---··
s
TH
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lay (s ing)
X
X
X
le,arn ( s ing ed)
X
le:ave ( s ing)
X
X
X
left
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
D
leg (s ged)
X
le:t ( s 's ting)
X
X
X
X
letter (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
life
M
X
X
Hlr
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
like (s ing d ly)
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
lion
DU
X
X
light (s ing ed er
est ly)
line (s ing d)
FR
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X·
X
X
X
little (r st)
X
X
X
X
live (s ing d ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
·x
long (s ing ed
look (s ing ed)
er-~st)
,....
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--
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TH
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DD
FR
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X
lost
X
lot ( s)
love (s ing d ly)
X
low (er est ly)
X
lunch (es)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
made
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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.1~
~r
X
make (s ing r)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
man (s ning ned)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
many
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
mark (s ing ed er)
X
X
X
matter (s ing ed)
X
X
X
may
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
maybe
IDE~
mean (s ing er est)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*meant
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meet (s ing)
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.,
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X
X
X
*mice
X
X
X
X
X
X
might (y)
X
mile (s)
X
milk (s ing ed y)
X
X
X
mind (s ing ed)
X
X
X
mine (s ing ed. r)
X
X
miss (es ing ed) (IVI) Ms. )
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
money (s ies)
X
X
monkey (s)
more
morning (s)
X
most (ly)
mother (s ing ed)
mountain (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
DU
X
X
X
:FR
X
X
men
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
\..J"\
\...0
H.J
s
X
X
X
X
KU
F
mouse
X
X
mouth (s)
.h
v
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\nJORDS
D
move (s ing d)
TT1
1.
X
·mr.
Mrs.
IVI
X
DD
J:i'R
DU
X
X
much
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
must
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
my
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
myself
X
X
X
X
X
name (s ing d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
near (s ing ed er
est ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
need. (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*mustn't
nest (s ing ed)
X
never
X
X
X
X
new (s er est ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\Jr.
.t:·
____
WORDS
TH
KU
..·~
lVI
HJ
s
DD
ER
DU
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
noise ( s)
X
X
nose (s d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
,.,
..
D
next
nice (r st ly)
night (s ly)
X
X
nine (s)
no
not
X
X
nothing
now
X
nu1nber ( s ing ed.)
X
X
·X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
oak (s)
X
X
X
X
X
nut (s)
X
X
X
X
of
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
off
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
oh
old. (er est)
X
X
X
X
X
l..r\
\~"
WORDS
------
D
'I'H
KU
F
M
HJ
s
DD
FR
DU
"<r
A
....
X
X
X
X
"<r
X
X
X
X
·x
X
X
X
X
X
X
on
"'""
X
X
X
once
X
X
X
X
one ( s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
only
X
X
X
X
X
X
open (s ing ed ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
or
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
orange
order (s ing ed ly)
X
other (s)
X
ought
X
X
X
X
"'""
X
X
X
X
X
our (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
out (s ing)
X·
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
outside
over (ly)
X
X
X
X
mm (s ing ed er)
X
X
X
X
paint (s ing ed er)
X
X
pan (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
V'\
C"·.
s
WCRDS
D
TH
KU
F
M
H,T
paper (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
part ( s ing ed. ly)
party (ies)
X
X
pass (es ing ed.)
X
X
paste
X
pay (s ing)
X
people (s d)
X
X
X
picnic (s)
picture (s ing d)
X
X
pie (s)
piece (s ing d)
pig (s)
X
X
pink (s)
place ( s 5..ng d)
plant (s ing ed.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
F'R
D"Q
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
pet (s ting ted)
pick (s ing ed)
X
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X.
X
X
X
X
V'\
'""'
1f1Jt;PJ)~
D
TH
KU
F
M
HJ
s
DD
:F'R
DU
play (s ing ed er)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
please (s ing d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
point (s ing ed y)
X
pony (ies)
X
X
poor (er est ly)
X
present (s ing ed ly)
X
pretty (ier iest ily)
X
pull (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
quick (er est ly)
X
X
X
X
X
rain (s ing ed y)
X
ra.n
X
reach (es ing ed)
ready (ies ing ied ily)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
rabbit {s)
re!ad. ( s ing er)
X
X
X
puppy (ies)
put (s ting)
-·
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0-t.
C)
WORDS
----
D
~H
real
red (s)
X
X
s
KU
F
lVl
HJ
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
remember (s ing ed)
X
rest (s ing ed.)
X
X
X
X
DD
FR
DU
X
X
X
X
*ridden
ride (s ing)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
right (s ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ring (s ing ed.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
river (s)
X
road (s)
X
robin (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*rode
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
roll (s ing ed.)
X
X
X
room (s y)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
rope (s ing d)
round (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
run ( s ning)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
"'"'
'·.0
lrv.QRDS
D
TH
KU
F
Jlii
H.J
s
DD
FR
DU
said
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
same
sand (s ing ed. y)
*sang
sat
X
save (s ing d.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
saw (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
say
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
school (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x.
X
X
X
X
X
X
scissor (s)
SE!a (s)
X
s E!a t ( s ing ed. )
SE!COnd ( S)
X
see (s ing)
X
seed (s ing ed.)
X
X
SE!effi ( S ing ed.)
X
se:en
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0\
0
WORDS
D
TH
send (s ing)
X
sent
X
set (s ting)
X
KU
F
lVI
HJ
s
X
X
X
X
seven (s)
X
shall
X
X
X
X
she
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
FR
DU
X
X
X
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*she'd
sheep
X
*she's
ship (s ping ped)
shoe (s ing d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
short (er est ly)
X
should
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*shouldn't
show (s ing ed)
X
*shown
sick (er est ly)
X
0'......
VWRD§.
D
side (s d)
TH
J(U
F
X
X
X
M
sign (s ing ed.)
HJ
s
DD
X
X
X
X
"'<Y
"''"
X
·x
X
X
X
X
FR
X
sing (s ing)
X
X
X
X
X
X
sister (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
sit (s ting)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
six (ex)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
sky (ies)
X
X
X
sled (s ding ded)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
sleep (s ing ily y)
X
X
X
X
small (er est)
X
X
X
X
smell (s ing ed.)
snow (s ing ed y)
X
so
X
soft (er est ly)
some
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
somebody
something
DU
X
X
(J",
(\)
'rH
KU
F
sometime (s)
X
X
X
son (s)
X
11\fORDS
D
song (s)
X
soon (er)
X
sound (s ing ed. ly)
X
X
X
X
X
lVI
X
.HJ
s
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x:
X
X
X
X
FR
DU
X
X
X
*sprang
spring (s ing)
X
*sprung
squirrel (s)
X
stand (s ing)
X
star (s)
start (s ing ed.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
station (s ing ed.)
stay (s ing ed)
X
step (s ping ped
X
stick (s ing y)
still
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(')'..
w
WORDS
-~--··--
stock ( s :l.ng ed y)
D
1H
X
stone (s d.)
KU
p
X
X
lVI
DD
FR
DTT
~-
X
X
X
X
X
X
store (s ing d)
story (ies ied.)
X
straight
street (s)
s
:k
X
*stood
stop (s ping ped)
HJ
.X
X
string (s ing ed y)
strong (er est ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
such
X
X
X
sv.mmer ( s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
x·
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*strlmg
*stuck
sun ( s ning ned)
X
X
*sung
sure (ly)
.X
X
0'\
+:-
~1lo;ms
-
D
TH
KU
F
surprise (s ing d)
SWI:;)et (s er est ly)
table ( s )
I
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)
:tng
H,J
s
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
FR
DU
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
tail ( s )
talce
lV1
X
*talc en
talk (s ing ed)
teacher (s)
teBth
tell (s ing)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ten (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
than
thank (s i.ng ed)
X
thanksgiving (T)
that
X
X
that's
thE~
X
X
X
0'.
I..J\
WJRDS
-·--·-
D
IJiH
~u
F
their (s)
X
X
X
X
them
X
X
X
X
then
X
X
X
there
X
X
HJ
c•
.J
X
X
X
X
DD
FR
DU
.A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
M
...,..
*there'll
there's
these
X
X
X
X
X
X
they
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*they'd
*they"ll
*they're
*they've
thing (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
+h.
nk
v ..... ~
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
( s ~ng
.
)
third (s)
X
X
this
X
X
X
X
X
X
these
:x:
X
X
X
X
X
.X
X
0'\
0'\
WORDS
D
TH
KU
F'
though
X
thought (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
three (s)
X
through
tie (s ying d.)
time (s ing d ly)
X
X
tiny (ier iest)
M
HT
'.J
s
DD
FR
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
tire (s ing d)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.today ( s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
together
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
told
X
X
X
X
X
X
tomorrow
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
took
X
X
to
too
DU
X
X
X
X
X
*tooth (ed. ily)
top (ping ped.)
.X
X
0".
......;]
lNORDS
D
tovm (s)
toy (s)
tree (s d)
X
~
._,
DD
FR
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
KU
1''
X
X
X
X
}~
X
X
X
X
X
train (s ing ed)
HJ
·TH
truck (s ing ed)
true
try (ies ing ied)
M
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
turkey (s)
turn
X
DU
X
X
X
two (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
under
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
until
X
up (s)
X
X
X
X
upon
X
X
X
X
us
X
X
X
X
X
X
use (s ing d)
X
X
X.
X
X
X
very
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0\
0)
WORDS
---
D
visit (s ing ed)
TH
R
M
X
wagon (s)
wait (s ing ed. er)
walk (s ing ed)
w::~ll
KU
X
(s
inoed)
'
b
H.J:
§.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
DD
F'R
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
want (s ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
warm (s ing ed. er est
ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
"".,~
was
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
wash (es ing ed. er)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*wasn't
DU
~-~
X
X
watch (es ing ed.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
water (s ing ed y)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
way (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
"'"
v·
X
X
X
we
X
X
X
X
X
x·
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
wear (s ing)
--··
X
*we'd
0'-
'.0
WORDS
D
week (s ly)
WElll (s)
WE~
1
JH
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F
M
X
X
X
11
._.,,.
~-t.l
s
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
DD
DU
X
X
X
X
X
wemt
:X.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
we)re
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
WEl're
Ji'R
X
X
X
X
X
*we!ren' t
wet (s ting ter test)
X
*we've
what
X
X
what's
when
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
where
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
where's
which
X
while
white (s r st) (.1rJ)
X
X
-..:1
0
l'!I1JRDS
D
TH
KU
F
W'•l
H.J
s
DD
FR
DU
who
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
whole
X
*who's
why (s)
X
X
X
X
X
*why's
wide (r st ly)
will (s)
X
X
X
X
wind (s ing y)
X
X
X
X
window (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
w:[.nter ( s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
w:Lsh ( es ing ed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
with
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
without
X
wolf
woman
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*women
won't
X
x·
•......::!
1-"-
1JJORDS
wood.
(s ed y en)
D
rrH
KU
F
X
X
X
X
word (s)
Tv1
X
HJ
s
DD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
FH
DU
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*wore
work (s ing ed er)
X
world (s ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
*worn
would
X
X
*wouldn't
write (s ing)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*written
X
*wrote
X
yard (s)
year (s ly)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
yellow (s)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
yes
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
yesterday
yet
X
X
X
"l'V
73
21
X
~I
X
§I
X
U2(
X
X
X
X
X
1-;) I
X
::GI
X
~I
X
PYI
X
X
X
:=>I
~
X
X
X
~I
E-l
X
r:.l(
X
X
X
...........
Ul
~I
p::;
;:::)
-
C1[
0
0
$1
'd
~
:::>
~
rl
.-1
tUl
...__,
(])
H
-:::s
..-'
.....
§
;:::)
0
0
0
~
-~
* *
~
~
H
0
:>.
*
74
SY}f!.."f?gls .and Sources :for the
ESL Nlathema_:tics List
Mathematical Terms and Phrases
Cardinal Numbers
Ordinal Numbers
HJ =Harris and .Jacobson, 1972; mathematics, core, and
general elementary list
KU .. Interrm tional Kindergarten Union, 1928; kindergarten
oral usage words
M - Murphy et al ,. 1957; kindergarten oral usage words
( J :::
Inclusions not on compared lists; for instructional
purposes
75
ESIJ Mathematics List
about
area
but
above
arithmetic
buy
account
around
by
accuracy
at
calculate
accurate
average
calculation
add
away
capacity
addend
back
cardinal
addition
back¥.>ard
carry
after
balance
cash
again
barrel
cent
all
base
center
allovra.nce
before
centimeter
almost
begin
century
already
below
change
also
beneath
charge
altitude
beside
cheap
always
between
check
among
beyond
circle
amount
big
circular
and.
block
circumference
angle
borrow
clear
another
both
coin
answer
bought
collect
any
bushel
CYolumn
approximate
business
combination
i
76
combine
depth
earnings
commercial
diameter
either
commission
difference
empty
common
digit
end
compute
dime
enlarge.
cone
dimensions
enough
contain
diminish
entire
cord
discount
equal
correct
distance
equality
corresponding
distant
equation
cost
divide
equilateral
count couple
dividend
equivalent
credit
divisibility
estimate
cube
divisible
even
cubic
division
ever
cupful
divisor
every
date
dollar
exact
day
double
example
debt
down
exceed
decade
downward
except
decimal
dozen
excess
decrease
due
exercise
deep
during
expense
degree
each
expeL.sive
denominator
early
express
deposit
earn
extend
77
ex-tra
gallon
latter
fact
graph
least
factor
great
left
far
group
length
fare
half
less
farther
halves
light
f'ast
heavy
like
fee
height
line
feet
high
linear
few
horizontal
little
fifth
hour
loan
figure
in
long
fill
inch
loss
final
include
lot
first
income
low
following
incorrect
make
foot
increase
many
form
inside
maximum
former
interest
measure
forward
into
measurement
fraction
invert
middle
frequently
invest
mile
from
just
mileage
i'ull
lc:..rge
mill
further
last
minus
gain
late
minute
78
money
omit
perimeter
month
on
piece
more
once
pint
most
only
plus
much
operation
point
multiple
order
portion
multiplication
other
pound
multiply
ounce
prefix
narrow
out
present
near
outside
previous
net
over
price
never
owe
prime
next
ovm
principal
nickel
paid
problem
no
pair
proceeds
none
parallel
process
nothing
part
product
now
partial
profit
nu.mber
past
profitable
numeral
pay
prompt
numeration
payment
proof
numerator
peck
proper
occasionally
penny
prove
odd.
per
purchase
of
percent
quadrilateral
often
percentage
quantity
79
quart
second
sum
quarter
section
surface
quotient
sell
table
radius
series
take
rate
several
tall
ratio
share
term
reciprocal
short
then
rectangle
sign
there
rectangular
since
thick
reduce
single
thickness
remain
size
third
remainder
small
time
rent
smaller
times
repeat
sold
together
rest
solution.
ton
result
solve
took
return
some
total
rod
sometimes
toward
round
space
triangle
row
spend
triangular
salary
spent
twice
sale
square
under
save
straight
unequal
savings
subtract
unit
score
subtraction
unlike
season
sufficient
upon
80
upper
cubic inch
tens column
upward
cubic yard
usually
decimal point
thousands
column
valuable
denominate number
total
amount
vertical
dovm. payment
volUine
trial
quotient
greatest common
denominator
wages
week
unit
fraction
hundreds column
improper fraction
unit of
measure
weight
least common
multiple
units column
whole
long division
v.ride.
lowest common
denominator
weigh
width
with
without
worth
yard
year
what part of
whole number
lowest terms
mixed number
per yard
proper fraction
reasonable answer
Roman number
all together
Arabic number
at the rate
common denominator
count by twos
cubic feet
cubic foot
short division
square foot
square inch
square mile
square rod
square yard
take away
81
Cardinal Numbers
M
HJ
KU
one ( 1 ) to nine (9)
X
X
X
ten (10) to twenty (20)
X
X
X
thirty (JO)
X
X
X
forty (40)
x·
X
X
fifty (50)
X
X
X
sixty ( 60)
X
X
seventy (70)
X
X
eighty (80)
X
X
ninety (90)
X
X
one hundred (100)
X
X
X
one thousand (1 '000)
X
X
X
one million (1,000,000)
X
X
one billion (1,000,000,000)
X
Ordinal Numbers
first
X
X
X
second.
X
X
X
third
X
X
fourth
X
X
fifth
X
X
sixth
X
X
seventh
X
X
eighth
X
X
ninth
X
X
tenth
X
X
82
M
HJ
eleventh
X
twelfth
X
thirteenth
X
fourteenth
X
fifteenth
X
X
sixteenth
X
X
seventeenth
X
X
nineteenth
X
twentieth
i
X
fiftieth
KU
X
hundredth
X
Analysis of the Findings
In addition to the criteria related to ESL instruction, the ESL Core List and the ESL Mathematics List
were subjected to some specific criteria suggested for
vocabulary studies.
There was little agreement among the
experts in this area, however.
This
¥~S
due in part to
the differences in purposes for s0udies, the differences
in selection of sources, in sampling method, and in the
criteria for inclusion or exclusion in lists.
A review of the "frequency--sampling" (inflected)
method, the "dictionary-sampling" (lexical) method, and
the sampling method by word usage was d•Jne by Lorge and
Chall (1963:157-157).
The major methods of vocabulary
8J
compilation were developed by Thorndike (1921), and semantic aspects were added by Thorndike and Lorge (1944).
Horn (1926) and Rinsland (1945) used and modified the
basic methods of Thorndike (1921).
The introduction of
computer technology had often led to more comprehensive
lists, but it produced numerous word and letter groupings
wi·thout meaning.
For example, Los of Los Angeles, ini-
tials without explanation, and nonsense words were read
by the computer (Carrol, Davies & Richman, 1971; Kucera
and Francis, 1967).
The difficulties of comparing vocabulary lists
were noted by Harris and Jacobson ( 1974).
Until a def'ini-
tive work on the science of vocabulary investigation is
developed, expert judgment will continue to be the basis
for the methods and content of word. studies.
Correspondence
If a word. list had. too high a correlation with
another list, its basic reason for being compiled was
invalidated.
If, on the other hand, a list was too dis-
similar to other valid and reliable lists, its validity
was also challenged.
Harris and Jacobson (1974:104) note:
In comparing word lists, correlations are replaced by two kinds of numerical
evidence: percent of overlapping between
lists, and degree of agreement on the placement of words in levels or in a frequency
order.
A correlation range of 80 to 90 percent was suggested.
84
As has been noted, words that did not appear on
--·····--·~-··-~-~··- -·~ -~-~--- .......... ~---~-~-"~ -~~~~---~--~---·----~_.._..
.__
tp:r-~e __q:r: __m_ore___ _Qf___th._Ei_~~is~n lists 1 were --~~ciud~edfrom
the ESL Core List.
An analysis of these exclusions from
the comparison lists produced a minimum of 80 to 90 percent correspondence with the lists of 500 to 656 words.
There was a 91 percent overlapping with the Harris and
<Jacobson list of _88J words, as would be expected.
Hunter
(1975:252-253) found that " ... the more numerous the words
on a list, the more likely the list is to vary with other
lists in its low frequency words, especially nouns and
verb tenses."
lists.
The converse rule was applied to smaller
The Dolch (1936) and the Durr (1977) vocabularies,
being minimal lists of 315 and 188 words, respectively,
were not included in the comparisons on list correspondence, since almost all of their words were contained in
the core list.
Criterion Validity
The application of criterion or predictive
validity to the ESL Core List must be determined by actual
instruction and by the achievement scores of ESL pupils
who have been taught with the list.
Some generalizations,
based on the construct or- content validity of the list,
cs.n be offered, however.
These analyses of the constructs
of the list were done in terms of the pre-established cri-
teria for use in ESL instruction.
85
Content Validity
A comparison of the structure words on the core
list with those noted as important for children by Card
and McDavid (1965) revealed that only till and since were
missing on the core list.
The old-fashioned, poetic na-
ture of till and the prevalence of the because synonym
for since
- - may have accounted for the absence of these
words.
Nevertheless, the word since appeared on the
Thorndike (1921) list and on the Durrell (1934) corrective
reading list.
Since is a word needed for mature concepts
and was an omission in the ESL list.
In the area of phonology, the core list fs.red
well.
There was sufficient representation of such blends
or consonant sounds as ch, sh, th,
words.
Qg,
and j in the final
Difficult vowels or diphthongs were also evident
in words like feel, book, but, and boat.
The
.§:.
in male,
and the s in pleasure, and the initial z were not well
represented, however.
There was an absence of words that reflect the
more mature concepts for relating and communicating:
angry, unhappy or sad, peace, death, die, dead, or sorry.
The words often and during were absent from among the
temporal words.
Conditional words such as except, either,
E!.Q!!!_ewhat, least, and althvugh did not appear in th8 list.
Such basic sensory words as touch, kiss, and
also missing.
~aste
were
Words like date, college, course, and
86
~rson,
ing.
necessary in social and cultural terms, were lack-
Survival words (poison, danger) for safety were
omitted in the list.
Also missing were words that repre-
sent higher cognitive processes (plan, change, decide,
course, understand, and forget.
One of the most significant features of the list
wae the ,s.bsence of many corrunon nouns, adverbs, adjectives,
and verbs that are needed for the development of the formative skills for using a language.
While this was a
characteristic common to many vocabulary lists of high
frequency words, it still minimized the effectiveness of
a list intended as a basic one for ESL.
ESL Ma them2" tics
List Anal;yzed
The mathematics list, while it was based upon a
high frequency arithmetic and a high frequency computer
list of mathematical terms, still excluded some basic
l"+
vems.
Two comparisons were made with word lists compiled
in mathematics by teachers in the field (Mathison, 1969;
Olander & Ehmer, 1971).
The serious omissions were mainly
related to the new school of math (subsets, base five) or
to advanced geometrical concepts not found in the comparison lists for elementary use (isosceles triangle,
parallelogram).
A comparison of three or more mathematical lists
from elementary and secondary school might have provided
87
the balance of basic terms that are needed for an ESL list
of terms for older pupils.
In spite of these weaknesses, the vocabulary can
serve as an introductor;y list for the presentation of a
high percentage of the most common words in the field.
Buswell and John (19J1:J) have written, these words are
too often excluded from language arts lists.
As
CHAPTER V
_, . CONCLUSIONS
This study investigated the basic question of
whether a comparison of several lists from word studies
cctlld yieJ_d vocabularies that are sui table for ESL instruc-
tion.
The related literature was reviewed in order to
determine the purp6se.s, sources, methods, and findings of
leading vocal:.:ulary studies.
Using methods suggested by
various experts in the field and the vocabularies from 1.4
valid and reliable stud.i.es, the basic ESL Core and Matherna tics IJists were compiled.
These were analyzed in terms
of validity and in terms of instructional objectives for
English as a Second Language.
1!...-Yi:Q.lJ}.d appear i'rom the results of this
----study
.
··~~~···--··-·--~-.
...~F.:..C:~---~-§.:_~er§l.__ of the trg,ditio:nal q,Jmroaches __ to vo92J~ulary
__ g_~Y,-~_l._g_:p~-~-!!- t
W~?_:r_~_LLO t_appllgabl e .fo.r_ESL~ s e s _•_Th~-­
reliance ·o.pon a general list of the highest frequency
~
..
...
•-''"'•-'~•····~··~··"-~-~--~~---~····•~--·- ....,.......-----~~------~-- -·~--··~-~---··----~-·-••uo•-~··-M~'"'--·-•·0~-~~~--~~~~~----
wvrds led to an omission
o.~·
many words needed for· r::·ocial
88
89
concepts in mature students, and for the development of
basic language skills.
IJ'he teachers of ESL and publishers of ESL textbooks usually expand basic word lists for instructional
purposes.
The writer proposes several alternatives to
this sole reliance upon subjective judgment.
The recommen-
dations are based upon a combination of field expertise and
scientific method, and they incorporate minor changes in
the traditional method, content, and sources utilj,.zed in
the investigation of vocabularies.
First . since the tirr.e, energy, and cost involved
in original or comparative studies is often prohibitive,
the use of computer studies and philanthropic or governmental funding would seem necessary.
Second, the sources for such a study should be the
reading vocabulary from ESL textbooks and the speaking
vocabulary of older, fluent speakers of English.
Third, and this may well be the most significant
recommendation, the results of studies could be analyzed
not just by subject matter categories, but by such miscellaneous categories as nouns, adjectives, affective words,
phonological examples, and cultural words.
In this way, a
comprehensive and practical list of high frequency words
could be prepared for second language instruction.
Fourth, an extensive comparative study could be
done with the objective of preparing subject matter lists
90
from primary level words.
Such lists would be applicable
r--~
in the instruction of older students in both ESL and. corrective reading.
Until such comprehensive investigations are conducted in the field of second language teaching, the
present ESL Core List and the ESL Mathematics Lists can
provide fm1ctional vocabularies for students and teachers
in English as a Second Language.
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Jour:1al ~
A basic sight vocabulary.
....
,..,,.., ;"'
J. ;1.) 0,
,.....,_ ;""
.2.2.,
!,
-" /
'·
/,...
4-.) 0-Y.OV •
91
Elementaa._ School
92
Dolch, E. \'\T, The 95 nouns common to the three word lists.
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El~mentary
1960, ]1, 38-42.
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Gates, A. I. The word recognition ability and the
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Harris, A. J., and Jacobson, M. D. Basic Elementary
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Knipp, H. B. Basic Volcabulary, Phrases, and Sentences
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