CALIF'ORNIA STA'l'E UNIVERSITY 1 NORTHRIDGE
THE EFFECTS OF TWO METHODS OF SIGHT VOCABULARY
INSTRUCTION ON RElilliNG ACHIEVENENT
IN FIRST GRADE
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree Master of Ar:ts in
Education
by
Janice Marie Osborn
August, 1974
(l
The project of Janice Marie Osborn is approved:
California State University, Northridge
August, 1974
ii
•
To my loving nami!y
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Fehl
Shirley, committee chairman, for her intelligent counseling,
expert advice, and her dedication and kindness in constructive criticism in the execution of this thesis.
To Dr. Vicki Sharp,
I
express my sincere gratitude for
her htman understanding, assurance and expert statistical
advice and assistance.
Thanks, also, to Dr. Raymond Jung,
for his thoughtfulness, time and aid in ·the completion of
this study.
My sincere appreciation to Dr. Grayce Ransom, founder
of the Ransom Reading Program, whose multi-media and multimodal reading program was the stimulus for this thesis.
My heartfelt thanks goes to both the reading resource
teachers--Edna Read, Violet Savoie, Dorothy Benson, Cheryl
Elm, Lettie Page, and to the cooperating first grade
teachers--Barbara Campbell, Alene Fortune, Sarita Boyd,
Ardel Calvert and Diana Grier.
To Peggy McDonald, Elementary Supervisor, my appreciation for her cooperation in getting this study where it
is today.
For the assurance and understanding of my family and
friends during the preparation and completion of this thesis,
my deepest gratitude.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
.......
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS • • .
iv
..........
..
LIST OF TABLES • . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . vii
ABSTRACT • • • •
. . . • • viii
• •
DEDICATION • • • •
•.
Chapter
I.
II.
..........
Introduction.
.........
Rationale for the Study •
.......
Statement of the Problem.
...
Limitation of the Study • . .
Research Hypotheses • . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition of Terms
..... ...
Summary • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
.... ...
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . .
. . ..
Controversial Views Concerning
Sight Words. • • • • • • • • . . . . . .
Methodologies in Teaching Sight
Vocabulary • • • • • • • • • . . . . . .
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM •
Studies on Growth in Sight Vocabulary
~
1
1
2
4
5
6
6
9
10
10
10
19
20
Studies on the Use of the Language Master •
22
.........
24
Use of Games in Reading •
v
Page
The Combined Use of "Wordo" and the
Language Master to Present Sight
Vocabulary
• • • • • •
........
Summary • • • •
III.
...
Teaching Procedures
............
Employed. . . . . . . .
The Experimental Group.
....
•
........
Design of the Investigation • • . . .
Characteristics of the Sample • . . .
Equating of Groups. . . . . .
.....
Summary • . . . . . . . . . .
The Contr9l Group • • •
IV.
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA.
Introduction.
........
Treatment of the Data
Presentation of the Data.
V.
.
.........
.......
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS •
...
.. ..
Conclusions • . .
Recommendations • . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . • • • . . .
.......
Summary • • • •
27
28
RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES •
Introduction. • • •
26
28
28
29
31
32
36
41
45
47
47
47
48
53
53
55
56
58
APPENDIX A
WORDS USED IN THIS STUDY • • •
GAMES USED BY CONTROL GROUP.
vi
........
.......
64
70
LIST OF TABLES
Page
TABLE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Ethnic Background. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
37
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Aid to Families with Dependent Children. • • • •
39
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Persons in Families Living Below Poverty IJevel •
40
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Mean IQ Scores • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • •
42
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Mean Raw Reading Scores. •
• • • • • • • • •
43
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Pre·treatement Mean Scores on Word Recognition
and Comprehension. • • • •
• • • • • • • • •
44
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Posttreatment Mean Scores of the WRAT Reading
Subtest. • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • •
49
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Posttreatment Vocabulary !-·lean Scores of Gates
MacGinitie Primary Reading Test • • • • • • • •
~
50
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Posttreatment Comprehension Mean Scores of
Gates MacGinitie Reading Test. • • • • • • • • •
52
vii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects
of two different teaching methodologies on the sight vocabulary and reading comprehension of first grade children.
The subjects in the experimental group learned sight
vocabulary through the use of the Bell and Howell I.anguage
Master and a game, "Wordo."
The instructors of the control
group taught sight vocabulary directly to the children
through the use of the chalkboard, chart stories, flash
cards, and games.
The groups were randomized and equated through pretesting.
There were no significant t ratios attained on
the pretest when the experimental and control groups were
compared on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test and both the word recognition and comprehension
sections of the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading Test.
The experimental and control groups experienced their
respective treatments for six months.
The differences in
the posttest mean scores were analyzed through the use of
the t
test.
The criterion measures were the reading subtest
of the Wide Range Achievement Test and the Gates MacGinitie
Primary Reading Test.
viii
Q
When the experimental group and the control group were
compared on the posttest. of the reading subtest of the Wide
Range Achievement Test, the experimental group significantly
out performed the control group at the .05 levele
The comparison of the control group and the experimental group on the posttest of the word recognition
section of the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading Test
revealed that the experimental group established significant growth at the .05 level.
When the experimental group and the control group were
compared on the posttest of the comprehension section of
the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading Test, the experimental
group gained significantly more growth at the .05 level.
It would appear from the results of this study that
the Language Master and "Wordo" are valuable tools in the
presentation and learning of sight vocabulary for first
graders.
ix
'
CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Although the importance of children learning to read
has never been questioned, it is only in recent years that
teachers have been fqced with a multitude of theories, techniques and audiovisual aids by which the skill of reading
is said to be acquired and developed.
New reading schemes
have appeared on the market, theories of whether reading is
caught or taught have been expounded and a mass of audiovisual aids such as the Language Master, Talking Page, and
the Audio Page have emerged.
Schools and local education
authorities are constantly faced with publicity concerning
thes,e new methods for which the claims usually made are that
they are the answer to all the teachers' problems.
The
schools and authorities, however, have to decide whether
they should provide the money to purchase such equipment.
If purchased, they need to decide for which children it is
0
likely to be must suitable.
Schools, therefore, need to
evaluate the equipment from two standpoints:
first, the
.
primary importance of the acquisition of reading skills by
all children, and second the misuse of techniques or the use
of the wrong techniques may not only fail to help the
1
children but may in fact harm them.
In addition, the cost
of equipment is high and the scarcity of resources necessi·tates that optimum use be made of the available resources.
Ration~le
for the Study
In an attempt to facilitate and direct the course
of learning a teacher utilizes various materials as teaching aids.
These teaching aids provide the physical stimuli
which indicate to a student that certain responses are
appropriate.
But for learning to take place, a student has
to make the appropriate responses.
The use of "Wordo" and the Language Master incorporates
learning theory in accordance with Lumsdaine's (1960:518)
three conditions of stimulus response nature which are
conducive to learning.
1.
Active participation.
Through the game "Wordo"
the learner is actively interacting with the
curriculum materials by responding and practicing with the vocabulary words.
2.
Prompt feedback.
After little delay the learner
finds out if his response was correct thus permitting immediate correction of an error.
This
is also an opportunity for reinforcement.
3.
Individualization of instruction.
The learner can
move ahead at his own rate.
The advantages of teaching machines stem from the
effective application of the principles of reinforcement.
When an organism behaves, it acts upon the environment.
This changes the environment in some way.
In turn, changes
brought about in the environment feedback to the organism
and affect its future behavior.
h"hen environmental feedback
strengthens the behavior which brought it about, the
organism has been reinforced (Lumsdaine & Glaser, 1960:207).
The importance of this immediate feedback was formulated years ago by Thorndike (1932) as the "law of effect."
According to this law of learning, an action which leads to
a satisfactory result tends to be
repeated~
Also B. F.
Skinner (1968) suggests that immediate reinforcement is
important in the learning process and that mechanical
devices fulfill the need for this immediate reinforcement.
Continuing in the same line of thought, Bush and
Huebner (1970:56-57) suggest that "words may be reinforced
by games and tachistoscopic exercises or by other audiovisual aidso
The important point is to get meaning, sight,
and sound together so that the child is launched on the road
to reading; the sight word response becomes automatic--a
direct stilu111us-response."
....,
_,.,........-~.-....,..,_
The use of the game
11
Wordo" and the Language Haster
incorporates various aspects of learning theory.
However,
it is still important that evaluation be made of the effectiveness of the use of mechanical equipment and this game
as opposed to other audiovisual aids in the classroom.
Statement of the Problem
The problem in this study was:
"'l'he Effects of Two
Methods of Sight Vocabulary Instruction on Reading Achievement in First Grade."
The purpose of the investigation was to determine the
success of a. technique using the Bell and Howell Language
Master and a game, "Wordo, .. in the presentation of new
vocabulary.
Did the use of "Wordo" and the Language Master
produce any significant differences in the vocabulary
achievement of first.graders when compared to the teacher
presentation of reading vocabulary?
Nila Banton Smith (1955:440) states that word recognition "is the most fundamental of the reading skills.
Without ability to recognize words, the reading process
cannot proceed."
The stock of written or printed words which a reader
recognizes at a glance constitutes a sort of "word bank"
(Hildreth, 1958).
The larger a reader's word bank, the more
mature he is in his reading.
cumulative process.
Building the word bank is a
It begins with the first contact with
words and continues throughout the school years and as long
as a person continues to read at all.
The rate at which the
word bank grows depends on a number of factors,one of which
is the nature of the program by which he is being taught.
This study dealt with two different methods of teaching
sight vocabulary for development of such a word bank.
5
!!imitation of the Study
The sample for this study was drawn from four elementary schools in Burbank Unified School District in Los
Angeles County.
There were twenty-eight to thirty students
in each of the six intact first grade classrooms used in
the study.
A substantial amount of the children in both the control and experimental groups had Spanish Surnames.
In
describing the socioeconomic status of the groups involved,
the AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) counts
were used.
These statistics revealed that the control
schools had a lower percentage of families receiving financial aid than the experimental schools.
Information concern-
ing persons in families living below poverty level showed
that all of the schools were comparable except for one of
the schools in the control group as shown in Table 3.
The independent variables were the two procedures
employed to teach reading sight vocabulary during a six
month period of the academic year 1973-74.
The procedure
for the experimental group was a method for learning sight
vocabulary using the game "Wordo" and the Language Master
audiovisual equipment.
The control group was introduced to
the same new words by the teacher and use of chalkboard,
chart stories and games.
An attempt was made to control
the following independent variables:
teachers used in the
study, amount of time spent in sight vocabulary instruction,
age and sex.
The covariates of intelligence quotient and
6
reading ability were used to match the experimental and
control groups.
The dependent variable in this study was the sight
vocabulary and reading achievement of both groups as measured by the students' raw scores on the reading subtest of
the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) and the Gates
MacGinitie Primary Reading Test.
Research Hypotheses
The intent of the study was to test and analyze the
following null hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1. There will be no significant difference
between the control group and the experimental
group on the sight vocabulary reading achievement
posttest mean scores as measured by the reading
subtest of the WRAT and the word recognition
section of the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading
Test.
Hypothesis 2. There will be no significant difference
between the control group and the experimental
group on the comprehension reading achievement
posttest mean scores as measured by the comprehension section of the Gates MacGinitie Primary
Reading Test.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions were selected for this study:
Achievement.
Accomplishment or proficiency of per-
forrnance in a given skill or body of knowledge (Good,
1959:7).
7
Sight
Vocabular~>
The words that the child immediately
recognizes as he reads without resort to word analysis techniques (Good, 1959:602).
Language Master.
A dual track recorder and speaker
unit manufactured by Bell and Hmvell.
The unit is activated
by placing a specially designed card in a slot at the top of
the machine.
It is small enough to be used on a pupil's
desk and can be equipped with head sets for one or more
individuals.
Toward the lower edge of the card is a strip
of dual-track magnetic tape with a prerecorded word, phrase
or sentence on one track.
This prerecording relates to a
word, or words printed on the top of the card.
By pressing
the bar labeled "Instructor, 11 the operator can hear the prerecorded voice while he sees the visual stimuli on the card.
The operator can then press the bar labeled
11
Student" and
can record his own voice response to the auditory visual
stimuli presented.
By reinserting the card, the learner can
play back his response to check for accuracy or listen for
reinforcement.
"Wordo."
A game essentially the same as Bingo but is
played with words.
It consists of one large card, a pack of
sixteen word cards for each child and a corresponding set of
Language Master vocabulary cards.
child has to use his three senses:
manipulative.
To play this game each
visual, auditory and
The Language Master vocabulary card with
words is partially inserted into the machine.
The child
sees the word as he hears it pronounced by the machine.
8
Each child then finds the matching word from his word cards
which are displayed before him and then places it on the
corresponding word on the large "Wordo" card.
this he repeats the word aloud.
As he does
Then the button on the
machine is pressed causing it to pronounce the word again.
The child knows immediately if he has said the word correctly and the learning of the word is reinforced.
This
game is played until the card is completely covered.
Approximately four or five children play this game at a
time but it may be piayed individually.
Teacher Introduction Method.
1.
Teacher introduces new words in phrases or
sentences on chalkboard or overhead projector.
2.
Rereading.
3.
Comprehension clues.
4.
Striking characteristics of words.
5.
Word-form clues.
6.
Word-recognition check with
7.
Flash-card exercise.
8.
Chalkboard exercise.
Recognition of Words as Sight Words.
g~~es.
A sight word is
any word that a reader immediately recognizes when he
encounters it in or out of context.
This recognition is
achieved without analyzing the word and usually without
depending on the context in which it appears.
The sight
vocabulary in this sense refers to all words a reader recog-·
nizes, regardless of the method by which he first identified
9
them (Tinker & McCullough, 1968)e
t
Test.
As stated by Elzey (1967:49), the t test is
"appropriate for comparing means of small samples when it is
assumed the samples have been randomly selected and the
scores come from normally distributed populations."
Summary
There is a need to evaluate the use of audiovisual
aids first because of the acquisition of reading skills by
children and because_the expense of equipment is high.
With
the added factor of the scarcity of funds, wise use must be
made of finances that are available.
This study was a
comparison of the sight vocabulary achievement and reading
comprehension of the experimental group that learned sight
words through the use of the Language Master and "Wordo,"
and the control group which experienced the teacher introduction method.
Chapter II presents a review of the literature.
CHAl?TEH II
REVIEW O:E' 'l'HE LI'J'ERA'I'iJIU<;
Introduction
In this chapter the controversial views concarn1Dg
sight: words are ev.ident.
Some autJ1o1:·i ties r.mggt:c.w:: the
irrrpor.i.:ance and special advantages of sight. ',;iOrds 1-Jhilc-;
others reject this premise.
There are various poiuts of
v:L;;vl as to when. sight: t¥ords should be l.s9.rned by cl:dld:cenfi
in·;:; of sight vocabula.ry is also included.
growth in sight vocabulary and on the use of the Language
I>1ast.er are reviewed.
in
thf~
SincE-~
part uf the indept.mdent v;;.u:-iable
study ·Nas t.he g-ame, "h'o.rdo," discunsi>Jn of thB
Vi:3.1uc~
of ga.rnes in learning is presr2.:11t.cd.
The fact that a high percentage of all beginnirg re&d-
well proven and demonstrated.
the Loyo 1 ::1
Reading Clinic (Fry, 1960:38), samples of readjng material
10
11
up an average of 63 percent of the sample.
These are
referred to as "Instant Words 11 because they must be recognized instantly before the child can gain real reading
facility.
This means that more than half of all the words
a child encounters in reading texts during the first three
years of his reading experience come from a list of only
three hundred words.
The same three hundred common words
also comprise nearly one half of most adult reading materi;'il
--the front page of the daily newspaper, the magazines and
popular books we read.
It seldom dips below 40 percent,
even in technical circles.
More so today than ever before, children begin to learn
to read long before they enter the first grade.
Television
has contributed much to the program of children, and this is
reflected in better reading among school
children~
The
child's first stage of a formal learning-to-read program is
the acquisition of a basic sight vocabulary.
Even in the
programs that purport to teach first either the names of the
letters or their sounds, it is nevertheless likely the child
has begun reading by means of a sight vocabulary, if only
his first name.
He makes no attempt to analyze the word or
recognize elements within it, but learns its configuration.
To this he usually adds the names of friends and today, the
names of products advertised on television (Barbe, 1965).
There are certain other wor~~at the child learns in
much the same way.
Many of these are among the two hundred
and twenty words referred to as the Dolch words (Dolch,
...
1
?
1948).
There is also a more recent study by Kucera and
Francis which is based on an analysis of Current American
English (Johnson, 1971).
They are words that are frequently
used but do not necessarily follow any phonetic principle,
nor
can they be represented by a picture.
Formal instruc-
tion does not await the acquisition of these basic sight
words~
Other methods of learning to read will be used con-
currently, but some words are best learned by a sight method.
Persisting into the 1970's are controversial viewpoints
concerning the idea that children learning to read should be
taught, first of all, to recognize whole words or "sight"
words.
A survey of textbooks on the methodology of reading
published since 1970 makes this clear.
In a textbook on reading procedures, Durkin (1972:248)
explains that "whole-word 11 identification "will enable a
child to look at a word and say (think) it without going
through any types of analyses."
In reading sight words,
Harris and Smith (1972:158-59) profess the child "goes
through no evident analytic process as his eye sweeps across
each word."
Karlin (1971:143-45) agrees that sight words
"are words which readers learn to recognize without having
to analyze them."
In books published in the 1970's, exceptions to this
idea of the impoxtance of sight words are rare.
However,
Wilson and Hallss (1972:124) text for teachers and the text
by Walcutt, Lamport and McCracken (1974) are among those who
take exception.
The text by Wilson and Hall designates
13
Q
"sight vocabulary" only as those words developed after a
"prereading 11 period, a level at which the child learns to
discriminate and name letters, match words, and "to identify
words which are different only in the initial medial or
final letters."
Walcutt, Lamport and McCracken (1974:143-44) suggest
two major criticisms concerning sight words in beginning
reading.
First, the sight words that are introduced are
quite likely to be irregularly spelled since the most common
words in the language happen to be the ones that have the
largest proportion of irregular spellings.
This does not
allow a first grader, who is just beginning to read, to
make any simple inferences about the relations between
letters and sounds.
This may cause confusions in a begin-
ning reader's mind.
A second criticism is the confusion
that sterns from the idea that a printed word stands for a
meaning rather than for a sound.
The proper understanding--awareness--of the reading act must begin with the knowledge that the
printed word stands for a sound. If a child of
six begins by learning a sentence in a way that
makes the words stand for objects and actions~
he has as his first step learned something that
he must totally unlearn before he can achieve
awareness.
The special advantages or values of sight words generally are thought to be self-evident.
Few modern writers
take space in their books on reading methods to go beyond
the basic defense made for sight words.
L--·············-······ --·---·---- .•.. --------------·-···-------- ------··--···-- ·-
'
14
According to Bush and Huebner (1970:56) the beginning
reader "has to know them in order to begin analyzing words
and using other word-attack approaches to meaning and recognition."
Hafner and Jolly (1972:66,91) suggest that sight
words are
11
Useful" since they form the "basis for studying
phonetic and structural elements of words."
Sight words
are needed, Daisy Jones (1971:31) argues, when the "phonetic
principles involved are not yet within the child's grasp
and he needs the word for immediate use."
Supposedly, it is also as easy for the beginning reader
to learn to read sight words as it is to learn to identify
letters (Zintz, 1970).
Then, the learning of sight words is
said to "minimize the time the child spends on word recognition," and thus acts "to get children reading immediately"
(Wallen, 1972:21).
Sight words "keep meaning in the lime-
light," and help "lead to immediate success in interpretation of meaning" says Dechant (1970:215).
Daisy Jones
(1971:63) states that it "lengthens the eye span, increases
speed at the outset (and) gives the beginner early satisfaction ...
It is the opinion of Bond and Tinker (1967:311) that
• • • the importance of forming the habit of
rapidly recognizing known words, rather than
studying each word encountered as though it
had never been seen before, cannot be emphasized too strongly. The child who fails to
build a large sight vocabulary and who does
not have the habit of recognizing these at a
glance cannot hope to become an able reader.
15
According to Spache (1969:432)
• .. • intensive emphasis at primary grade levels
pay dividends in increased sight and meaning
vocabularies and improved comprehension. In
fact at these early stages of development such
training may appear to produce quite dramatic
gains, insofar as these are measured by common
vocabulary and reading tests.
Gray (1960:17) suggests that
• • • for at least two reasons much of a child's
early success in reading depends on his mastery
of an initial stock of sight words: ability to
identify these sight words enables him to read
his pre-primers and primer fluently; he will also
use his ever growing stock of sight words as a
basis for understanding phonetic analysis and
structural analysis.
The writer looked for research evidence to substantiate
the statements made in defense of sight words.
Very few
authors venture to point out research to defend their statements about sight words.
However, DeBoer and Dallman
(1970:116) suggest that "confirmation of the value of a
whole-word method came from early eye-movement studies in
reading by Dearborn, Judd, Buswell and others."
These
investigations indicated that "in a single fixation the
reader recognizes whole words and even phrases that have
become familiar to him through frequent exposure to them."
In departing from the prevailing opinion, Chall {1967)
voiced the first well-publicized rejection of the established notion among most experts that in beginning reading
children first read words by sight.
She pointed out that
.the acceptance of this assumption was seldom questioned
through the period covered by her study of reading practices.
16
In a study by Diack (1960:140) it was found that
children \vho were learning to read words, gave ngreater
attention" to the first letter or two; the middle letters
were given less attention than any other part of the word.
This finding corroborated those of earlier research by
Gates and Boeker (1923) , Wiley (1928) , and Mary Hill (1936).
Similar results were also found by Shankweiler and
Liberman (1972:314).
Their evidence explains
• • • that children in the early stages of learning to read tend to get the initial segment
correct and faii on subsequent ones because they
do not have the conscious awareness of phonemic
segmentation needed specifically in reading but
not in speaking and listening.
One of the most useful studies for determining whether
children read sight words was by Marchbanks and Levin
(1965).
In their intricately designed study, kindergarten
and first grade children matched a given pseudoword (for
example, VEJAT) to one of five other pseudowords.
Each of
these five other words contained only one cue from the first
word.
way.
They each were the same as the first word in only one
For example, VEJAT was shown to the child.
child looked at the following five words.
Now the
Beyond the first
letter of these five words are the same as VEJAT only in the
indicated way:
VOPUF (shape); VETEP (second letter); VHJUO
(third letter) ; VUMAG {fourth letter) ; and VISHT (fifth
letter).
The child matched one word out of the five he
thought was the same as VEJAT.
It was found that the least-
used cue in reading these pseudowords, and other three-letter
17
pseudowords, was shape.
Shape was significantly less
important than the next weakest cue, the fourth letter.
It is thus evident that there are controversial views
concerning sight words.
The following studies to be discussed are concerned
with two methods of teaching vocabulary:
the systematic
phonetic method and the look-say or sight word method.
This paper was not concerned about the effectiveness of one
method over the other.
These studies are cited only to
point out that sight.words were found to be of importance
in vocabulary achievement especially in beginning reading.
Harry Tate (1940) found that the look-say group scored
higher on vocabulary and comprehension than the intrinsic
phonics group.
Winch (1925) found that at the end of first grade the
systematic phonics group scored higher on oral word recognition and connected oral reading.
On rate the look-say
group scored higher.
Currier (1923) found that at the end of first grade
the group with systematic phonics did better on oral words
recognition and the look-say group achieved higher on
comprehension, rate and fluency.
Henry Tate (1937) found that at the end of first grade
the systematic phonics group scored higher on vocabulary
but the look-say group scored higher on comprehension.
18
Other similar studies were conducted by Valentine
(1913), Gill (1912), Gates and Russell (1938} and Sexton
and Herron (1928).
The previous studies comparing the look-say and systematic phonics method all occurred before 1930.
After
the 1930's, people asked how much and what kind of phonics,
rather than whether to teach phonics.
Jean Chall analyzed
twenty-five studies that compared systematic programs which
taught phonics early and systematically, and intrinsic
phonics programs which stressed sight or thought reading,
introduced phonics later, and taught a more moderate amount
of it.
Jean Chall (1967:109-115) summarized the studies
as follows:
Few investigators tested oral reading, but
of those who did, all but one found the systematicphonics group superior to the intrinsic-phonics
group. Gates (1927) differed; he found both groups
approximately equal.
Most studies reported that children who were
exposed to systematic phonics did better on
standardized silent vocabulary tests at the end
of grades 1, 2 and 3 than children who were learning from an intrinsic-phonics program. Starting
with grade 4, the evidence is more limited and
also less clear-cut.
The few studies that tested rate do not indicate any clear-cut trends. A systematic-phonics
emphasis seems to have produced slower rates in
grades 1 and 2, but not to have affected rate
negatively in qrades 3 and 4.
19
Methodologies in
~i9ht Vocabulary
Teachin~
The teaching of reading has seen the championing of
various methods as the most effective for the teaching of
word-recognition skillso
Robert Mills (1956) conducted a
study to determine the teaching method most effective in
teaching word recognition to various types of individuals.
The four basic methods used in this study were:
the visual,
the phonic, the kinesthetic, and a combination of the three.
The subjects were thirty-nine boys and nineteen girls in
grades
t\-10
and four.
Standard teaching procedures were used
so that each subject had the same variety of activities for
each method and in the same order as every other subject.
All of the conclusions reached by Mills were based on
the 5 percent level of confidence.
The study showed con-
elusively that different children learn to recognize words
more efficiently by different teaching methods and that no
one method is best for all children.
Using the same methods, JoAnn Dauzat (ERIC: 055 745)
conducted a study very similar to that of Mills but was
concerned with the best method of teaching word recognition
to disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged children.
She con-
eluded that nondisadvantaged students performed better than
disadvantaged students on all four methods.
No one best
method for teaching word recognition to disadvantaged students was found.
20
The 1964-65 United States Office of Education cooperative first grade studies (Dykstra, 1968) failed to establish
any one method of beginning reading instruction as being
superior to all other approaches.
In general, there was
more variability in achievement among pupils taught by
teachers using a given method than there was between groups
of pupils taught by different methods.
This assists in
verifying the data which attests to the fact that the
teacher is the most important variable in any learning
situation.
In part of Nila Banton Smith•s (1955:445) summary on
"What Research Tells Us About Word Recognition 11 she stated:
It cannot be assumed that all children need phonics.
It would be well to give more attention to both
visual and auditory discrimination in teaching all
types of word recognition.
Studies on Growth in
S1ght Vocabulary
Following a readiness program in which the names and
sounds of letters have been learned, a child in the first
grade acquires a sight vocabulary.
Growth in this vocabulary
is dependent upon many factors including the rate at which
new words are introduced, the difficulty of the words, the
methods of presentation and the provision for adequate
practice.
Gardella (1946), Maiorano (1945), Smith (1941), and
Sullivan (1946) provided systematic review of primer and
first reader vocabularies, using context clues given orally
21
by t.he teacher, as the words were flashed in a t.achistoscope.
Prario (1945) used a similar procedure for introducing new
vocabulary at the primer level.
three timese
Each word was presented
The first time the context gave an obvious
clue, the second a partial clue and the third no clue at
all..
The practice was continued for twenty days in all of
the studies.
The comparison of the reading scores of the
children in the control group who were following standard
basal reader procedure with those in the experimental group
showed differences favoring the experimental groups in all
of the studies, those of Gardella, Smith and Sullivan being
statistically significant.
The difference in the Maiorano
study was substantial, but not statistically significant.
In the Prario study, the children taught by the standard
basal reader procedure had fewer errors than those taught
by the experimental method.
The quick perception method
showed no value for initial teaching.
Ash (1950) and others, Betcher and Tupper (1955), Day
(1961) and others and Cox (1956) and others provided systematic review for the vocabulary of first grade basal
series through meaningful word practice.
The children read
from flash cards silently and showed their answers using
cards.
The words were then said orally.
Some exercises
used single words, some phrases, and some asked questions.
All were planned to be fun.
The Betcher material had only
an informal try-out, the others were tried experimentally.
The exercises in each case were taught for five minutes a
22
day for thirty consecutive days.
Achievement was measured
on the Detroit Word Recognition Test for Grade One.
The
mean gain for the experimental group in the Cox study, which
included three hundred and
thirty~three
children in twelve
classrooms" was 11.25 words compared with 5.45 words for the
control group.
In the Ash study the mean gain for the
experimental group was 6.39 words compared with 4.65 words
for the control group.
There were no differences between
the achievement of the boys and girls in any of the studies.
Studies on the Use of
the Language Master
A study (Berkin:l970) of the use of the Bell and Howell
Language Master Audio-Visual Instructional System over a
five month period in teaching English as a second language
to school children showed that they learned English faster
than did a comparison group who were taught without this
system.
The study also revealed that when tested four
months later, the first group was still ahead of the comparison group.
The study incorporated a test given at three intervals
and a series of classroom observations.
The experimental
and control groups of students of one hundred and thirtyeight and eighty respectively were drawn from the second,
fourth and sixth grades and from the general high school
level.
The most dramatic gains were registered by the
experimental group between the pretest and the posttest in
the fourth and sixth grades.
On the scale employed in this
23
study, this group gained more than one full level, in contrast to the control students who made an average improvement of less than one-half a scale level.
In the second
grade, the improvement of more than one full level was
identical in both groups.
In the high schools, neither
group gained more than one-half a scale level.
The.classroom observations included in this study
indicate that the children appeared to be stimulated by the
Language Master System; even after five months, when the
novelty has typically worn off, the students were still
actively using it.
In another study two first grade teachers identified
thirteen pupils in their classroom who were having serious
difficulty with reading.
The children selected by the
teachers were tested by the school psychologist using the
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and the Auditory Sequencing subtest of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities. ·The Spache Diagnostic Reading Scales were given to
each child in the experimental group by the special reading
teacher.
After all testing was completed the instructional program was inaugurated.
Children were grouped in pairs and
each pair was assigned to a Language Master.
A Kansas State
University student teacher was also assigned to each Language
Master as a monitor, facilitator, and selector of materials.
Each child was given two periods per week consisting of
forty-five minutes each on the machine.
Cards available to
24
be selected for use were nouns, phrases and simple sentences,
sen·tences based on the Ginn Reading Series, and verbs.
After eight weeks of instruction the program was terminated and the group was again tested using the same
personnel and tests.
The results showed that a significant
difference at the .05 level was made in the word recognition
ability of the group as measured by the Spache Diagnostic
Reading Scales, Word List 1.
A significant difference at
the .OS level was made in the group's receptive language and
auditory sequencing ability as measured by the Peabody
Picture Vocabulary Test and the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities respectively.
A positive change was
made in the group's attention to reading instruction as
observed by the regular classroom teacher.
Use of Games in Reading
It was suggested by Shankman (1968:262} that
• • • games can be used to reinforce many different reading skills. They are an incentive for
learning vocabulary, phonics, word structure and
sight words. Most of the professional texts on
the teaching of reading recommend using games to
reinforce the reading skills in an interesting
way.
Strang (1957:177) found games
• • • especially valuable in providing practice
for individuals deficient in certain specific
word recognition, vocabulary, paragraph reading
and other skills.
According to Harris (1961:290}, "many kinds of drill
can be disguised as games, becoming play rather than distasteful work. "
25
Smith {1963:176) stated that
• • • interest is a strong factor in acquiring new
words in a reading vocabulary, and variety in
game-playing keeps interest high. Focusing pleasurable attention on word forms through the use of
games in which the words are repeated orally is a
method widely used by primary teachers in fixing
sight words. Of course, such games are used more
extensively in beginning reading classes than
elsewhere because children at this stage have not
yet developed ability to attack words independently
are are largely dependent upon memory.
Interest is a touchstone to reading achievement, reading enjoyment, and reading usefulness.
Psychologists have
long recognized interest as a basic factor in the learning
process.
Using games to learn words or reinforce words
previously learned stimulates more interest in reading.
Thorndike (1932) placed strong emphasis upon interest and
suggested that interest is being in a state of readiness to
undertake a learning experience.
W. F. Hill (1956) suggests
that motivation can be found in the activity itself.
This
is related to intrinsic motives, that is motives that reside
in the task itself rather than external to it.
is important in school learning.
This motive
Thus by using the game
"Wordo" and the Language Master it is hoped that a child's
interest, which is so important to learning, can be captured
and that the child would be motivated enough by the activity
of the task to learn reading words.
Linda Jones (1971:41-46) states that
• • • if the motivation and attitude of the learner
is an important factor in learning, if what is
learned in pleasure is remembered, and because
students of all ages seem to enjoy games and gametype activities, it behooves reading teachers to
26
incorporate a game approach to the teaching of
reading, especially in remedial reading.
In a suburban school district of Denver, Colorado, the
teachers assembled a useful collection of commercial and
teacher-constructed games in a Title I Reading Program.
The teachers used the games for (1) reinforcement of skills,
(2) optional activities for students who finish assignments
early, and (3) as rewards in reading contracts.
They found
there was added interest and enthusiasm in the reading program.
By means of games and game-type activities, reading
and enjoyment became associated, with a concomitant increase
in reading ability and interest in reading.
The games them-
selves may not produce significant differences in learning,
but they do generate enthusiasm and a positive attitude,
which are essential to growth in reading.
The Combined Use of "Wordo 11 and
the Language Haster to Present
S1ght Vocabulary
Dr. Grayce Ransom initiated the method of using "Wordo ''
and the Language Master to present vocabulary.
Since this
is rather new, there has not been any studies done to reveal
statistical evidence concerning its affects.
In an inter-
view with Dr. Ransom on July 9, 1973, she stated that she
and many teachers in her research school believe that this
method combining the aural, visual and manipulative is the
key to reading improvement in their schools.
General evi-
dence, which is revealed in higher scores on reading tests,
indicates that the program has been effective.
Dr. Ransom
Q
f:.::n: .r:t:rst g1:aders.
n~•Io.rdo
ease.
,.
~~
After mast,ering the vocabulary t.hrough
children are capable of reading their
t~ext
with
This provides a successful experience for a child,
provides encouragement and s·timulation, and enhances
inter~
est. in reading.
The controversy concerning the teaching of sight words
has been demonstr<:tted.
Commentaries and evidence indicated
the importance of sigh·t \'lOrds in the early grades.
diffex:ent. children
l(~arn
Because
to recognize words· most efficiently
by dif:ferent. teaGhing methods, the classroom teadv~:c must
group inst:ruct:ioniil
techniq~.xes
9
~rhe
us~.~
of the Languzv;;e
!-1ast.f!r \vas :t.:)und to be helpful for first graders havin.g
Langu.o.gc) stu.dents.
'rhe value of games in the learning
process was supported by authorities.
The combined utiliza-
ti.on of the Language H<1Ster and "Hordo 11 in t.each1.ng word
recognit.ion has indicated effect.ive
rc~sults.
'I'!:u:~
dosit;:;n and procE·du.reE are found in Chapter III.
research
•
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Introduction
The basic purpose of this study was to determine the
effectiveness of the Bell and Howell Language Master and
"Wcrdo" for presenting sight words.
It dealt with the
effects of two differing methodologies on first grade children's sight vocabulary achievement and reading comprehension as measured by the reading subtest of the Wide Range
Achievement Test (WRAT) and the Gates MacGinitie Primary
Reading Test.
The mean differences in the raw scores of the
pretest and posttest were analyzed through the use of the t
test.
The present chapter will describe the two teaching
methodologies employed in the study, the instruments and
procedures that were developed and the identification of
data sources and population.
Teaching Procedures Employed
In this study two differing techniques of teaching
reading vocabulary were employed.
found in Appendix A.
The word list may be
The subjects in the experimental group
learned their reading vocabulary with the use of a mechanical device and a game.
The teachers of the control group
taught vocabulary words directly to the children through the
28
29
use of the chalkboard, chart stories, flash cards, games,
and. so forth.
After the pretesting both groups experienced
their respective treatments for the next six months.
Sometime during the reading period each child in the
study spent approximately ten minutes per day studying or
learning new reading vocabulary--sometimes a little more but
the time did not exceed more than one hour total during the
week.
Since the teachers were using the Harper and Rowe
Reading Series as the basic text, each student was exposed
to the same basic sight words in the order presented in the
texts.
The difference was the manner in which the students
in the classrooms learned the new words.
Six teachers were utilized in the study in an attempt
to control the teacher variable.
All of the teachers volun-
teered to participate in the project, were tenured and had
at least three years experience.
The teachers used the same
methodology that they had been using.
The equipment and
game had been previously used in the experimental classrooms
so there was little chance of the novelty effect being
present.
The Experimental GrouE
The experimental group used the Language Master and
0
Wordo 11 to learn new reading vocabulary and practice their
words.
The materials needed for this were a Language Master,
a large vocabulary card for each subject with sixteen words
printed on it, a pack of sixteen small word cards for each
30
child and one corresponding set of language master vocabulary cards.
The Language Master is about the size of a
small typewriter and it is placed on the table8
Each child
puts his individual word cards around the edge of his big
"Wordo" card.
Bingo.
The game is played essentially the same as
To play this game the subjects had to use their
three senses:
visual, auditory and manipulative.
'I'he
Language Master vocabulary card is a flash card w·ith a ":.'lord
printed on the front and a strip of magnetic recording tape
along the bottom.
The card is placed into the machine, a
button is pressed and it moves across the machine reproducing orally the word printed on the vocabulary card.
The
subject sees the word as he hears it pronounced by the
machine.
Each child then finds the matching word from his
word cards which are displayed before him and then places
it on the corresponding word on the large "Wordo" card.
he does this he repeats the word aloud.
As
Then the button on
the machine is pressed causing it to pronounce the word a
second time.
The child knows immediately if he has said the
word correctly and the learning of the word is reinforced.
The subject may also press a button which allows him to
record the printed matter, play back his answer and then
compare it to the machine's.
card is completely covered.
This game is played until the
Approximately four students
play this game at a time, but it may be played individually.
31
The Contr?l Group
The teachers utilized various methods of establishing
a sight vocabulary with the control group.
The teacher did
not always use each of the steps to be described but varied
the method according to the needs of the children and tried
to keep the students motivated by variation.
The researcher
noted that the teacher also used contextual analysis in
establishing a sight vocabulary.
Introduction.
New words used in phrases or sentences
were introduced by the teacher on the chalkboard or overhead
projector.
Group discussion followed in which the new word
was used informally with the same meaning it had in the
story the pupils were about to read.
Rereading.
The children read the sentences aloud as
the teacher emphasized the new words.
Comprehension clues.
Meaning was attached to form
after the teacher asked questions concering the sentences
or phrases.
She might ask if a pupil could find, frame and
read the line that tells where someone lives.
The child had
to think the meaning of the word to identify it from the
clue the teacher gave.
Word-recognition check.
of simple games (Appendix B).
This was done by the playing
The teacher might point to a
new word and the children would stand if they could read the
word.
The teacher spot checked by having different children
say the word aloud.
32
Flash-card exercisee
The teacher flashed cards of
different words in the sight vocabulary of the children and
added to them the new words she had just introduced&
The
students were given the opportunity to build a story with
the flash cards in the pocket chart.
The children then
practiced reading the stories.
Chalkboard exercise.
chart exercise.
This is similar to the pocket
Instead of a story, however, it may be a
set of statements to be approved, disapproved and changed
orally.
Striking characteristics of words.
While acquiring a
sight vocabulary, a child might learn a word by noting a
striking characteristic such as the "tail" at the end of
the word monkey.
Word clues.
Many words have distinctive shapes or
configurations which may become important clues to recognition such as the word apple.
Design of the Investigation
All of the classrooms were administered the reading
subtest of the WRAT and the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test
Primary A as a pretest in the fall of 1973 and then again
as a posttest during the spring of 1974.
The students were
tested during their normal reading time.
Since the schools
used in this study were on divided opening, there were only
half of the children present during the testing period.
3.3
The tests were administered by the investigator and the
reading resource teachers who were assigned to the schools
in the study.
In administering the tests they followed
instructions exactly as given in the Testing Manual accompanying the tests.
The Gates MacGinitie Reading Test Primary A was given
to all six classrooms.
Form 1 was given during the last
two weeks of October, 1973 and Form 2 was given as a posttest during the last week of March and the first week of
April, 1974.
The test had two sections, vocabulary and comprehension.
The first section, word recognition, measured the degree to
which pupils could identify with reasonable accuracy representative primary words.
The test consisted of forty-eight
items, each of which included a picture and four words.
The
task was to identify and encircle the word that tells most
about the picture.
The first exercises were composed of
the easy and most commonly used words, but gradually became
more difficult.
Fifteen minutes was allowed for this
section.
The second section, comprehension, measured the students' ability to read and understand whole sentences and
paragraphs composed of words most commonly used in the
primary grades.
The test consisted of thirty-four passages
and comprehension was measured by the pupils' ability to
identify and mark one of several pictures which accurately
illustrated the meaning of a given passage.
The passages
were so arranged that they gradually increased in difficulty,
as determined by the decreasing frequency and importance of
the words used and by the length of the sentences.
This
section had to be completed in twenty-five minutes.
In Buros'
(1965) The Sixth Mental Measurements Yearbook,
William Eller reviewed the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading
Tests.
He suggested that the Gates MacGinitie Primary
Reading Test would continue to be regarded favorably by
teachers and administrators for certain practical reasons:
{1) all three tests can be administered in a total of forty
minutes plus explanation time;
(2) the items require ex-
aminee activities that teachers consider to be valid measure
of primary reading skill; (3) information concerning norms
is
plent~iful
and easy to interpret.
In the same review Eller stated that teachers and
supervisors who have used the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading Tests for several years
• • • report that they are easy to administer
because the directions in the manual are clear
and complete and because the examiner does not
have to possess much sophistication about measurement. Test users in the field also comment
that the tests correlate well with other measures
of reading ability, including overall appraisals
by classroom teachers.
(p. 1064)
The Test Manual (1965) of the Gates MacGinitie Reading
Tests provides information on both the alternate-form and
the split-half reliabilities.
Both types of reliabilities
are based on the separate testing of five communities which
were tested in January, 1965.
The testing was done under
35
typical classroom conditions by an examiner designated by
the school--usually the classroom teacher.
Using the alter-
nate form, the reliability coefficients for the Gates
MacGinitie Reading Test Primary A are e86 for vocabulary
and .83 for comprehension.
The split-half reliability coef-
ficients are .91 for vocabulary and .04 for comprehension.
The WRAT was also given in the fall of 1973 and then
again as a posttest in the spring of 1974.
vides scores in:
This test pro-
reading, "recognizing and naming letters
and pronouncing words"; spelling and arithmetic.
Only the
reading subtest of the WRAT was used in this study.
The
reading subtest consists of the following parts:
At the prereading level-1.
Naming two letters in previously written or
printed name.
2.
Identifying ten letters by form.
3.
Naming thirteen letters of the alphabet.
At the reading level-4.
Pronouncing seventy-five words.
Level I for ages five to eleven was used as both a
pretest and a posttest.
All parts of the reading subtests
were administered individually.
In the section on pronounc-
ing words the examiner points to a word and the subject says
it aloud.
The first time an error is made, the student is
asked to say the word again.
His response is scored right
if he corrects himself on the second trial.
From then on,
the first response is scored as either right or wrong,
36
unless the student spontaneously corrects the error he has
made.
In the word pronouncing test the task is stopped
after twelve consecutive failures.
According to the Test Manual, the reliability coefficient for the reading subtest of the WRAT is .986 for sixyear-olds.
The standard error of measurement is 1.36.
At
the seven year age level the standard error of measurement
is 1.05 and the reliability coefficient is .993.
During the fourth week of October, 1973, the investigator administered the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test Form
J to both groups.
The Otis-Lennon tests are designed for
use with classroom groups and may easily be administered
by the classroom teacher.
This test was used to determine
the mean intelligence quotient for both groups.
Characteris·tics of the Sample.
Six first grade classrooms from the Burbank Unified
School District in California were used in this study.
four schools involved in the study were:
The
William McKinley,
Joaquin Miller, Bret Harte and Providencia.
The experimental
group was made up of two classrooms from McKinley School and
one from Miller School.
The control group consisted of two
classrooms from Bret Harte and one from Providencia.
Table
1 helps to describe the ethnic background of the schools
~sed in the study.
It can be seen by Table 1 that both the
control and experimental schools had comparable ethnic
backgrounds.
37
Table 1
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Ethnic Background
Percent
School
Span1.sh Surname
Total M1.nor1.ty
Experimental Group
Miller
26.0
27.7
McKinley
32.9
35.7
Control Group
Bret Harte
10.3
10.9
Providencia
11.7
11.7
38
The subjects in this study were from six intact first
grade classrooms of twenty-eight to thirty students.
The
students were in the normal first grade range of six to
seven years of age.
siency.
The enrollment varied because of tran-
During the study a total of one hundred and ninety-
two students were tested but only the subjects that were
present for both the pretest and the posttest are included
in the study.
Absenteeism and transiency was a variable
that could not be controlled.
three boys and
forty~two
girls.
The control group had thirtyThe experimental group
consisted of thirty-eight boys and thirty girls.
Tables 2 and 3 assist in describing the neighborhood
and class of homes of the children involved in the study.
However, the specific numbers and percentages given in the
tables are the total for each school and do not necessarily
reflect the exact percentage for the classrooms studied.
Although all schools had families receiving financial
assistance, the statistics in Table 2 reveal that the control schools had a lower percehtage of families receiving
financial aid than did the experimental schools.
Information concerning persons in families living below
poverty level in each of the schools' district, as seen in
Table 3, show that all of the schools were comparable except
for Bret Harte.
39
Table 2
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Aid to Families with Dependent Children
School
AFDC
Counts
Percent
Experimental Group
Miller
McKinley
79
12.5
105
16.0
Control Group
Bret Harte
26
4.1
Providencia
13
4.2
40
Table 3
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Persons in Families Living Below Poverty Level
School
Persons
Percent
Experimental Group
Miller
384
60.7
McKinley
516
78.4
Control Group
Bret Harte
151
23.9
Providencia
191
62.4
41
~auating
of Groups
The experimental group had a mean intelligence quotient
score of 101.34 while the mean intelligence quotient score
of the control group was 102.57.
Table 4 shows that there was no significant level of
difference in intelligence quotient scores between the
experimental and control groups.
The scores are based upon
the administration of the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test
Form J.
The control and-experimental groups were found to be
comparable in reading ability.
Table 5 shows the mean raw
scores for the first graders at the schools being studied.
It is concerned with the comparison of the mean reading
scores for both the experimental and control groups.
Using
the California Cooperative Primary Reading Test (First Grade
Form 12-A) as a measure, there is no significant difference
between the subjects of the experimental and control groups
as to reading ability.
It was also necesary to determine whether the children
in both groups were comparable in sight vocabulary achievement and reading comprehension at the outset of the study.
The reading subtest of the WRAT and the Gates MacGinitie
Primary Reading Test were used as measure of comparability.
Table 6 shows the results of the t values for the comparison
of the pretreatment mean scores for both the' control and
experimental groups.
42
Table 4
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Mean IQ Scores
Group
Mean
S.D.
Experimental
101.34
9.12
Control
102.57
8.38
.353*
*Nonsignificant at .05 level.
43
Table 5
Comparison of.Experimental and Control Groups:
Mean Raw Reading Scores
Group
Mean
S.D.
Experimental
25.1
5.46
Control
25.33
5.69
t
.156
44
Table 6
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Pretreatment Mean Scores on Word Recognition
and Comprehension
Group
Mean
S.D.
t
WRAT Reading Subtest
Experimental
23.40
8.10
Control
23.76
6.70
.283*
Gates MacGinitie
Word Recognition
Experimental
14.99
7.52
Control
15.16
6.64
.141*
Gates MacGinitie
Comprehension
Experimental
6.79
3.96
Control
7.00
6.70
.225*
*Nonsignificant at the .05 level.
45
Using the reading subtest of the WRAT and the word
recognition section of the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading
Test as a measure, the results of the analysis in Table 6
reveal that there were no significant differences in the
sight vocabulary achievement between the experimental and
controi groups at the beginning of the study.
The results of the analysis in Table 6 also show that
there were no significant differences in the comprehension
achievement between the control and experimental groups at
the beginning of the study as measured by the comprehension
section of the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading Test.
Since the control and experimental groups were found to
be comparable by statistical analysis on the pretreatment
mean scores, the difference in the findings on the posttreatment mean scores should reflect the experimental factor.
Summary
This chapter discussed the design of the study.
The
procedures employed for the control and experimental groups
were discussed and the tools of measurement were described.
The comparability of the two groups involved, the control
and the experimental, regard to size, intelligence, reading
ability, ethnic background and socioeconomic status were
shown.
It also showed that the students of both groups
had insignificant differences in sight vocabulary achievement and comprehension at the beginning of the study.
It
46
was felt that since the two groups were comparable, the
results would reflect the experimental factor.
will discuss the results obtained.
Chapter IV
CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Introduction
The research design and the procedures for gathering
and analyzing the data have been described.
In the present
chapter the results are presented; there is discussion of
the statistical techniques used; and the data were analyzed
and sum..."na.rized.
The results of the hypotheses are given in
this chapter.
Treatment of the Data
In order to test the hypotheses, it was necessary to
make certain that the randomization procedures had succeeded
in equating the experimental and control groups involved in
the
study~
As was shown by Tables 4 and 5, the experimental
and control groups had no significant differences in their
intelligence quotients and reading ability.
Table 6 re-
vealed that at the outset of the study the t'Vto groups had
no significant difference in sight vocabulary achievement
and comprehension.
The results of these analyses indicate
that the two groups were equivalent; thus, Tables 7, 8 and
9 will reflect the experimental factor.
The t test for uncorrelated data was used to compare
the posttreatment mean scores for the control and
47
48
experimental groups.
The level of significance necessary
to reject the null hypotheses was set at the .05 level.
Each hypothesis was treated independently.
When the t
ratio was found to be significant for a given hypothesis,
the null hypothesis was rejected.
Presentation of the Data
!!XPOthesis 1.
The null hypothesis stated that there
would be no significant difference between the control group
and the experimental.group on the sight vocabulary reading
achievement posttest mean scores.
The teacher introduced
new sight words to the control group using chart stories,
flashcards, games, and so forth.
The experimental group
became acquainted with new sight vocabulary through the use
of the Language Master and "Wordoo"
The statistical data
in Table 7 and 8 show the results of the t tests.
The posttreatment mean scores for the control and
experimental groups were compared by a t
test.
Tables 7
and 8 show that the results of this comparison was significant at the .OS level of significance.
It becomes evident
from an examination of the t values in the previous two
tables that the experimental group had established significant growth in sight vocabulary achievement at the .05 level
of significance over the control group.
Therefore, Hypothe-
sis 1 was rejected beyond the .OS level of significance.
The experimental group made higher gains in sight vocabulary
as measured by the reading subtest of the WRAT and the word
Table 7
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Posttreatment Mean Scores of the WRAT
Reading Subtest
Mean
Group
S.D.
t
WRAT Reading Subtest
Experimental
37.92
8.78
Control
34.19
6.77
2.77*
*p
<
.OS.
50
Table 8
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Posttreatment Vocabulary Mean Scores of
Gates MacCinitie Primary Reading Test
Group
Mean
S.D.
t
Gates MacGinitie
Primarx: Reading
Experimental
34.55
10.74
Control
28.45
10.20
3.46*
*p
<
.05.
51
recognition section of the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading
Test.
!!Y.f~::_t~}}~S ~0
The null hypothesis stated t.hat there
would be r;o significant difference between the control group
a.nd t.he experimental group on comprehension reading achieve-·
ment post test mean scores.
results of the t
The follmving table shm·m the
tests.
Again t.he posttreatmen·t mean scores for the control
and experimental group •,vere cornpared by a t
test~
The
statistical data in Table 9 reveals that the resul t.:s of t;h:i.s
cotnpar:·ist)n ~,1ere significarrt: at: tl1e . 05 level. of signif:i.. can.c<~
Aft.er examination of the :!:_ value, it is evident that the
experim<:n1t.al group gained significan·t grO'Vlth in reading
compJ:::'(:!hensi.on achievement at the • 05 level of signif:icanc:c.;
over
tJH~
control group.
section of
th(~
As measmred by the comprehenElion
Gates MacGini tie Primary Reading Test,
thE.~
experime.nt.a.l qroup ma.de more significant gains in comprehension t:hr.:':t t:he control group.
Thus, Hypothesis 2 was
~
~
.t:
reject.ed beyond the • 05 level of s 1.gn 1. :r :tc a nee*
f1
$
52
Table 9.
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups:
Posttreatment Comprehension Mean Scores of
Gates ·MacGinitie Reading Test
Group
Mean
S.D.
t
Gates MacGinitie
Cornerehension
Experimental
19.19
6.82
Control
13.65
6.43
4.88*
*p
< . 05.
CHAPTER V
SU~U\RY,
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
This study investigated the effects of two different
procedures of sight vocabulary presentation on the sight
vocabulary and reading comprehension achievement of first
graders.
The significance of the present study was based on the
assumptions that (1} first grade students receiving instruction in sight vocabulary with the use of the Language Master,
a mechanical device, and "Wordo," a game, would significantly improve their sight vocabulary mean scores on reading
subtest of the WRAT and the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading
Test when compared with the control group; and (2) would
also result in significantly higher comprehension mean
scores when compared to the control group.
The subjects were one hundred and forty-three first
grade students from the Burbank Unified School District.
The sample was randomly divided with seventy-seven in the
control group and sixty-six in the experimental group.
The
two groups were equated by means of intelligence quotient
scores and reading ability as achieved on the Otis-Lennon
Mental Ability Test and the California Cooperative Primary
53
54
Reading Test.
A pretest-posttest design was chosen with
the use of a t test to compare the two samples.
The reading subtest of the WRAT and both sections,
word recognition and comprehension, of the Gates MacGinitie
Primary Reading Test were used for the pretest and posttest.
Tv1o alternate forms of the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading
Test were used for the pretest and posttest.
Following the pretests both classrooms experienced
their respective treatments for the next six months.
The
subjects in the experimental group learned their sight reading vocabulary by playing the game, "Wordo," and using the
Language Master mechanical device.
The teachers of the
control group taught sight words directly to the subjects
through the use of the chalkboard, chart stories, flash
cards, games, and so forth.
The t
test was applied to test the hypotheses.
In each
instance the level of significance necessary to reject the
null hypothesis was set at the .05 level.
Each hypothesis
was treated independently.
Null Hypothesis 1 was rejected.
There was a signifi-
cant difference between the control group and the experimental group on the sight vocabulary posttest mean scores.
The experimental group established significant growth in
sight vocabulary achievement in comparison to the control
group.
Null Hypothesis 2 was rejected.
There was a signifi-
cant difference between the control group and the
55
experimental group on comprehension achievement posttes·t
mean scores.
'l'he experimental group gained significantly
more growth in reading comprehension achievement than the
control group.
Conclusions
The findings of the present study indicate that both
the experimental and control groups made mean score gains
in sight vocabulary and comprehension reading achievement.
However, when the experimental and control groups were compared the experimental group made significantly greater
growth at the .05 level of significance than the control
group in both sight vocabulary and reading comprehension.
There were no significant t ratios attained on the
pretest when the experimental and control groups were compared on the reading subtest of the WRAT and both the word
recognition and comprehension sections of the Gates
MacGinitie Primary Reading Test$
When the experimental group and control group were
compared on the posttest of the reading subtest of the WRAT,
the experimental group significantly out performed the
control group.
The comparison of the control group and the experimental group on the posttest of the word recognition section of
the Gates MacGinitie Primary Reading Test revealed that the
experimental group significantly out performed the control
group.
56
Q
w~en
the experimental group and the control group
were compared on the posttest of the comprehension section
of the Ga·tes MacGinitie Primary Reading Test, the experimental group significantly out performed the control group.
It would appear from the results of this study that
the Language 1-.iaster and
11
Wordo 11 are valuable tools in the
presentation of sight vocabulary to first graders.
In
addition to the Language Master being beneficial to the
students, tb.e potential usefulness of this media as a
means to
~conomize
teacher time cannot be ignored.
Recommendations
The following recommendations could be used for further
study:
1.
Differ-ent reading achievement tests could be used
other thap the Gates
~mcGinitie
Primary Reading
Test and the reading subtest of the WRAT.
The
Spache Diagnostic Reading Scales, the Gilmore Oral
Reading Test, and other tests, might have measured
sight vocabulary achievement more accurately.
2.
Other grade levels should be studied to discover
whether the use of the Language Master and "Wordo"
would be as useful in teaching sight reading
vocabulary.
•
57
3.
This technique might be used wi·th students of
various achievement levels to determine whether
it is more beneficial with any certain group of
children.
4.
Varying groups of socioeconomic levels should be
studied to determine the effects of this technique.
5.
The present study could be replicated to verify
the results found in this investigation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
58
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Barbe, Walter B. (ed.). Teaching Readings: Selected
Hat.erials. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Berkinv Ruth. A ,study to evaluate the effectiveness of the
Bell and Howell·Language Master Audio-Visual Instructional System. New York: '.rhe Center for Urban Education, 1970.
Betcher, Florence and Tupper, Clara L. A review of first
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Master's thesis, University of Boston, 1959.
Bond, Guy and Tinker, Miles. Reading Difficulties:
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Pubiish~ng Company, 1967~
Their
Buras, Oscar K. (ed.). The Sixth Mental Measurements
Yearbook. Highland Park, New Jersey!~he Gryphon
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Bush, Clifford and Huebner, Mildred. Strategies for Readin~
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California Reading Association.
teaching reading, 1970.
Fresh teaching ideas for
Chall, Jeanne S. Learning to Read: The Great Debate.
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Chambers, J. Richard and Indrisano, Roselmina. Boston
University research in elementary school reading
1963-1969. Journal of Education, 1972, pp. 9-11.
Cox, Barbara and others. The development and evaluation of
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Unpublished Master's thesis, Boston University, 1959.
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60
Currier, Lillian. Phonics and no phonics.
School Journal, 1923, 23, 448-452o
Elementarx_
Dauzat, JoAnn. The effectiveness of four methods of teaching word recognition skills to children from disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged families. ERIC 055 745,
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Day, Katherine T. and others. The development and evaluation of exercises for group response to word meaning
for increasing word recognition in grade one.
Unpublished Master 1 s Thesis, Boston University, 1961.
DeBoer, John and Dallmann, Martha.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
1970o
The Teaching of Reading.
Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Dechant, Emerald v. Improving the Teaching of Reading.
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1970.
Diack, Hunter.
New York:
Reading and the Psychology of a Perception.
Philosophical Library, 1960.
Dolch, Edward W. Problems in Reading.
Garrard Press, 1948.
Champaign, Illinois:
Durkin, Doloresft Teaching Young Children to Read.
Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1972.
Boston:
Durrell, Donald D. and Murphy, Helen A. Boston University
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Dykstra, Robert. Summary of second-grade phase of the cooperative research program in primary reading instruction. Reading Researoh Quarterly, Fall, 1968, pp.
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Elzey, Freeman. A First Reader in Statistics. Belmont,
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Fry, Edward. Teaching a basic reading vocabulary.
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Elemen-
Gardella, Dora R. A systematic review of pre-primer and
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Gates, Arthur I. and Boeker, Eloise. A study of initial
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Gates 1 Arthur and Russell, David. Types of materials,
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Good, Carter V. Dictionary of Education.
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Chicago:
Scott,
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Harris, A. J. How to Increase Reading Ability.
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Harris, Larry A. and Smith, Carl B. Reading Instruction
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p •
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(\
Sullivan, Ruth A. The construction and evaluation of a
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Bureau of PublicatJ.ons,-Columbia University, 1932.
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Experiments on methods of teaching reading.
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Journal
Wilson, Robert M. and Hall, Mary Anne.
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Its
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Wm.
.
APPENDIX A
WORDS INTRODUCED IN THIS STUDY
64
DOLCH BASIC WORD LIST
Pre-Primer
a
and
green
make
have
me
the
this
big
help
blue
here
my
not
to
up
can
come
I
play
want
in
down
is
red
ride
we
with
for
funny
get
it
jump
little
run
said
saw
work
you
go
look
see
all
laugh
stop
yes
am
like
new
thank
your
Primer
are
at
away
no
now
that
then
they
black
on
three
but
came
did
one
out
please
too
two
was
do
put
eat
fast
find
ran
g_?Od
he
went
what
where
white
say
she
so
will
yellow
some
65
t
66
First
--about
give
our
this
a.fter
going
over
town
again
had
pretty
someone
an
has
round
Janet
around
her
show
Mark
as
him
sing
Ann
ask
his
sleep
David
ate
how
soon
socks
be
if
take
tell
before
into
them
Mary
brown
just
there
miss
by
know
think
call
let
us
cold
long
very
could
made
walk
can't
many
were
every
may
far
much
when
who
first
must
why
five
never
wish
fly
of
something
found
Mother
four
old
once
morning
from
open
Daddy
gave
or
home
67
Common Nouns
airplane
children
hand
rain
apple
coat
head
ring
baby
corn
hen
back
cow
hill
road
school·
ball
dog
horse
sheep
barn
doll
house
shoe
basket
door
kitten
bear
duck
log
snow
squirrel
beg
eggs
letter
stick
bell
elephant
man
store
bird
men
milk
street
birthday
eve
farm
book
farmer
money
table
boat
father
monkey
tail
box
feet
mother
top
boy
fire
ear
toys
bread
fish
nose
train
bus
floor
paper
tree
cake
flower
party
wagon
cap
garden
picture
watch
car
girl
pig
water,
cat
grandfather
puppy
wood
chicken
grass
shadow
all
game
rabbit
snake
catch
different
stay
be
T-shirt
bad
best
sweater
hamburger
earrings
dime
surprise
ice cream
skates
nickel
oh
pigeon
night
pickle
cross
skips tick
Mr.
football
pond
sky
hop
swim
enough
lamb
climb
leg
calf
off
colt
someday
sun
hair
show
happy
frog
sat
right
feel
yourself
pull
ting-a-ling
puppet
talk
rest
quarters
word
Words We Should Know
word
hard
itself
calf
hear
park
dark
bark
sing
lark
shark
spark
flew
wise
owl
far
start
any
could
moon
pajamas
hat;>pened
called
slow
next
much
suit
time
rocket
space
another
own
years
think
know
same
nonsense
corner
sea
bargain
Uncle
zoo
laughed
animals
talking
about
gate
hand
well
read
day
no
else
sold
trade
things
himself
pocket
shouted
write
spell
riddle
ready
smart
everyone
end
left
answer
not
tumbling
cover
page
before
talked
speller
stories
story
knew
ribbon
people
backward
light
cars
shut
front
compass
job
lady
keen
after
went
mad
way
street
trip
Saturday
seeing
over
room
cry
paints
paper
better
than
young
mud
feeling
woods
nest
safe
bold
warm
wind
those
branch
asleep
69
Q
~-Rho
eye
inside
afraid
fox
once
scampered
catbird
acorn
chase
followed
landed
hole
spring
master
grow
apple
spell
everyone
hot
cover
talked
knew
light
peeped
running
started
until
edge
under
water
turtle
beautiful
pony
shut
friends
our
riddle
end
head
page
speller
ribbon
front
from
told
tease
tired
nose
quack
listen
wet
wonder
barn
patted
learn
idea
ready
left
black
before
stories
people
job
again
ground
an
poked
were
slowpokes
hill
dry
farm
born
blue-eyed
softly
write
smart
answer
cap
tumbling
story
backward
cars
'
Q
APPENDIX B
GAMES USED BY CONTROL GROUP
70
•
GAMES USED BY CONTROL GROUP
~pping
Stones (California Reading Association, 1970:28)
Purpose:
Review basic sight words.
Materials:
Cut tagboard into large stepping stone
shapes.
Procedure:
Write a basic sight word on each.
Lay the stepping stones on the floor so
that the walker may "walk across the pond."
The
walker must say the word before he steps onto the
next stone.
Talking Clown (California Reading Association, 1970:28)
Purpose:
Materials:
clown.
Review sight
words~
Prepare a large tagboard picture of a
Cut a slit in top and bottom of mouth.
Put words on long strip and thread through slits.
Procedure:
Teacher pulls strip through and child makes
clown "talk 11 by saying the words.
The Popper Clock (California Reading Association, 1970:30)
Purpose:
Instant recall of the two hundred and twenty
Dolch Word List.
Materials:
Dolch Popper Word Cards, Sets I, II.
Individual paper clock faces.
71
72
Procedure:
Punch a hole in each word card in the
upper left side and place cards on a metal ring.
The child selects the set he wishes to work with
and is timed as he goes through each of the one
hundred and ten words.
If he makes a mistake he
has to go back to that word and correct it.
When
he has completed the set, the time is noted and
placed on a construction paper colored clock.
The
clock shows how long it took him to complete the
set and which set he did.
the clock.
He then puts his name on
The child competes next time against
his own previous time, trying to say the entire
list in fewer minutes and seconds.
These words
really do become instant recognition or
11
popper
words."
Pairs (Fry, 1960:41)
This is a rummy-type of card game for from two to five
players.
First a deck of fifty cards is made by the teacher
or by an able child.
The fifty-card deck contains
~;:wenty­
five pairs of identical cards, thus using exactly one group
of twenty-five Instant Words.
cards.
Each player is dealt five
The first player asks one other player if he has a
specific card (the asking player must hold the mate in his
hand).
If the asking player gets the card, he has a
and may lay it down.
11
pair"
If not, he draws a card from the deck.
The object is to get as many pairs as possible.
For most
73
efficient reading instruction, the players should know some
but not all of the words used in a given deck.
If the
asking player does not know how to read a card, he may show
it and any player or the teacher may read it for
him~
Like-
wise, the player being asked may request to see the card
asked for, so that he may compare it with the cards in his
hand.
Fish-A-Word (King, 1971:7)
Purpose:
To develop and reinforce sight vocabulary.
Materials:
Prepare a large tagboard with a picture of
a child fishing from a boat.
Connect the fishing
line to forty to fifty small colored "bubbles"
(circles) in a variety of colors.
The bubbles are
to be placed in the underwater section of the
picture.
Playing Directions:
the board.
Fish are placed face down around
The first player draws a fish.
Fish-A-
Word requires that the player spell or say the word,
then move the same number of spaces as letters in
the word.
The first person to reach the end of the
bubble bath is the winner.
If a player lands on
the same circle as another player, the first player
on the circle must go back one space.
If there is
already a player on that circle, he must go back
to start.