California State University at Northridge
SECONDARY READING:
DIAGNOSTIC CASE
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$TUDIES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
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A graduate project submitted in fulfillment of the
require~ents for the degree of Master of Arts in
Secondary Education
by
Lynn Benkell
..-/~
January, 1973
·-·
This graduate project of Lynn Benkell is approved:
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California State University at Northridge
January, 1973
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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~IST
Page
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1
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OF TABLES . .
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iv!
;Chapter
I.
Introduction . . . . . . . . .
Statement of Problem
Purpose of the Study
Question to be Answered .
Importance of the Study .
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study
Introductory Conclusions
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! II.
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II I I.
!
II
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THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS .
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
v.
4,
61
7
15
METHODOLOGY . . . . .
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PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Case Study 1
Case Study 2
Case Study 3
3
8
Purpose of This Design
Description of Tests
IV.
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2
2
3
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. . . . . . . . . .... . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
.
~REFERENCES
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iii
20
20
30
39
44
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Conclusions . . .
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17
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53
54
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LIST OF TABLES
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13.
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Page
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Scores From Wide Range Achievement Test . .
21 II
Percentage of Correct Responses in Phonics
)
Analysis
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Scores From Wide Range Achievement Test .
14.
Percentage of Correct Responses in Phonics
Is.
Scores From Wide Range Achievement Test .
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.Ail.alys is
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40 ;
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Chapter I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS
fn. traduction
I
Reading is a complex of many physical and psycholo-
~ical processes.
The development of skill in reading
hepends upon the skills necessary for associating meaning
I
fith the printed
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~n
sym~ols, the habits and skills involved
seeking understanding through reading and the attitudes
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jfavorable to the development of reading for many diverse
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purposes.
Today, the ability to read is demanded of every
!
~ctive member of society, if merely to read menus, read
~igns,
1
~hange
I
and rest room labels.
of thoughts and opinions through the medium of the
.
printed page.
~he
Man depends upon the inter-
Our society, being a reading society, demands'
performance of finding causes of reading difficulties.
fnowledge of the causes is hoped to alleviate part, if not
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~11,
of the problem.
Authorities in the field such as Jean
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fhall, Helen Robinson, Homer Carter, and Dorothy McGinnis
strongly believe the reading problem can be handled successi
fully by careful diagnosis and study of the elements of
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d 1ng
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rea
disability.
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2
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tatement of Problem
Diagnosis is essential in evaluating disabled
eaders.
~ent
Accurate and reliable diagnosis is highly depen-
upon the identification of the particular reading
~roblem plus
the exhausting of all possible and related
bausal factors.
Adolescents in secondary schools
definitel~
Leed more diagnosis than is available through the coun-
~elor's
office.
~ducation
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This is especially true of certain special
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programs in which one counselor is blessed with
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iabout two hundred fifty students, too often on a part-time
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~eekly basis.
With testing or diagnosis as one of many
~ounseling
duties, it is apparent that more efforts and
!
jtime be allocated. · Thus, the area of major concern for
khis project is thorough diagnosis of students with overt
i
:and suggested reading disabilities.
~urpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to promote adequate
diagnosis (in the form of three complete case studies
~egarding
the reading disabilities of randomly selected
~tudents)
leading towards the identification, prescription,
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jand remediation of the pupils' respective reading disabilifies.
General observation, specific reading strengths and
weaknesses, general recommendations, along with medical and
!
~sychological insights were to encompass the findings of
I
ithis multi- diagnostic study.
The ultimate outcome was that
!
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'-·~~--~--~-·~--·-~----·-----~·---~- ~--~~-------~----------·---.---~--~--~~--~------~--~~~-~----~---··
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he diagnosis would afford the students a constructive
irection so that their gained confidence and ease of read·ng will, for all practical purposes, guide them more cornthrough their daily lives.
uestion to be Answered
The basic question posed concerned the identificaion of factors contributing to the reading problem, notably
!intelligence, physical, emotional and educational handicaps
rs they were evidenced by reading
attitud~,
physical read-
ling habits, rate and comprehension, oral reading, word
I
recognition, and pronunciation techniques.
!Importance of the Study
A. J. Harris believes "that even in an educational
I
~topia
~
·caps,
there will be some children with neurological handivisual handicaps that resist correction, emotional
roblerns arising out of early family experiences . . .
!children would need, as they do now, an amount
a~d
thes~
kind of
!individual help which is very difficult to provide in a
!classroom situation'-' (Cross, 1954).
These case studies more
!than served their predicted purposes,- if merely to initiate
!an as thorough as possible diagnosis which student, instruc-
~ors, counselors, and parents could use as a tool in aiding;
leach student to mold a realistic future and exist in a corn-
l
jfortable present.
4
efinitions
The following terms are defined to facilitate comrehension and interpretation of tests and comments.
Auditory Discrimination.
[
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Ability to distinguish
etween sounds of spoken words or word elements.
Auditory Memory.
Memory for what is heard; is asso·;
Fiated with tests of memory span.
Auditory Perception.
I!differences
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in sounds.
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Individual's ability to hear
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Blends.
Consonant groups which, when spoken
to-
:gether, form a speech sound and maintain one identity; vowel
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!blends are knmvn as diphthongs.
Chronological Age.
Comprehension.
\./
Calendar age.
Knowledge of understanding; critical
!thinking and evaluation.
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Configuration.
Use of general shape of a word as
Ia clue to its identity.
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Context Clue.
Use of surrounding words, phrases,
or sentences in recognizing unfamiliar words.
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Diagnosis.
Determining the extent of deficiencies
jand their nature by standardized tests and informal invenl~or1es
. a 1 ong w1t
. h
.
discovery of the cause. b y' ~\part1cular
[deficiencies.
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~ord
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Eye Span.
Amount of print perceived in one fixation.
Fixation.
The time the eye stops and focuses on a
or portion of a line in reading.
L--------~-------·-··---------------------·------------··----------·--·-·-· ·-----····-··-- ...... .
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Inferential Comprehension.
Drawing of logical in-
erences and conclusions from data to form generalizations.
Informal Reading Inventories.
Appraises an indi-
lidual's level of competency in reading materials of known
levels of difficulty.
Intelligence Quotient.
A ratio that shows the rate
'at which a particular individual is developing mental
lbility.
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~he
Literal Comprehension.
The process of getting only
obvious, direct, literal meaning from the printed page.
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Mental Ability.
A significant factor in educational
!and
occupational adjustment.
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~y
Mental Age.
Mental ability equal to that possessed
the average or typical individual of a given age group.
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Phonic Analysis.
Identification of structural sound
'elements.
Phonogram.
y'
,. 'speech sound.
Reading.
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Letter or group of letters forming a
Process of making discriminative
Reading Disability.
Situation when reading achieve-
Fent is two years or more below individual's mental age.
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Reading Expectancy.
Reading achievement level
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expected of an individual after considering his ability or
~otential
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~hould
and his grade placement.
Reading Level.
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response~.
The level at which an individual
read without difficulty ..
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Reading Rate.
Speed of comprehending written
aterial.
Remediation.
Techniques of instruction in reading
"ntended for use as remedies for overcoming or removing
isability in individual's reading achievement.
Reversals.
A turning over or reorientation of a
etter or group of letters or words.
Sight Word.
A word that is memorized or recognized
·s awhole.
Standardized Tests.
Published tests which may be
objectively scored and which furnish norms--standards of
!achievement--making it possible to compare a specific
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lindi vidual with others of similar age or grade.
Structural Analysis.
Process of analyzing a word
!into units that complete its structure or change its meaning.
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Syllabication.
Dividing words into syllables struc-
[turally and the sounding of syllables phonetically.
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Visual Discrimination.
Adeptness at seeing like-
besses and differences in geometrical figures, pictures,
!
:and word elements.
~imitations
II
t
This study was limited to a ten-week study of three
~essions
Iior
of the Study
per week for forty minutes each during which one
. .
.d eac h meet1ng.
.
more tests were a dm1n1stere
i
bne-to-one student-diagnostician situation.
~as held in the same room each time.
Th"1s was a
Testing always
Testing atmosphere
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~always ideally quiet, air-conditioned, and the tests
tere administered at a round table.
Halfway throUgh the
[tudy, one of the students undergoing diagnosis was tempor~arily
relocated in Mississippi due to immediate illness in
tis family.
The materials are therefore incomplete.
Introductory Conclusions
Reading is a practical necessity in today' s society.,
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lin turn, the mastering of certain basic skills are required
ror mere survival, a degree of self or personal satisfaction
and communication or interaction with that which makes up
Ibur
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society.
It was hoped that, through thorough diagnosis,
!the students involved would precisely have their particular
keading disability or disabilities pinpointed and direct
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prescription for remediation would follow.
Thus, this study
~as self-fulfilling, as diagnosis erased the notion that a
~articular
~ith
student had a reading problem and replaced this
a breakdown of more exact elements contributing to the
~eading
disability.
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Chapter II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter will conce.rn itself with a review of
iterature as it relates to the case studies.
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Noted studies!I
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attr1buted to causes to reading problems were researched and
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tredited, as were specific contributions to the broad area
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Qf diagnosis, testing, and learning and maintaining to read.;I
Lee and Lee (1950) note too often diagnosis is made
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hn "snap judgment" bases, rather than on an overviewing
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.
diagnostic study.
Difficulties in speaking, writing, read-
t
1ng, and listening could be attributed to certain common
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factors,
to mechanics, or in the areas of meager vocabulary,!
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~ome
.
background, low IQ, health, poor socialization, or
~motional
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~tis
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conditions.
Abstracting from dated readings of Paul Witty (1949)'
valid to assume that, in our past, reading 1vas gener-
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~lly considered a skill.
~tresses
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most.
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In our present society, reading
the individual and his development first and fore-
It is believed that experiences in reading aid in
promoting the person's happiness and continuous growth.
Letter recognition and sound-symbol associations
aid in the primary foundation of reading.
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In turn, letter
Jcnowledge plays an important role .in acquiring a sight
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ocabulary.
Olson (1958) concludes that, while a knowledge
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f letter name does not always assure high reading achieveent, the lack of that knowledge assures low reading
chievement.
Apparently, the student must have more than
etter recognition.
Often students in special education have motor
coer~
rination problems which are related to their. physical handreaps.
~he
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A question arises as to the effect of writing in
initial reading experience and continuance in the
reveloping reading process.
Research of Ralph C. Staiger
1(1956) confirmed the scarcity of any current literature
!available in this area.
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Much is available regarding the identification and ,
~iagnosis of the needs of retarded readers in high school. !
k. J. Harris (1970) suggests that more than a year's differ~
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ence between mental age and reading age at high school
levels is indicative of retardation in reading.
As far back as 1932, Marion Monroe suggested that
lan index of reading ability consist of chronological age,
rental age, and arithmetic computation age.
This average
lage would be compared with the student's reading age.
!
~ver,
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the question arises:
How-
Is the arithmetic computation
'age influenced by reading skill as is often exemplified on
bental ability tests?
Monroe's study (1932) assumed no
rea~
!support in this area.
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!
According to Leo Fay (1953), the average standard-
t~-~-~-~--~~-~-t s __ I_Il~ -~~ u :r_~- _-~_I]:_ly_ __ ~---~~-~--:r-~-~ ~-i~ g; ___a_~~-~-~-~-~-~--~---Gl:!?:.~--- ____________j
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onsequently give
a very limited picture of the many skills
·nvolved in successful reading.
These tests generally
easure abilities which have limited relationship to the
eading that students do in various content areas.
The informal inventory identifies poor readers and
s a device for selecting the level of instructional
baterials to be used with the students.
George D. Spache
1(1955) believes the informal inventory identifies the levels
~f materials
in the content field that various pupils can
randle with adequate understanding.
~eading
~ut
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It does not yield mis-
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or inaccurate measures of a general reading level
reveals what level of materials of a specific type the
t
~upil can handle silently or auditorily.
A disabled reader is defined by Bond and Tinker
(1957) as a child who is not reading as well as could be
expected for one of his intellectual or verbal maturity.
!chall (1967) firmly believes that reading disabilities are
Ira rely due to a single factor.
~he
In most instances, it is
combined result or interaction of various elements.
Chall's extensive research indicates that neither the stu-
:
dents' characteristics nor the initial method are singularl1
responsible for reading failure.
She feels both character-
istics within the student along with the initial method of
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!instruction are jointly involved in reading failure.
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Various noted authorities have conducted conclusive
!studies in the area of causes for reading disabilities.
~-
J. Harris (1970) notes that handicaps involved in reading
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ill not necessarily prevent a child from becoming a normall
eader, but any of them may . . . interfere seriously with
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he child's learning.
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Harris emphasizes eight areas of
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ajor concern, all of which relate to reading retardation
f students in special education situations.
These studentJ
re more than often immature due to a multitude of reasons.
t~ater
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ot only do they fail to .learn but also develop feelings of
rustration and avoidance reactions which interfere with
~ion
Those with mental retarda-
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plus reading retardation have an ove.rall mental growth
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efforts to learn to read.
khich is slower than average.
lIalthough below average,
Their attainment in reading,
is frequently up to or even
ahead of their general mental development..
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~ave
1
slightl~
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!
Such children
no disability in reading and should not be given
1remedial reading instruction.
Harris firmly believes that
~tudents with a physical handicap
~itality, impairment of vision or
of any sort have lower
hearing.
The condition,
in turn, does cause significant absences from scho?l, thus
,interfering with the learning process.
Regarding special
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brain damage effects~ Harris notes the added stress and
difficulty to learn to read.
However, he
~oes
not feel
sue~
conditions account for a major proportion of poor readers.
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;rt appears that emotional handicaps, in one form or another,)
bre related to failure in schoolwork.
Ijcause
Be it a reaction or
to prolonged failure, the poor motivation or
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of
emotiona~
'block is directly evident among adolescents with degrees
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lreading disability.
~-~•• ,~---··• -~- --~··•
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Accidental interference with learning
• • '''"~-"--·----·-c·•-•· ~-·-·-~--~-·--·--·• ~·~----~-'' -~-·•
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difference with the degree of
effor~s
put
school in helping the student bridge the gap
frequent or prolonged absences.
Based on Gates study of 1922, conclusions were draw
fn the area of decoding.
Though poor comprehension, slow
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~ate, irregular eye movements, etc., contribute to a read- ,
ng problem, they resulted as a reflection of poor or
uate word attack
skills~
inade~
Thus, the focal point was a form
of structural analysis.
Orton's case studies of 1937 attributed failure to
!children not developing consistent dominance of one side of
jthe brain over the other.
~conflict
dty.
~ad
The result was confusion and
which became evident in forms of language disabil-
Interestingly enough, some of Orton's case studies
II
recognition of letter sounds and phonograms, yet the
llending of letters in sequence and the synthesizing of
They knew
II
sounds and word families but could not coordinate to read.
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ords into spoken units was a tremendous chore.
According to the cerebral dominance theory,
reversa~
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:errors occur because the student perceives a word with one
orientation one time and the next time he perceives the
lord as being a mirror image of that word.
sam~
Visually, the
word is not being seen the same way each time.
Words such 1·
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las "was" and "saw" are often confused.
!ficul ty distinguishing "d" from "b".
The person has difOne of the most
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:thorough examinations of reversals was conducted by Irwin
Plescher (1962).
I.
He concluded that there is nonexistence
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f demonstrable effects of lateral dominance on the percepion of reversals in reading.
Between 1910 and 1965, the U.S. Office of Education
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fonducted a study of first grade reading approa·ches.
Twentyi
reven independent studies scanned the United States.
The
~esearch Advisory Council (1966) concluded that no one
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~pproach
was so distinctly better in all respects and situ-
,ations than the others that it should be considered the one
I
~est
method nor to be used exclusively.
It was emphasized
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·that word study skills should be the area of concentration
and need to be taught syst·ematically.
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)
I~hy
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In reviewing the 1946 study of Helen Robinson as to ·
pupils fail-in reading, it becomes obvious that no one
!theory can be used to account for all possible cases of
!reading disability.
Contributing factors encompass the
lareas of physical factors (defects in the brain, eyes, ears;
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!speech organs, cases of dominance), psychological factors
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In conclusion, no single factor or pattern of factors can explain or account for all
!reading.
maladjustment~
in
The emphasis must be placed on the individual and
any factors must be considered before the individual's
inability to read effectively can be considered.
Carter
and McGinnis (1970) are convinced that most individuals can
improve their reading skills and make normal academic prolgress as a result of adequate developmental instruction.
__ ______
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Chapter III
METHODOLOGY
An extensive case study is of monumental value in
j
~earning
to fully comprehend and conduct
dia~noses
determine the need and degree of remediation.
1
and to
The following
tase studies received thorough diagnosis prior to attemptIng remediation.
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~arying
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In the fall of 1972, three secondary students with
physical, mental, and educational handicaps were
!randomly selected from a group of twenty students with overt
!reading weaknesses.
~administration
These three students were to undergo
of standardized and informal reading tests
.
jto disclose the exactness of their proposed individual readling problems, estimated reading potential, and the possible
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rrescription for remediation.
.The students were all en-
rolled in an experimental reading lab program at a Juniorj
Senior High School complex located in the San Fernando
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~alley.
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!
A ten-week study of three sessions per week for
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,forty minutes each were conducted.
The same well-ventilated
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!room with diagnostician and pupil exclusively was selected
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jeach meeting.
The data of these selected case studies included
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elevant background information unique to the particular
tudent as obtained from the school nurse, speecW therapist
and counselor; a diagnosis of the student's difficulties;
.and recommendations for remediation.
With special regard to individual handicaps, the
students were respectively given:
The Slosson Intelligence
est, the Slosson Oral Reading Test, Sentence Completion
Test - Form A, Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test - Form I,
!Phonics Analysis Test, Dolch Common Nouns, Dolch Basic Sight
i
~ords, Gilmore Oral Reading Test - Form C, Silent Reading
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•
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~Diagnostic Test - Form D-A, Gates MacGinitie Reading Test /Primary A,B - Form I, Readers Digest Informal Inventory,
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!Doren Diagnostic Reading Test of Word Attack Skills, and
!wide Range Achievement Test.
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!Purpose of This Design
l
The following objectives were designed with the
i.1ntent1on
.
1.
of totally examining the suggested individual
To determine the student's reading ability and
capacity levels, as compared with achievement in spelling
1and mathematics.
!
'and
2.
To determine the student's interests in reading
other areas.
3.
To determine specific strengths and weaknesses
in the student's overall reading skills.
17
._
To attempt to discover causes of reading skill ,
~---~--------
4.
---~"~ ~,
trengths and weaknesses.
5.
To observe any significant behavior during
6.
To attempt to determine effective methods of
testing.
1instruction which could be used to overcome reading skill
keaknesses.
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7.
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To recommend to parent and counselor the next
!appropriate procedure to follow.
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8.
~ion
To make specific recommendations for instruc-
if remediation is necessary.
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OOescription of Tests
The following is a brief description of all tests
!employed in this study.
Slosson Intelligence Test.
_;
An individual short
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!intelligence test used as a screening instrument for both
I
children and adults.
ford Binet.
It is similar in nature to the Stan-
It is to be given orally.
Slosson Oral Reading Test.
An individual test mea-
lsuring the ability to prononnce words at different levels
l
iof difficulty.
!:dard1zed
.
I'
The words have been abstracted from stan-
school readers.
Wide Range Achievement Test.
A standardized test
!sampling general school achievement in reading, word recog-
I
!nition, spelling, and arithmetic.
i
·'..v.-... ~.... - ....... .._._~~-,--~~~-"'-~-~-~·---~-....._.~...__.~-•-·------~--'-~-.....-...--~.,-~__::.._.....~--~---~~"•-·-·~-~-~-----•-·-··-~.-·•-·~·b~'- -~·
·-·
.,;··
18
Sentence Completion.
An informal, non-standardized
est used to determine an individual's interests. 1 The
i
!detailed testing of word attack skills:
beginning sounds,
<.,,. ••• - · - - - - --~·-··'-""'""--...._~~-·---- ··-~···---· ">•-··"· • ·-·~-- -~~--- ~-----~-~ ------ -·~-----·- ~---- --~-~~-------- _ .. ____ ·--------- ---~---·-·-·'""-'-·-----~----~~--------· -
~--- •• ··--- • .. ~ ·-···· •
·--~
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~i;ht word-;:-r-hymin-;:-;hole word recognition :-;~-;d;--;i-:~"j~-i~---·i
[ords, speech consonants, blending, vowels, endi':ng sounds,
riscriminate guessing, and letter recognition.
Regarding test selection, a particular purpose must '
always be in mind.
~alidity
According to C. C. Ross (1954), the
of the measuring instrument must always be con-
!
r.idered in relation to the purpose it is to serve . . . a
ttest is not just va·lid, it is valid for something.
In this
I
~articular diagnostic situation, if the varied test restilts
~ere
not valid, they would not give a true assessment of
the student's supposed reading disabilities.
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It was hoped that this diagnostic study would dis-
~lose the image, situation and problems ~ich categorically
poor readers share, along with stressing the weight with
I
khich a physically, educationally, or mentally handicapped
I
.
~tudent
successfully or unsuccessfully combines his par-
~i~lar
retardation with the reading disability.
l________________________:_ _ _ _ _ _ _·- - · - ·- - ~- - - -·- - ·-·- - - · ·- -· · · -· - ·-· · · ·-
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Chapter IV
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'
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
The following are the compiled diagnostic findings
rf those students undergoing examination to determine the
~lements
of their specific reading disabilities.
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Case Study 1
This particular student was fifteen years of age
i
hen this study began.
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rutgoing individual.
He was an even-tempered, pleasant,
He was very much aware of his dis-
iabili ties in the area of reading.
He was a cerebral palsy
I
Is pas tic paraplegic with visual problems, though not percep!
!tual handicaps.
~e
He required large -print books.
was confined to crutches, he was very independent in his
bhysical actions and attitudes.
~nd
re
Although
His comments, mannerisms,
actions reflected a very solid and close family tie.
had no history of school problems.
blosson Intelligence Test
I'
This test revealed the student's mental age to be
I
ilS. 6 and his intelligence index to be 96.5.
I
I
!
Behavioral Observations:
Semi-confident; did not
•
1g1ve up easily; exhibited much patience; guesses were often'
'
Jlogic_al and well thought out, though not quite correct;
i
'
L.-~---...-~·~~.....-_...,_...~-,---=-~~u--<·r·........,.-•~..-~-,~~-----·------·-----·-~-~ --~~----·•u~•---·--------~--.-~ ..-- --~"""-•~ ..
20
,,
--
21
----------------· ----- ----
elaxed much during the test; a friendly tone.
Excelled in the area of analogies; majority of the
. roblems missed dealt with the application of math prinbiples; vocabulary difficulties appeared in the upper fifteenth year; auditory memory was extremely weak in repetition of digits--problems with repetition regarding reversals
;
of number sequences.
To reinforce this finding, a
tachisto~
j
flasher was used.
'
No difficulty was apparent with two-digit
1
~umbers--either forward or reverse.
No
problem with three-
jdigi t numbers forward; three-digit numbers backward presented confused recall; four-, five-, and six-number patl
!terns
became jumbled and tedious for recall, no matter how
I
I
~ard
he concentrated.
~ide
l
Range Achievement Test
TABLE 1
SCORES FROM WIDE RANGE ACHIEVEMENT TEST
Subject Area
Grade Level
Reading
3.1
Spelling
5.7
Arithmetic
5.9
The student often substituted a closely related
i
!word for the correct word with oblivious confidence; had
I
j
;difficulty in recognizing initial blends; often recognized
;~_r:>_r?:__ ~l:l~---~()!ll~uni~-~-t~A. ~!.~~g- ~~E~___()i __ !}~~---E_rj-~:t:~~--~~_!_b; had
22
a tendency to flash on start and end of word to make a
uess--poor use of configuration; confused by silent final
"E's"; trouble with diphthongs; tendency to automatically
guess "ilk" for all "lk" words; much difficulty in piecing
!syllables together; confused short vowel sounds in words;
bo concept of pronunciation of final "y"; spelled phonetically successfully and logically, though not correct to our
language norms; much persistence in completing an entire
1
!
jtask to higher ability levels with little overt frustration;
rathematical difficulties appeared in long division problems
land fractions; arithmetic test presented more personal dif-,
I
jficulties than did spelling or reading as it was only one-
!
!third completed within the time limits and,not with total
!accuracy.
I
)sentence Completion - Form A
l
l
The test initially reflected harmony with self and
!
!surroundings, along with an attitude of optimism for present
I
]and future.
The student had a fixed concept of subjecting
;himself to only those things which were much to his liking.
I
!His concept of adulthood seemed to be one of the acceptance·
I
!of responsibility.
Natural times were those when he was at
loneness with himself, his own freedom of mind, and nature.
!Times that were more of a chore and boring were those of
;
!
ithe academic realm--non-humorous situations.
He undoubtedly
I
i
Mas very open with his parents and, in turn, this rapport
~as
reflected in his values and attitudes towards all that
23
~~;prised his perso~al world.
He was most cognizant of his !
lack of adequate reading ability and its need in his life.
erhaps at this point in his life, college and his success
·n college were non-realities; however, this was toned by
tis desire to be set up at a job pending high school graduation.
Indoor tasks, desk jobs, were not his "cup of tea." :
e exhibited a strong desire for total self-involvement-athletics was the perfect answer for him.
~
He exemplified
strong desire to succeed in life being as nearly normal
/a person as possible, despite the fact that he knew people
~ften
referred to him as "different"; he wanted his assets
I
[to supersede his physical handicap.
Stemming from this was
I
!the possibility·of the reason for which he wanted to be
i
!self-employed.
He knew what he wanted and nothing was going
Ito
stop him--realistic or otherwise!
I
He showed much trust
!in his family to achieve his own means and conform to theirs;
l
~owever,
there was no evidence of present self-independence.
I
fhe.security of others was still a definite need, although '
~ar1ous bridges were in the process.
He had his life boiled
!down to wants, needs, and definite feelings of humanity and
I
jimprovement, work and pleasure.
I
~epman
Ibad
!
Auditory Discrimination
In the area of beginning consonants, the student
no problem recognizing same or different initial con-
!sonant sounds when a part of different phonograms; diffi1
culty exhibited in distinguishing ·initial consonant sounds
·.,;.
24
hen attached to word families of the same order; overt difin distinguishing "d's" from "b's" regardless of
, lacement in word.
In the area of final consonants, diffi-
ulty was had in the discrimination of word endings when
t
eginning of word was the same.
Regarding beginning blends:
,and digraphs, the student had slight difficulty distinguishing initial consonants from initial blends; also exhibited
discrimination difficulties among triple blends.
~ifficulties
Slight
were present in the area of vowels, especially
Lith the "schwa" sound; other than that, no major concern
!regarding vowel sounds within words.
The student showed
!great difficulty distinguishing words which rhyme from
i
jthose of exact same spelling and sound.
ljPhonic
Analysis
TABLE 2
PERCENTAGE OF CORRECT RESPONSES
IN PHONICS ANALYSIS
Phonics Elements
I
I
Percentage of
Correct Responses
Consonant Sounds
Consonant Digraphs
Consonant Blends
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
Phonograms
Blending
Vowel Diphthongs
Number of Syllables
Accented Syllables
!
1,.....-... ~------'-----·~-~-----~~------·~~.--~~--~-»---~-~~ ---~-~------~-~--~--
-;_.-
--_....,.-
74%
75%
68%
60%
20%
70%
30%
50%
78%
67%
_,_, __
~~--------~--· --~--~-----~·-------
-----·-
Ao••'
.•
25
This test evidenced the student's poor word attack
kills.
Referring to letter sounds, there was no knowledge
the "x" sound.
"Q" registered as a "p" sound,
hile the "p" retained its normal sound; the "c" adopted
the "s" sound, while the "s" remained "s."
The student had·I
i
a tendency to substitute the "p" sound for "b" but the
reverse was not true.
A distinction between lower case "1"
land "i" could not be made, but the visual perception of
!these letters, along with that of "b" and "p", was at quesjtion, rather than the pronunciation.
The student
!the digraph "ch" as the single consonant "k."
recognize~
Those con-
!
lsonant blends giving the student the most problems were:
I:dr,
!
fl, sc, sr,.sl, sw, spr, sn, and sm.
In the area of
\long and short vowels, the student pronounced the words,
!but when asked which contained short vowels and which conltained long vowels, he was totally and knowingly very conlfused.
!
Vfuen he did not know a short vowel, he had a ten-
ldency to give it the short "i" sound.
He had no knowledge
lat all of principles and logic of long vowels.
Interest-
'
jingly enough, he could pronounce words correctly with vowels
jside by side, but when the pattern was changed to vowel!consonant-vowel, nothing registered as to correct pronunci1
1
ation.
Difficulty was displayed with "tion" endings of
/words.
Phon grams of "e" and "u" families pres en ted no prob-:
1
!lems at all.
I;were
Those giving more difficulty to the student
ay, ain, ill, ide, ir, op,. and ock.
The student was
'extremely weak in the area of blending word parts together,
••
26
even- wh-en- -the~ parts··-w-e-re· .dfre-ctiy- exactecC£6rthe
fo
see.
~arts.
stu ent
In all those missed, he erred most in medial word
l
I
In 20 percent of the words, initial blends were
I
missed while' in 30 percent of the words' final endings of
lwo or more letters were missed.
!
In the area of diphthongs,!
ihe student was weak, especially since·three of the diph-
II
thongs missed were given the same name sound.
:
I
The student
I
I
tulty in exacting accentuation.
I
could sense the number of syllables 1n a word but had diffi-:
I
;
Dolch Graded Vocabulary Test
The student recognized 217 out of 220 sight words
I
on this test.
l
No real problem of poor sight word recognition was
I .
ev1dent.
iI
I
The student completed the test with quick, self-
fissured ease.
At times, the student made common reversal
brrors, but was quick to correct.
In five percent of the
kords, the student hesitated, changed his mind, and then
I
elicited the correct response.
Ia.'
The three words missed were
11 e. xamp.les of substitution.
· olch Common Nouns
The student recognized _92 out of 95 nouns.
Once
,again, substitution was evidenced in those missed.
This
I
~est was administered twice:
Once the student read all the
kords; the second time, he was asked to read those words
I·
~1sse d
!
·
, at wh.1ch t1me
the
L____________________ _
·
·
maJor~ty
were pronounce d correct 1y.
27
rilmore Oral R~ading Test
This test was administered, but a true grade place- :
t
ent and evaluation could not be assessed as the student
. ade ten errors on the initial reading paragraph.
The
rtudent substituted similar words and changed words to have'
'Close meanings.
There was habitual repetition, occasional
disregard for punctuation, word-by-word reading, yet with
slight imitative expression.
1
I!Readers
I
Digest Informal Inventory
This test of graded passages showed the student to
~ave a fair amount of frustration with third grade selecI
1
tions--frustration with words, disregard for comprehension,
1.as
no questions were correctly responded to.
The comfort-
lable level was upper second grade, in regard to expressive
i
!oral reading, ease with vocabulary, and full understanding
l\of
the article.
!
Doren Diagnostic Reading Test
The student seemed to be quite proficient in all
jareas of letter recognition.
No difficulty at all was evi-
ldenced in the area of beginning sounds when the student was '
I
ito match pictures with words of the same initial sound.
;However, then the student was asked to select the correct
l
~ord
to complete a sentence, very slight difficulty was
I!present.
He handled whole word recognition quite master-
!
I
:fully.
Significant difficulties were apparent in locating
:words within words.
No difficulty was had with compound
'•
.-
28
~ords and their parts.
Slight difficulty presented itself
in audible parts within words.
The student's
wea~ness
was
in distinguishing small words of our language as audible
j ithin other words, as a smooth part of that particular
rord.
He excelled in speech sounds which were mostly audi-
ltory discrimination, both isolated and in sentences.
I
~egarding ending sounds, difficulty was evidenced in the
An area of extreme weakness was
bluralization of words.
I
!blending and context.
I
Auditory rhyming was an asset while
!similar non-rhyming and dissimilar rhyming were tremendous
~eaknesses.
I
In the realm of vowels, rule exceptions, double
ilong and short vowels, along with sound exceptions, were
I
!absolute weaknesses.
No concept of vowel rules was exhib-
1
lited.
I
Discriminate guessing and riddles were a definite
!high point, attempted successfully with much ease and conlfidence.
The area of sounding sight words was an example
!of total non-conception.
I
Some responses were examples of
reversals and others were not even close to proper pronun-
1
ciation patterns.
Total comprehension was apparent in the
area of homonyms.
In this particular instance, there was
I
no context difficulty.
jslosson Oral Reading Test
i
Ijthe
This particular word recognition test approximated
student's present reading level as 2.5.
Reasons attri-;
lbuted to words the student missed were awkward accentuation~
I
1
confusion of vowel sounds, haphazard guessing at blends,
29
,..---------------------·--------------·
confusion of initial "b's" and "d's", and occasie,nally the
omission of word endings.
Gates MacGinitie Primary B, Form 2
/level
This test revealed the student's vocabulary grade
to be 2.8 and his comprehension grade level to be
j
;
j
2.6~
Not all questions were answered; in the picture-word
~ocabulary
I
association, credit must be attributed to at
I
jleast correct matching of initial consonant of picture and
I
~ord,
although choice of correct word was poor.
Many of
ithe comprehension errors showed hasty, incomplete thought
t
f each situation.
The test results were above average
hen compared with other second graders, but considering
1
!the student was a tenth grader, interpretation rests quite
i
low, yet with fair mastery at this low level.
A self-concept informal inventory of the student's
,view of reading, teachers, and himself was completed.
!
The
'student regarded reading as sometimes hard, sometimes easy.
1It was often a big task.
He viewed it as a sad experience,
jyet he felt it helpful to his life.
He recognized his weak-
lnesses and strong points in reading, conceptualized it as
!
!definite work, sometimes pleasant and, at other times, most
I
.
!assuredly unpleasant.
He viewed himself as a person of much
l
;strength, yet not big and not small.
I
land never moody.
~ically
He was always happy
He saw himself as financially and econo-
comfortable.
To his mind, he had neither an extreme
j
;high or low self
concept.
·-- -------"-·-~·"--··-·-- ~~-~--··-·-·-~--~~---·-~--~-
--·--·~-~-
He valued
himself as an individual
------ ·---
-----------------~~----~ --···-·· ···-.
~-~~--~-- ·-~---·-- -~------~ ----~- -·
30
f much worth and power, not a genius but not dumb.
His
concept of teachers was some easy, some hard; always fair
and very helpful; to him, teachers were young and warm
ersonali ties.
Case Study 2
This student was fifteen years old when the study
egan.
She was a tall, heavy set, adolescent, shy until
!known--then very verbal.
She came from a very strict family
~ackground, and was very much a "teen libist."
She was
!easily set into moods and emotional tantrums, none of which
I
~ere prolonged beyond an hour or two.
I
Ia public emotional outlet for her.
Deep crying was often
She was classed by the
!school as emotionally mentally retarded.
Her physical
I
\handicap was cerebral palsy with visual, not perceptual,
I
overtones.
She was always required to wear glasses for all'
!close work or lengthy tasks.
She was very simple-minded
;in her futuristic goals of life and entertained common
adolescent interests, many of which fluctuated quite
~periodically.
lslosson Intelligence Test
I
!
On this test, the student revealed a mental age
ilevel of 8.0 and an intelligence quotient of 52.5.
I
Behavioral Observations:
Student was restless and
!constantly fidgeting, giggling; made comments as to how
I
;"cinchy" the work was; gave up extremely easily- -did not
•
31
fatfeni.pt -a. thouiilt-orailswer if--In£ormatiOiiOTr-esponseWa-s·-···
ot absolutely foremost on mind; no discipline oP concentration.
This test classified the student as educationally
retarded; had great difficulty in retaining and repeating
:sentences of multi-parts (complex thought patterns); showed·
o sense at all of logic regarding everyday, practical anal~
i
!
ogies; no conception of basic math principles; massive dis-!
jabili ties were noted in auditory memory, especially repeti- .
ltion verbatim and inversion of numerals; showed no knowlledgeable concern for facts of basic American history;
!extreme weaknesses were apparent in language; vocabulary
Las poor; simple examples could not even be elicited.
Range Achievement Test
TABLE 3
SCORES FROM WIDE RANGE ACHIEVEMENT TEST
Subject Area
I
Grade Level
Reading
2.1
Spelling
2.5
Arithmetic
3.2
i
The student showed gross difficulty in recognizing
jinitial blends and initial consonants; no comprehension of
I
!consonant digraphs; quick to substitute words of same begin-
-----'";,--.~---~
.•
32
-----·-·----·---·~·-v·-~
concept of syllables--confused "ck" endings with "lk" in
'
vowels and vowel diphthongs within words; unknown words were written as mere
~etter
combinations, better referred to as nonsense con-
blomerations; showed no concept of language as one word
kould consist of all consonants and no vowels.
~atterns
Spelling
expressed no concept of sound parts of words; only;
~he most elementary of mathematical problems-were attempted·
buccessfully; those applications of higher principles were·
ketal disasters.
'Sentence Completion Form A
I
Responses reflected the student's unstable person-
ality and moodiness.
Reading appeared as
buch thought and hard work.
a task
requiring
Conditioning of tight discip-
jline was expressed through specific comments on rigid be-
!
ravior from her home life.
Visual things and those not
]requiring a tremendous amount of active involvement were
I
~iewed as most pleasurable.
The student showed numerous
:tendencies to let the world know she was grown up, especlJally in her
~omm~nt
of wanting her parents to know
mor~
1
labout her b e1ng 1n love; peer con tact, acceptance and 1n ter-
l,action were
I
of foremost and major concern.
She was extremely;
i
rensitive emotionally; to her, life was simple:
be in love,
lread about boys, and get married after high school.
l
This
!student had a very dismal view of the future; she was seek-
i
;ing more attention in a stable father-daughter relationship;
-
•.
-.~--:~----
--·
33
man's Auditory Discrimination
This test revealed very little difficulty in this
rea.
Slight distinction difficulties were made between
tI
nitial blends and consonants when attached to the same
ord family.
Discrimination of short vowel sounds within
rimilar words presented a slight auditory problem.
Overall,
no weakness in this area was evident.
~honic
Analysis
TABLE 4
PERCENTAGE OF CORRECT RESPONSES
IN PHONICS ANALYSIS
Phonics Elements
;
I
Consonant Sounds
Consonant Digraphs
Consonant Blends
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
Phonograms
Blending
Diphthongs
Number of Syllables
Accented Syllables
Percentage of
Correct Responses
74%
50%
68%
20%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
An obvious word attack skill deficiency was most
!apparent.
No concept was had for "x" and "y", "p" and "q",
'·
......
34
"b" and "d" sounds-- they were very easily reverse,d without
nowledge of so doing.
Regarding consonant digraphs,
obvious confusion was evident with "th" and "t", and "ch"
land "s".
One of the student's utmost major weaknesses was
Llending; there was a great tendency to babble and to sub[titute "r's" for "l's" in blend combinations; at times,
he first consonant of a blend was not even sounded and the •
student nonchalantly pronounced the word with false confidence.
Absolutely no knowledge of short vowels within words
Cas expressed.
The vowel letters were known but no sound
!associations were apparent.
l
Recognizing phonograms was one
)big guessing game at which she was most successfully unsuc-
lcessful.
~ith
The blending of word parts was traumatic, even
the sound elements visually presented.
The diphthong
!letters were recognized but sound coordination was non!
lexi s tent ; sy 11 ab i cation and accen tua ti on were too s aphis ti1cated and far beyond the student's scope at this point.
I
1
Throughout the test, the student was quick to substitute
responses, and often repetition and guessing were examples
of uncontrollable babbling.
nolch Graded Vocabulary Test
1
I.
i
The student recognized 160 out of 220 sight words.
JThe student pounded her hand hard on the table after each
ijword; she had a great tendency to add "en" to verbs; her
!guesses were made indiscriminately; haphazard substitution
'
(Was evident; student applied no·knowledge of configuration
I
35
~o initial·a~~~~ound; to att~mpt correct or close
esponses.
She was easily confused by initial digraphs.
he student often omitted certain syllables of a word, thus'
word~
rubstituting a partial word for the correct whole
abitual omission of word endings seemed to be quite natural.
olch Common Nouns
On this test, the student recognized 85 out of 95
~ight
nouns.
I
Substitution and most likely confusion of vowel
!sounds was expressed.
A scattering of word endings were
1.
d 1n
. some nouns.
inserte
!
Sh e felt t h e tests were too easy.
I
iCons is tent conunents were made that this test was "cinchy."
i
~lesson Oral Reading Test
I
I
The student looked at words far too quickly; was
buick to concede to not knowing words.
She lacked confi-
1
jdence and desire to attempt the sounding of words.
The
!substitutions of verb tense in words was present.
Vowel
!confusion within words was obvious.
Lack of accentuation
rnowledge appeared in many two- and three-syllable words.
!This word recognition test approximates the student's pre1
~ent
reading level to be 1.9.
1
'
~nformal
l
Inventory in Language
This inventory was reviewed with the student's
l
l
!speech therapist.
The student's instructional language
!
'
'level to date was upper first grade and lower second grade.
l
L,_"""' ___,..~-·,-. ~~------·~--~~.-~~·--··-- ...~----~-~-~---------~---.,..--·--~---~~~--~~-------~-------- -~~~---~--~~---~-· .--~-.
-
-------:•. ·--_.;h
36
I
r--..- ------------------ ___.. _________________ - ------ .. ·-- -----------.... ----- ---------,.------ -----------------------·
;n the area of phonology, there was no reco
ition of long
l d s h ort vowe 1
..
··1.
_fn
s .1n wor ds; recogn1t1on
of ·
1n1t1a
s1ng 1 e
fonsonant sounds and blends was zero to sporadic.
1
1
j
The stu-
I
hyrning
I
aent could not discriminate between rhyming and
ords.
:
Regarding the detec ion of differences in paired
ords, the student could not differentiate in words of more
than one syllable.
I
-
son-ants to form new
She could not substitute initial conrds.
She could not write
more than
J
'
I
two-sentence
stories and had massive difficulties in t
htatements into questions.
Regarding syntax, she did not
hote details nor could she desc
~mmense
ning'
be things; she found
I
~
· ·fficulty in repeating sentences of ·i teen syl-
~ables--evidence of poor auditory recognition or memory
!rpan.
~nd
The student was very easily confused by verb tense
subject-verg agreement.
I~ould
I
In the area of semantics, she
!
.
ivery well.
She had problems with homonyms and needed much
teinforeement for success.
She expressed very little con-
fept of similarities and differences.
1totally unable to persoiify.
I$ilent
!
i
She had no concept of multi-meanings of
}vords; she did not have left-right orientation mastered
I-
I
not guess riddles and was uaable to demonstrate thints
:With gestures.
I
!1,
The student was
.
Reading Diagnostic Test, Form D-A
In crcognition of words in sillation, the student
I
37
Enfused lower case "1 's;, and "t' s".
Sh~rt vowels -;:,er~------~
~~ten closely sounded but not correct within words of propei
f1cture word responses.
i"t's" was apparent.
~erhaps
Confusion between final "d's" and
Initial "h's" and "r's" were confused,
a visual problem.
Medial blends in words threw the
ktudent totally off balance.
The silent "1" in words pre-
bented the problem of absolutely no concept.
~fuen
making
!a choice of words in context, the student had a tendency to
l
~hoose
I
words spelled backwards:
llab, retaw, nem.
Some
jchoices showed the student's slight knowledge of spelling
~ords phonetically, but this was scarce.
i
1
jlem did not seem to be cons is tent.
Her reversal prob~
A reversal choice was
I
perfectly chosen in the example yet all regular choices
lere correct--no reversals selected.
I
The student showed
~ittle difficulty in locating small meaningful words within .
I
11arger
words.
iI
~rinciples.
She showed little comprehension of syllable
Interestingly enough, the student mastered the
l
jlocation of root words in various word forms.
In the area
pf word synthesis, the student showed no application of
fimple comprehension.
'
;·.!Gates MacGinitie Primary A, Form 1
This test showed the student's vocabulary grade
level to be 2.5 and her comprehension level to be 2.3.
Errors in vocabulary were few but most illogical;
~ot
all questions were answered.
Comprehension of direc-
1
'
:tions was very poor.
The student ·Showed tremendous
------:.. --
~~--
----------
_._.
38
~--------------
----·----
·-·--------···--·~-----
-·difficulty in understanding reading passages of two sentences or more.
-~
This last note reinforces a ceiling level
f understanding in both expressive language and silent
eading.
Gilmore Oral Reading Test
This test was administered but was not assessed as
!rhe
student made more than ten errors on the first reading
passage.
Noun substitution was illogical and plentiful.
I
Word order was altered to make no
lords were omitted.
rense
at all.
!Informal Reading
i
j
An informal reading of a first grade reading passage
!from an adapted Readers Digest was used.
!observations were made:
I
Ll
The following
Her attitude was one of reading
ith much false confidence.
often did not pay attention.
She was easily distracted and
While silent reading, the
I~tudent
pointed with her finger and tilted her head.
tended
to vocalize and moved her lips.
:ing and facial distortions were noted.
Very often,
She
While reading
orally, the student read slowly and word by word with no
!facial or gestural expressions.
\simple inferences.
She needs work on making
Oral reading was an example of poor and
i
iillogical phrasing.
There was no regard for punctuation;
l
!there was a habitual tendency to repeat much.
Phrases were
!often skipped over and completely eliminated; the student
gives· up very easily.
There was no use of context clues
-- :.. - :----
-----
!
squint~
:
39
~~~long with no use of structural analysis.
1the student would try unfamiliar words.
lf word attack skills was lacking.
There was no ~-~;-:
A
definite method
i
There was a total dis·
fegard for word endings.
Wersonality Inventory
I
The student viewed herself as strong and big, some-
ltimes happy and sometimes sad.
She valued herself as a
I
rery worthy individual, very powerful; extremely good, dumb
iand awful.
I!taking;
In regard to reading, it was easy, a big under-
a moderately happy, moderately sad experience.
She ·
i
~iewed reading as very good, very pleasant, yet much work.
I
fo her, teachers were archaic, big, bad people.
/fair, unhelpful, and easy.
I
~he
I
Th~y
were
Much unrealism is evidenced by
student's inconsistent views.
Case Study 3
II
The following case study was incomplete due to the
·student's
temporary relocation of residence to another
state.
j
This student was thirteen years old upon initiation
iof the study.
He was very compliable to all testing.
He
~as very easily distracted by his own daydreams and often
I
ls·tared into space.
He always worked quickly and often in
~aste and carelessness.
llowing directions.
He exemplified no problems in fol-
He was most verbal, had a pleasing per-
!
!son ali ty, was occasionally very sarcastic in responses.
He
!
----
-----.,-:-"- ....... - - - . - -
-~------~~
'·
_
....
.•
40
~---------------------
his student was a cerebral palsy spastic with braces, canes
and constant complaint of his eyes, though he did not wear
lasses.
~easing
His only history of school problems involved
and belittling others, along with destroying their
r•longings.
I
Slosson Intelligence Test
This test revealed the student's
m~ntal
age as 8.5
I
1and
his intelligence index as 62.
I
I!all
Behavioral Observations:
Concentrated heavily on
questions; quick to admit non-knowledge of materials;
l;eager
responses, humored self with rationalizations regard-
ling those answers not known; very relaxed.
I
Great overt difficulty with all number sequences,
~oth forwards and backwards; showed no concept of basic
!
rractical math principles; had difficulty with analogies of
~ifferences; could not near-repeat pattern of more than a
i
!simple sentence; gross confusion; showed no use of logic,
Fhrases, or context clues; result was merely jumbled words
of nonsensical concept; extremely poor vocabulary--could not
~ven
I
offer examples.
!
Mide Range Achievement Test
TABLE 5
SCORES FROM WIDE RANGE ACHIEVEMENT TEST
Subject Area
Reading
Spelling
Arithmetic
Grade Level
3.8
4.2
2.2
'·-~---·· ..------~~~--····..~~=-----'-·-"--'--'--~-"-'"'-""'-'"""=~~=-"=··=·-·=··=··-=·--·=·~~=.=.;:..~..;:::;..;~;;,:;;;.;..;.;:;:;--··--···--·---·· •••
----~-
41
..-----------'-------------· ------------·-··-.-·-········-·-,
In all words missed, parts of the word were recorded;
difficulty was noted in grasping entire units by 'ear and
!transferring them in writing.
~iscounted correct words.
~~consonants
Short vowel substitutions
In reading words aloud, double
of exact kind presented problems and mostly were :
I
rispronounced.
No concept of soft "g" sound was evident.
j.Knowledge of long vowels in words with silent "e" was not
~xercised.
Errors were evident in the most basic of math
!
~xercises--contributing
I
~epman
I
to this were haste and carelessness.
Auditory Discrimination Test
The student exemplified very poor audial concentra-
I
i
l:ion habits.
Major difficulties arose in discriminating
[ords of the same phonograms with different initial conson,ants and different initial blends.
The initial sound forma-
l
ltions which the student could not distinguish were not even
!
!close in lip, air, and tongue formation. Problematic dis-
!
1
tinctions were evident with final "b" and "d", final "f"
i
and "th", "v" and "th" sounds.
Confusion between short "e" ,
and "i" medial sounds became repeatedly obvious.
IFlosson
Oral Reading Test
~
This word recognition test approximated the student~
ieading level to date as 3.5.
l
~ere
missed.
All words with medial blends
Words of three syllables and more were the
!object
of haphazard accentuation.
I
When the student did not
l
~now
a word part, it was casually omitted.
On rare occa-
_sions, the student self-corrected a guessed word.
j, _ _
~-~~---~---~~- ~--~-~~--- -~-~--~ .. ---·-~--
------
.>.~ ··--~--.,·------· ---~--~---~---------~--~----
. ·- ...
--_ ...... - -
-
- - - - - -. .
Words
·-----~~---~~----~- ------·----~-----
--..
-·---
-~-
···-·-
-----~-
••
--~-------
42
ith short vowels and words with identical side-by-side
con~
sonants were always missed.
~oren
Dia nostic Readin
Test
In the area of letter recognition, letter identity
, as a strong asset of the student.
Confusion was present
lin distinguishing upper and lower case "1" and "i", along
~ith manuscript "e" and "1".
~imilar
words was a task at
Beginning letter sounds of
~ich
the student excelled.
fsing context clues to select a correct word for sentence
!completion and sentence sense presented a slight weakness
!
jon the student's part.
In the area of whole word recogni-
ition, the student was distracted by his own habit and weak1
-
!ness of letter reversals, such as "tired" and "tried." He
I
!often chose words to be similar which had similar parts but •
!
i
ere quite different in pronunciation, spelling, and meaning
as whole words.
1
No difficulty was noted with compound
~ords,
words within words, and inner word sound discrimina-
ltion.
No problem appeared in the area of auditory-or visual
I
speech consonants, or ending speech variants. Difficulty
i
~as evident in verb endings and plurals.
Major difficulty
kas obvious in initial blends and use of context clues for
I!sentence
completion.
In the area of rhyming, auditory dis-
crimination was an asset.
1
IMords
!
i
from each other and similar non-rhyming words was a
ltotal disaster.
;
Distinguishing similar rhyming
The distinction of dissimilar rhyming words
'
was a1so a major weakness.
In the area of vowels, short
.........
43
t:~~s •:e~~.::d:::::::::£::~:::· sh::t ~:::: ::r:~;~l
jxpressed.
Double vowels, diphthongs and sound exceptions
tere areas of definite extreme
wea~ess.
Sight words pre-
ented no major area of concern for this student.
The above case studies are unique unto themselves
1though similarities in diagnosis and prescription are
I!apparent.
The following chapter will summarize the findings.
I
I
I
I
l
)
.
!
.
i,_,._.._~~~,~--~~--~---~·-~·-~---·-~--~--- ----~--~---.-.~-··~·...._.._.- ~----~---~-- ----·--·----~- -·-~---~-4~~-----·------ ·-~~~-----~-
•.
-.-------:.--------------------.-.--
·-----------------·
----~---.-··--·,
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Educational diagnosis has at least three major
tions.
func~
One is to provide data fo.r identifying the causes
I
.
~f difficulties--intellectual, academic, or adjustment.
I(Another
is to identify specific weaknesses_ and strengths in
leach of these areas that might be used as a basis for remed-
!iation.
A third is to provide descriptive case studies in
lan area lacking in research.
l
The present study was undertaken to determine the
l!students's interests
and their reading strengths, and to
!
ldisclose their reading weaknesses.
·I
These, in turn, would
jbe considered with their overall reading ability and capa-
i
lei ty levels.
I
Finally, these would coordinate with the need
!for and degree of remediation.
Personal interests were
I
'determined by informal inventories, and during stages of
'
!
!developing and maintaining rapport.
Actual reading strengths
I
1and weaknesses were determined by various standardized and
i
!informal tests. Significant behavior patterns and habits
,were noted throughout the entire study and during all
;testing.
i
The following is a discussion of the students' specific reading strengths and weaknesses along with general
44
45
Fb;ervations drawn from the t;;ti.ng situation.
j
-·-~--"-~--·~· .. ··~,
Regarding general observations, all students under
ttudy developed and maintained good-to-excellent rapport in
rll circumstances.
This, in turn, was a direct additive in.
lisclosing each student's truest capacity in the varied
areas.
All students were quite aware of their personal
1
l
I
!weaknesses in reading, although none were obsessed with the'
ldisabili ty.
All viewed the disability as temporary and
I
/foresaw improvement to become average readers of adequate
i
pronunciation, comprehension, and retention.
I
Observations unique to Case Study 1 were his over-
1
!tones of logic and his attitude strongly against defeat.
,I
I
~en
materials of any sort were judged too.easy by this
!student, his responses were given in a high-pitched, mocking
I!tone
.
of voice, as 1f to indicate "it's obvious or childish."
!This particular student was the most relaxed at all times
Lhen compared with the others.
i
Case Study 2 constantly showed very overt signs of
.immaturity.
Testing sessions often were delayed due to
reavy crying spells over social issues blown far out of
pro~
\
~ortion.
l
This student was always fidgeting, restless, and
lin a great hurry to complete things.
However, she was
!
always quite eager to know ahead of time what was to be done
leach session.
This student was high-strung emotionally and
)often physical during sessions.
She would often giggle
I
!uncontrollably, mimic questions and sing responses.
At
'
;times, she --·would merely sigh to great extent in lieu of
~>•·~•.• -~•- •-•~''•""-
- - -~~¥··-·-•
.-·~------~•o•••u- ·~·'·~·-'-••~-• -~--~-·
-
--
__ ,_____. ••• •·-
--- '··
--.-
·-~--~·--·~-
..
·-~--~···~··
---.--
-
-·-·--··~-~-.-·•••>•-• ••·~·~- ~~
----- -- -•. ·---: ------:.
••'••--•--••• ~-c•·---·,
,
__
--
••
:
46
r-------
roper responses.
eing "too cinchy."
during responses.
Her favorite remark referred to materials
She often pounded a beat on the table
When she correctly answered items, she
occasionally pat, sometimes strongly hit, the tester
is to say, "See, I can do it."
The student's conversa-
tions were always very limited in complexity and mostly
eflected adolescent ups and downs.
This student totally
,could (or rather, would) not understand why she was placed
I -
lin a special education school.
This student overtly craved
!
~uch one-to-one teacher relations and an extreme amount of
i
!attention.
I!we
i
The student's favorite question was "When are
going to work together?"
!
Outstanding notes regarding Case Study 3 were his
j
'
lconstant stretching of his eyes and facial muscles when com~
i
~elled to think before responding, his tremendous amount of:
!false confidence and spontaneous rationalizations of comfort
I
!to non-knowledge, along with his habit of getting things
ldone first and carelessly working in haste.
This student
!had a tendency of easily finding ways to distract himself.
!He was often quite loud, yet in controlled one-to-one relaltionships, was controlled and spoke quite softly.
He dis-
iplayed no curiosity about unknown information, instead he
!
;
preferred laughter and a content-with-present-knowledge
!attitude.
j
'iraged
!
During one session, when the student was encou-'
with deep belief to search his mind for an answer, he'
,became so bodily enraged that his face and neck flushed deep
_:__~~~~-~~--~Cl.-~~-~-~----!_~-~-~-!-~Y-~"E-~!!~~--~J.--~----!~-~-!1::_~----!-~-~-~--Ci_C::!i,_?_~--~as
~
--·-·--
--- ·--
-;;-:------·.
__
47
-·---·~-·"'
Fever repeated.
The students studied were not weak in all areas of j
j
!reading, though they were all noticeably below conventional ;
brade level.
I
idual
t
Attempting to aid the balance of their indi- ,
weaknesses were scatterings of specific reading
trengths.
Realistic or not, one strength common to all
tudents was positive attitude of improvement. Of course,
i
!the level at which each student aimed to improve was ques1
!tioned, while the desire was strongly an asset.
j
All stu-
!dents showed capacities of workable IQs, _though they ranged ,
!from educationally retarded to average ability.
I
Case Study 1 had a gift of patience and completion
lof reading tasks, despite some being
I
tedio~s
chores.
!excelled in comprehending analogies of all degrees.
!student was of fairly average intelligence.
He
This
The foresight
brescription would be to better develop the reading skills,
I
!coordinate them with his capabilities, so that his future
!
Fishes can be realities.
lination, recognition
In the area of auditory discrim-
of initial consonants and phonograms
'was a talent in the student's favor.
Regarding phonics, the
\s tudent 's high points were distinguishing the number of
i
!syllables per word (this aided much in the student's dis1
.secting unknown words), above-average knowledge and interlaction of consonant sounds and consonant digraphs. The
I
!student showed a masterful ease at pronouncing words conI
I
;taining diphthongs.
The student expressed extreme stable
- -,,.-
.--
-
-.- -
·-
48
rroficient in all face~-;;-£ letter recognition, and-~~.;-~~-~-,
prdination of those letters to form whole words.
The stu-
lI
~ent expressed tremendous ease in all areas of compound
I
rords and their parts.
asset.
~
He knew how to skillfully use context clues and
kiguration
1
Auditory rhyming was a very strong
to his advantage.
con~
His strengths were apparent
n vocabulary--homonyms and antonyms.
\
The student read
rally with much expression at comfortable ·levels and
!exhibited good recall of details and adequate insight for
i
jinferences at these levels.
The reading strengths of this
!student showed a workable foundation to perhaps eventually
I .
1ra1se him to grade level and interest level.
I
1
Case Study 2 showed strength in precise activities,
ithose that were judged as totally right or wrong with
!immediate direct proof (i.e., the most basic of math prin1
lciples).
Anything visual--plainly visual--and not requiring
!
!thought on the student's part, was a definite asset. Any'
!
!thing directly illustrated for this student--felt boards,
!
klackboard work, etc.--would be much to the student's advanj
I
:tage of learning and totally comprehending (of course, with
I
l
ruch repeated drill).
Auditory comprehension of this stu-
ldent was a high asset when compared to the comprehension of
'materials the student had to read herself.
All areas of
i
!auditory discrimination on very basic levels did not present
!major problems and worked in the student's favor. All
i
;facets of letter recognition and consonant sounds were
:strengt_!]:_~~!?.... ~!I~-~----~t.~~-E)~_:t:.'.-~--~~_ad~!l_g_y_E_~~l~!ll..: ...-.~~-~~?-~~~---this
49
t:::::: ::: :::~~:::;:::::e;::::h:::do:o::~::::r::dss:::~~~~i
~ell.
skill~
In the realm of word attack, the student would
!fully use her strength of sighting small meaningful words
~n larger, more complex words.
lin pronunciation tasks.
This occasionally aided her
The student again showed absolutely
ho difficulty in recognizing root words and once again used
khis to her advantage.
I
This student's strengths need to be
):milt before forming a foundation for reading skills of
L
11mprovemen t.
Case Study 3 showed a talent, though not particu-
j
;
llarly masterful, in spelling and slight knowledge of phon-
!
rtic word parts.
~ear
Letter recognition of this student was
perfect, the exception being visual discrimination.
i
jcompound words, words within words, and inner word sound
!
,discrimination presented no problems, but were stable
I
!strengths for this student.
The area of auditory and visual
i
speech consonants plus ending speech variants were packed
down solid in all applications by this student.
1
The dis-
1crimination and recognition of auditory rhyming was a true I
!asset.
Through completion of testing, perhaps more
strength~
l
!of Case Study 3 will be divulged.
!
One thing very common to all three case studies was
i
~aried
reading weaknesses.
They broadly ranged in scope
!
!and degree. The limitation of the basic reading skills-!
itheir knowledge and application- -were direct and obvious
~-!_!:_r~~-~!~-~--.!:?.....~-~-C::_h __ S._!_~~~~!:_'_~_ -~~-~~-:"-~-~-~CJ.l.....~-a-~..!~.El.--~-~---·:r-·~-~-ding.
,-;
-.--
-
-
--
~-
----
-~-
-.-:..~
--
so
The weaknesses of Case Study 1 were manifold.
Audi~
!
ory memory was extremely weak in all instances.
_luenced degrees of reading comprehension.
1
This in-
The student's
1
~abit of letter reversals presented a major, but workable,
roblem.
The student was very consistent in his reversal
atterns.
Letter substitution and poor use of configuration
added to the comprehension difficulty in letter patterns.
1
his student had difficulty with certain facets of auditory
hiscrimination, specifically, common reversals and final
fansonants.
The realm of blends was problematic for Case
Ftudy 1.
In phonics, extreme weaknesses were in long vowels,
I
~lending,
vowel diphthongs, short vowels, and accentuation.
I
lThe student expressed weakness in audible root words.
\ficulty was consistent in pluralization of words.
Dif-
The stu-
1
ldent showed great difficulty in any and all uses of context
I
I
In the area of auditory rhyming, the student had a
JWOrds.
Confusion was always apparent in any aspect of
!clues.
!tedious task of discriminating similar rhyme and non-rhyme
)vowels.
The student exhibited no knowledge of tense or
regard for verb endings.
1
In silent reading, poor comprehen-
lsion was a result of hastiness and a desire to merely finish
Iithe
I
work and dismiss it.
Case Study 1 had poor vocabulary
'skills, due to lax reading development.
The reading weaknesses of Case Study 2 are plentiful.
j
l~he
i
showed total disregard for any sign of logic.
i
~hewed
no sign
She
of thought in practical analogies which, in
--~-l1.!.:t:J: '.._!'_~ f~ ~-C:_t_~ ~---~-i._~p-~ ~L-~-~-~~- <=~-1:1~~-~ !:~ ! ~!1-~~~g __ _?~ ---~-\T~_EY_~~ Y
51
13.ctivities.
This--student showed g;.eatdi-fficulty- in ;:;t~in-~
l:ng and repeating any number or word, or even symbol pat-
~erns.
Massive disabilities were noted in auditory memory.
It was suggested that this student's extreme weaknesses in
i
language development were reflected and directly associated
~ith
her reading weaknesses.
This student was very quick
fo substitute words with _no regard for context.
Spelling
tpatterns expressed firmly no concept of sound coordination.
I
pverall, no weaknesses worth noting were evidenced in the ·
area of auditory discrimination.
site.
I
Phonics was much the
An obvious phonics deficiency was noted.
oppo~
The student
!showed absolutely no concept or recognition of the entire
I
!realm of vowels, phonograms, all aspects of blends, diphthongs, syllables, or accentuation.
Phonics recognition,
I
!let
alone application, 1vas one big guessing game of chance.
!Regarding sight words, the student had better knowledge of
I
!nouns than any other words.
However, she easily substituted
~ords of initial letters for correct response.
~abitually
The student
read orally with a tremendously easy stream of
!
false confidence.
The substitution of anything above pre-
lsent tense became apparent in her oral reading.
Concerning.
lher language disabilities as they meaningfully relate to he;
!
1
reading dis ability, Case Study 2 showed numerous
weaknesses~
!Those reinforced by all inventories and tests were no recog-,
!
lni tion of anything concerning vowels, very slight and
!
;extremely sporadic recognition of consonants and blends,
!
1
no concept or discrimination of the world of rhyme, constant
·;;;
52
~d~aphazard word substitution, no concept of pronouns or~
C.derstanding of contractions, no knowledge of iriverting
I
t
~
tatements to questions, no vein of talent or mere knowledge
rf noting details nor describing even the simplest actions
br things.
The student expressed extremely poor memory span.
khe student had no concept of left-right orientation, which!
kirectly was exhibited in her reading.
~o
The student showed
concept at all in distinguishing likenesses from differ-
lences, 'which influenced her realm of comprehension.
In her
i
!silent reading, letter reversals were a matter of much con-
i
;fusion.
I
Reversal patterns were consistently habitual.
In :
!
/the area of word synthesis, the student showed no knowledge:
lor application.
The student overtly showed signs of reading
!disability through gestures:
~ead,
pointing with finger, tilted
moving lips during silent reading, squinting.
Oral
!reading was an exhibition of poor phrasing, substitutions,
I . .
.
!om1sS1ons,
an d no regard for punctuat1on.
Case Study 3 was another example of poor auditory
memory.
!
This student showed much confusion with short
!vowels coordinated in words.
Throughout testing, the stu-
ldent lacked adequate concentration skills.
This was
jreflected in poor auditory discrimination.
He exhibited
~uch
difficulty with blends and tremendous difficulty with
!accentuation.
The student had a sporadic tendency to
I
!reverse letter patterns within similarly-spelled words.
I
:This, in turn, triggered a comprehension weakness.
He was
53
[h~- student appeared to be oblivious to context clues.
L
ristinction
Ltuden~
The!
l
of most rhyming words was a total disaster.
The
exhibited no concept of vowels, rules, or their
I
lexcept1ons, along with spotty knowledge and application of l
plends.
~ocal
He needed to read orally with much more facial andj
expression.
He had an inadequate means of attacking \
bnknown words, an inability to analyze elements within wordJ,
lalong with an inability to integrate word parts.
The stu-
1
1
jdent expressed occasional failure to identify the central
I
!idea of paragraphs and had much difficulty in drawing conlclusions and making general inferences.
I
The student 1 s poor :
I
!
~hrasing was coordinated with irregular eye movements, liliich
i
rere very noticeable. Case Study 3's reading weaknesses
~auld
benefit by concentrating on word attack skills and
!comprehension exercises.
I'Conclus1ons
.
'
I
All case studies were recommended for remediation on
a very spaced, long-term, concentrated basis.
~evealed
the various reading disabilities of each student
Ito be multi-causal.
The lack of many skills, major and
binor, contributed to the reading weaknesses.
!~orced
This study
This rein-
theories that reading coordinates various skills.
:The heart of each student 1 s disability was a combination of
I
!reading attitude, physical reading habits, rate and degree
I
!of comprehension of reading, oral reading, word recognition,
'and pronunciation techniques.
l
For. these particular students,
54
heir physical handicaps, brain dysfunction, motor coordi- !
I
ation, retention spans, and mentality influenced their pro~
esses and stages of reading development.
t
Interruptions
I
for therapy and surgery contributed to their disabilities
jY
disturbing the continuity of lessons.
This would only
be avoided by one-to-one teacher-student instruction.
~~~ver,
How-:
instruction must fit a concentrated daily pattern for
these students.
~etrimental.
Any interruption was signilicant and often
Earlier in the paper, it was noted that read- '
I
ling is a complex of many physical and psY:chological projcesses.
1
l
This was repeatedly reinforced throughout the case:
jstudies and their findings.
G. Robert Carlsen (1967) notes •
l"if one reads long enough he may arrive at a final kind of :
ljoy in reading . .
~disclose
"
It was hoped that this study would;
the weaknesses and degree of disabilities so that
leach student would someday develop the skills and apply them
Ito achieve
not only survival reading but their own personal
ljoy of leisure-time reading.
REFERENCES
ukerman, Robert C.
York: Wiley
Approaches to Beginning Reading.
& Sons,
New
1971.
Bond, Guy L., and Tinker, Miles A. Reading Difficulties - .
Their Diagnosis and Correction. New York: Appleton~
Century-Croft, Inc., 1957.
I
. ond,
ffi
.
Guy L., and Wagner, Eva Bend. Teaching the Child to
Read. New York: Macmillan Company, 1960.
1
,carlsen, G. Robert. Books and the Teen Age Reader.
York: Bantam Books, 1967.
I
New
:Carter, Homer L. J., and McGinnis, Dorothy. Diagnosis and
Treatment of the Disabled Reader. New York: Macmlllan Company, 1970.
!i
l
!Chall, Jeanne. Learning to Read: The Great Debate.
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.
I
New
I
!Fay, Leo. "How Can We Develop Reading Study Skills for the'
Different Curriculum Areas?" The Reading Teacher,
VI, March 1953.
I
jFlescher, Irwin. "Ocular-Manual Laterality and Perceptual
Rotation of Literal Symbols." Genetic Psychology
Monographs, 1962.
j
Gates, Arthur I. Psychology of Reading and Spelling with
Special Reference to Disability. Contributions to
Educat1on, No. 129, Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College, Columbia University, New York, 1922.
IlHarr1s,
.
1
!
Arthur J. How to Increase Reading Ability.
York: Longmans, Green & Company, 1970.
.
Casebook on Reading Disability.
Company, Inc., 1970.
------~Mckay
!Lee and Lee. The Child: His Curriculum.
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