Teacher Preparation and Continuing
Professional Development in Africa (TPA)
THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN READING
AND MATHS AND ITS INFLUENCE ON PRACTICES
IN TANZANIAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Tanzania’s Country Report
July 2011
Lead Researcher and authors:
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Professor Eustella Bhalalusesa [email protected]
Jo Westbrook
Kattie Lussier
Researchers:
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Dr Rebecca Sima
Dr Martha Qorro
Dr Joviter Katabaro
Ms Magreth Matonya
Mr Jonas Tiboroha
Mr Ibrahim Nzima
With Alison Croft and Cecilia Kimani
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Table of Contents
Glossary .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
List of acronyms .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Chapter 1: Background and Introduction ......................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Education for All and Educational Quality: The significance of Teacher Education .............................. 5
1.2 Research Design and Methodology ...................................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 Data sets and methods ................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.2 Sampling and research process.................................................................................................... 9
1.2.3 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.3 Outline of the report ............................................................................................................................ 10
Chapter 2: Teacher Education in Tanzania ................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Initial Teacher Education in Tanzania ................................................................................................. 12
2.1.1 Structure of ITE ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.1.2 Teaching Methods used at the TTC ............................................................................................ 13
2.1.3 Teaching practice during ITE ...................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Continuing professional development ................................................................................................. 15
2.3 TTC and school curriculum: continuities and gaps ............................................................................. 16
2.3.1 The TTC Curriculum ................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.2: The school reading and mathematics curriculum....................................................................... 19
Chapter 3: Characteristics of respondents and TTC teaching ....................................................................... 23
3.1 Characteristics of the tutors ................................................................................................................ 23
3.1.1 Characteristics of the TTC tutors ................................................................................................ 23
3.1.2 Continuing professional development for tutors .......................................................................... 24
3.2 Trainees‟ characteristics ..................................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Teachers‟ characteristics .................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 4: Learning to Teach Reading ......................................................................................................... 29
4.1 Insights into Teacher Educators‟ knowledge, understanding and practices ....................................... 29
4.1.1 Tutors‟ sources of Knowledge ..................................................................................................... 29
4.1.2 Tutors‟ knowledge and understanding about learning to teach reading ...................................... 30
4.1.3 Tutors‟ Perception of what Makes a Good Reading Teacher...................................................... 31
4.1.4 Tutors‟ Knowledge and Understanding in Practice ..................................................................... 31
4.2 Trainees Knowledge, Understanding and PCK .................................................................................. 32
4.2.1 Trainees‟ perception of the good reading teacher....................................................................... 32
4.2.2 Trainees knowledge and understanding of teaching reading ...................................................... 33
4.3. Insights into NQTs Knowledge, Understanding and Practice ............................................................ 34
4.3.1 NQTs Knowledge of what makes a good Reading Teacher ....................................................... 34
4.3.2 NQTs Source of Knowledge and Understanding ........................................................................ 35
4.3.3 NQT‟s knowledge, understandings and PCK .............................................................................. 36
4.3.4 NQTs‟ practice in teaching beginning reading ............................................................................ 39
4.4 Insights into experienced teachers‟ knowledge, understanding and practice ..................................... 41
4.4.1 Characteristics of professional development programs with a reading focus ............................. 41
4.4.2 CPDs and Pedagogical Content Knowledge............................................................................... 43
4.4.3 CPD teachers‟ practice in teaching reading ................................................................................ 44
4.5 Exploring gaps: From training to gaining experience .......................................................................... 46
4. 6 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 48
Chapter 5: Learning to Teach Mathematics................................................................................................... 49
5.1 Insights into Teacher Educators and Trainees‟ knowledge, understanding, practices and PCK ........ 50
5.1.1 Teacher educators and trainees‟ source of knowledge for teaching mathematics ...................... 50
5.1.2 Tutors‟ and trainees‟ knowledge and understanding ................................................................... 51
5.1.3 Tutors and Trainees‟ PCK and practices in teaching mathematics ............................................. 53
5.1.4 Tutors and Trainees perceptions of what makes a good lower grade mathematics teacher ...... 55
5.2
Insights into NQTs knowledge, understanding, practices ............................................................ 56
5.2.1 NQTs Source of Knowledge and Understanding ........................................................................ 56
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5.2.2 NQTs knowledge and understandings ........................................................................................ 56
5.2.3 NQTs perception of what makes good teacher of mathematics.................................................. 60
5.2.4 NQTs Practice Teaching Mathematics in Lower Grades ............................................................ 60
4.2.5 NQTs Challenges in Teaching Mathematics ............................................................................... 63
5.3 Insights into experienced Teachers‟ Knowledge, Understanding and Practice .................................. 64
5.3.1 Continuing Professional Ddevelopment Programmes................................................................. 64
5.3.2 Knowledge and understanding.................................................................................................... 65
5.3.3 Experienced teachers‟ practice and PCK in teaching mathematics ............................................ 67
5.3.4 CPD teachers‟ challenges and training needs in teaching mathematics ..................................... 68
5.5 Exploring Gaps: from Training to gaining experience ......................................................................... 68
5.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 71
Chapter 6: Key Issues for Policy and Practice............................................................................................... 72
6.1 Initial Teacher Education .................................................................................................................... 72
6.2 Newly Qualified Teachers ................................................................................................................... 73
6.3 Experienced teachers ......................................................................................................................... 74
6.4 Recommendations to take forward ..................................................................................................... 74
Initial teacher education ....................................................................................................................... 74
TTC curriculum .................................................................................................................................... 75
Primary curriculum ............................................................................................................................... 75
Schools ................................................................................................................................................ 75
References .................................................................................................................................................... 76
Appendix 1: Summary of key quantitative data ............................................................................................. 79
Appendix 1.3
- Tables for chapter 3 ............................................................................................... 79
Appendix 1.4 ............................................................................................................................................. 80
1.4.1 Selected tables from the trainees‟ questionnaire data ................................................................ 80
1.4.2 Selected tables and graphics from the teacher‟s data ................................................................ 83
Appendix 2: Profile of experienced reading teachers .................................................................................... 86
Appendix 3: CPD programs mentioned by teachers in the questionnaire ..................................................... 86
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Glossary
Content knowledge
Knowing about the subject matter to be taught
Grapheme
The transcription of a sound or a phoneme
Newly qualified teacher
Teacher who obtained his or her teaching qualification in the last three years
Pedagogical knowledge
Knowing how to engage with learners and to manage a classroom
Pedagogical content knowledge
Knowing how to represent and formulate the subject matter, in this case of early reading and
mathematics, in a way that makes it comprehensible to students
Phoneme
The smallest unit of sound in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning
Phonological awareness
An individual's awareness of the sound structure of spoken words
Trainee
In this report the term trainee design a student from a teacher training college
Tutor
Teacher educator in a teacher training college
List of acronyms
BTP
CPD
ECE
EFA
EQUIP
INSET
ITE
KKK
KUP
MOEC
MTUU
MUKA
NECTA
NICCHD
NQT
PCK
SAQMEC
SSA
TEP
TPA
TTC
UNESCO
UPE
Block teaching practice
Continuing professional development
Early childhood education
Education for All
Education Quality Improvement through Pedagogy
In-service training
Initial teacher education
Reading, writing and arithmetic
Knowledge, understanding and practice
Ministry of education and culture
Teachers‟ education programme coordinated by UNESCO and UNICEF
Mafunzo ya Ualimu Kazini-(In- Service Teacher Training)
National Examination Council of Tanzania
National Institute of Child Health & Human Development
Newly qualified teacher
Pedagogical content knowledge
Southern and eastern Africa consortium for monitoring educational quality
sub-Sahara Africa
Teacher Education Program
Teacher Preparation and Continuing Professional Development in Africa
Teacher training college
United Nation‟s organisation for education, science and culture
Universal primary education
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Chapter 1: Background and Introduction
Teacher education is increasingly seen as the key retaining the larger numbers of children now enrolled
through Universal Primary Education (UPE) policies in developing countries and to improving their
learning. This chapter gives an overview of the global context in which the Teacher Preparation and
Continuing Professional Development (TPA) research project took place and presents the research
questions, design and methodology used by the project. An outline of the report is provided at the end
of the chapter.
1.1 Education for All and Educational Quality: The significance of Teacher
Education
Since 1990 and more especially since 2000 the goal of Education for All by 2015 has galvanized many
countries in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) into confronting their historically low rates of enrolment. They have
been remarkably successful in attracting many more children into schools (UNESCO 2008). However
filling the classrooms is not enough; education for all, if it is to have positive social and economic
consequences, must involve children learning at least the basic minimum competences of literacy and
numeracy that will enable them to benefit from and contribute to their society‟s future. Unfortunately,
much evidence suggests that many who attend school are not learning very much. UNESCO (2008:2)
reports a „relatively low and unequal learning achievement in language and mathematics‟ in many
countries especially in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). These poor results are seen throughout basic
schooling, but it is becoming increasingly clear that the first years of schooling are especially important.
Children‟s early experiences with learning shape their attitudes and commitment to education and so,
more than at any other stage, what happens in the early grades, determines their educational future.
Unless they make sufficient progress at this stage they are liable either to cease coming to school
entirely, relapsing into illiteracy and innumeracy, or to become the „silently excluded‟ who are not able to
access the increasingly demanding work of the later grades (Liddell and Rae 2001; Lewin 2009;
UNESCO 2010; Glick and Sahn 2010). This is particularly true in reading and mathematics which
underpin understanding across the school curriculum.
Research examining teacher quality confirms the logical conclusion that poor quality of students‟
learning correlates strongly with poor quality of teachers‟ teaching. Effective student learning and
achievement is hampered by weaknesses in teachers‟ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and
classroom practice (Pontefract & Hardman 2005; Akyeampong, Pryor & Ampiah 2006, Moon et al. 2005;
Byamugisha & Ssenabulya, 2005 and other SAQMEC country reports). Teacher education has been
identified as both part of the problem and the solution. Increase in pupil enrolment has meant a huge
demand for more teachers and the priority has been to find ways of increasing the numbers appointed
either by recruiting more trainees onto established courses, by creating new routes into teaching or by a
combination of both strategies (UNESCO 2005). Policy and plans often assume that initial teacher
education (ITE) and continuing professional development (CPD) make a difference to teachers‟
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pedagogic knowledge and skill which in turn will be reflected in enhanced student learning outcomes
(Dembélé and Lefoka.2007). However, in many countries in SSA there is little systematic insight into the
content and process of knowledge and skill acquisition by ITE students and newly qualified teachers
(NQTs), and even less evidence that relates inputs to outcomes in terms of improved pedagogy and
greater learning achievement in mathematics and reading. Not enough is known about how teachers
working in different educational environments and contexts adopt and adapt the knowledge and skills
they have acquired through formal training to address the particular learning needs of young students in
their actual schools.
Commitment to improving quality primary education in sub-Sahara Africa has focused primarily on
infrastructure (e.g. classrooms, equipment, learning materials) and the supply of adequate numbers of
teachers, and less on how teacher training and CPD can promote teacher competencies that meet the
learning needs of students in real classrooms (Moon 2007; Bernard, Tiyab, &. Vianou, 2004). While
there is evidence that both pre-service and on-the-job training of teachers at primary school are the key
ways in which teachers learn to teach (Darling-Hammond, Wise & Klein, 1999; Lewin & Stuart, 2002;
Croft, 2002), research indicates that induction support for the Newly Qualified Teacher (NQT) 1 can be
negligible, with a „washout‟ effect occurring as a result (Hedges, 2002; Lewin and Stuart, 2003).
Socialization into existing school practices may quickly overwhelm the effects of training, especially in
systems where seniority creates status hierarchies that promote conformity to established practices by
NQTs (Westbrook et al. 2009).
The Teacher Preparation and Continuing Professional Development Project, funded by the William and
Flora Hewlett Foundation, was set up to fill the gap in knowledge about how the initial and continuing
education of teachers impacts on the practice of teachers through studies in six African countries. This
paper reports on the research that has been carried out in Tanzania. Because of the extreme
importance of early reading and mathematics for future progress, it focuses on the preparation that
teachers who teach in the lower primary grades receive and what support is available through CPD and
other routes to teach these subjects. A central issue is whether the process of learning to teach reading
and mathematics at lower primary level draws attention to, and emphasizes the kind of teaching
competencies known to be important for developing lower primary school children‟s abilities to read and
understand basic mathematical concepts. The research has built up a comprehensive picture of initial
training and CPD related to reading and mathematics in the early years of primary school. It has sought
to identify factors that contribute to successful practice and that lead to increased student learning
outcomes, as well as specific barriers and constraints that impede teacher practice and student
progression in basic numeracy and literacy. The findings are used to suggest feasible ways in which
teacher preparation in Tanzania might be improved.
In particular it has addressed the following research questions which will be discussed in the light of the
projects‟ findings in the concluding chapter:
1.
2.
How do pre-service teacher education programs prepare trainee teachers to teach
reading and mathematics in the early grades?
a. What assumptions about learning to teach reading and mathematics can be deduced from
the structure and content of the primary teacher training curriculum, and from school
textbooks?
b. How does the teacher education curriculum and their implicit and explicit theoretical base
relate to the curriculum for early years in language and mathematics in schools?
How do trainee teachers develop their understanding of teaching reading and
mathematics to early grade students?
In the project, we use the term „trainee‟ to denote those still undergoing initial training and „newly qualified teacher‟ (
NQT) for those in the first three years of service. „Students‟ refers to those whom they are teaching in the
primary/elementary schools.
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a.
How do these relate to college courses and experience during a structured practice in
schools?
3.
How do newly qualified teachers teach reading and mathematics in their first few years
of teaching?
a. How does this practice relate to what has been taught and learnt in pre-service training?
b. What support do they draw on in developing their practice?
c. What is the nature of the gap between what the research literature says about teaching
reading and basic mathematics in early primary schooling, and what beginning teachers
actually do in their classrooms?
4.
What are the characteristics of professional development programs with a mathematics
and/or reading focus that have been implemented over the past three years?
a.
Which teachers have they been designed for, and how were these teachers selected?
5. How do the graduates of professional development programs teach reading and mathematics
to early grade students?
a. What changes in teacher practice can be linked to their participation in professional
development programs?
6. Which teaching competencies and skills should be incorporated into the curriculum of
primary teacher education programs and which should become the preferred focus of
teachers’ professional development activities?
7. How cost effective are major pre-service and CPD programs with mathematics and reading
focus?
a. What is the relationship between the cost per trainee and extent to which teachers
develop their understanding and adopt desired practices)?
8.
How can professional knowledge and skills in teaching reading and mathematics be
effectively transferred and shared within and among primary teacher training programs
and beginning teachers?
In addressing these issues we conceptualize competence in terms of knowledge, understanding and
practice. Practice is central to good teaching but successful teachers would concur with the great body
of research into teaching that good practice cannot just depend on the unreflected application of
techniques. It is a complex process which requires a great deal of different knowledge. Content
knowledge, in other words knowing about the subject matter to be taught, is obviously important, but
teaching also requires pedagogic knowledge that is knowing how to engage with learners and to
manage a classroom. However as Shulman (1987) first pointed out, in order for these two kinds of
knowledge to guide actual practice, a third category, pedagogical content knowledge, is crucial; this
involves knowing how to represent and formulate the subject matter, in this case of early reading and
mathematics, in a way that make it comprehensible to students. The project has therefore investigated
the different kinds of knowledge that teachers at various stages of preparation have and their
understandings of how this can be applied to construct classroom practice.
1.2 Research Design and Methodology
1.2.1 Data sets and methods
The research hinges on establishing the different knowledge, understanding and practices that are
expected of teachers during their preparation and then comparing them with those that they actually
exhibit at different points in their training and career. The points of comparison are summarized in
Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1: COMPARISONS AND TENSIONS
Knowledge, understanding and
practice expected of trainee
teachers by the ITE program
(Analysis of documentation and
interviews with key personnel)
Knowledge, understanding and
practice of trainee teachers at the
end of their training
(Questionnaire; Trainee focus groups;
Teacher educator interviews following
observation)
ITE: Relation between
expectation and practice
Knowledge, understanding and practice
of newly qualified teachers (NQT)
(Questionnaire; interviews with NQTs
following observation)
CPD: Relation between
expectation and practice
Knowledge, understanding and
practice expected of CPD program
participants
(Analysis of documentation; interviews
with providers)
Knowledge, understanding and
practice of teachers who have
followed CPD programs
(Questionnaire; Interviews following
observation)
An initial line of enquiry was to establish what competences relevant to the teaching of reading and
mathematics that the program of initial teacher education seeks to develop in trainee teachers. This was
accomplished from an analysis of documentation including the analysis program aims/objectives,
expected standards and from interviews with the providers (blue rectangle in Figure 1).
The second set of data (green rectangle in figure 1) sought to build up a picture of the knowledge,
understanding and practice of actual trainee teachers at the end of their training. Both quantitative and
qualitative data were used to develop this. Qualitative data derived from focus groups and interviews
following observation of teaching on the ITE program. Direct inference about the training from
observation is problematic and possible only through frequent and lengthy observation on a scale
outside the means of the project. The project therefore used observed sessions of mathematics and
reading training as preliminary data for focus group discussions with a sample of trainees in each
college, selected as far as possible to include a range of achievement, a balance of gender and ethnic
background, in consultation with their teacher educators. Moderation of the discussion was designed to
consider the extent to which what was observed reflected the training as a whole, using the video and
shared experience of the session to probe pedagogic content knowledge and understandings of
teaching practice. A similar approach was followed in interviews with the trainers whose sessions had
been observed.
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The quantitative data derived from a questionnaire, developed from one that had been used
successfully in other work (Akyeampong 2003) with trainee teachers towards the end of their course
(see appendix). It was administered to a sample of trainees in four contrasting teacher training colleges
selected on a geographical basis (rural, urban and peri-urban). One of the four colleges was also
selected to represent private teacher training colleges.
The questionnaire was based on a common set of items with small country specific amendments. It was
then translated into Kiswahili and piloted in one school and college before it was administered within the
study areas. The questionnaire demanded relatively closed responses, and as well as straightforward
questions included a series of scenarios that are likely to be encountered in teaching in early grades.
Respondents were then required to select responses to the scenarios which describe the most
appropriate approach to teaching a particular concept or skill in reading and mathematics. These
responses then gave access to trainees‟ pedagogical content knowledge and likely pedagogical practice
in reading and mathematics.
The task of understanding how ITE is put into operation involved collecting data on the knowledge,
understanding and practice of NQTs (yellow rectangle in figure 1). A sample of schools was selected
where teachers in the first three years of their career were working. Six schools were selected in each
host district of the participating teacher training colleges (TTCs). Since the major interest of the study
was on NQTs with not more than three years of teaching experience, schools with such teachers were
given priority in being included in the sample. Videoed observations of lessons in reading and
mathematics by the NQTs were followed by forensic interviews asking questions around details of
practice, sequencing of tasks, use of resources, progression within the lesson and onwards towards the
next, and use of language of instruction as against mother tongue or local lingua franca. Again this form
of interview was chosen to obtain a greater understanding of what teachers know and can do compared
to direct inference from observation. Interviews were further informed through evidence of the
educational attainment of students from exercise books, records of assessment and where possible
brief interviews with students. Head teachers in all sample schools were also interviewed on the issue of
NQT support and management especially as related to teaching reading and mathematics. In addition a
slightly adapted version of the questionnaire used for trainees was given to NQTs.
The research design called for a similar approach to continuing professional development programs. An
initial survey of what is available in Tanzania was mounted (pink rectangle). Three programs were
studied – the Teacher Education Program (TEP), the Children‟s Book Project and EQUIP. As a point of
comparison the project collected data on the knowledge, understandings and practices of teachers who
had recently followed the CPD programs (orange rectangle in figure 1). This followed exactly the same
procedure of observation, interview and questionnaire as for the NQTs.
1.2.2 Sampling and research process
The process of fieldwork faced many challenges. In real world settings it is not always possible to
construct ideal samples where variables are controlled. For example respondents identified as NQTs
may also have followed CPD programs but the methods used enabled us to identify when this was the
case and generally to ask where practices derived. In Tanzania specific challenges were:
1. How to select the four colleges out of the 77 colleges responsible for training primary
school teachers. Within the rural/urban dimension we also considered accessibility to the
college and experience of the college in teacher training.
2. The second the challenge was getting NQTs of not more than three years of service and
who are teaching in lower grades. We had to visit more than six schools in one district to
get the required number.
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3. The sessions observed in teachers colleges were arranged to suit the timing of the
project and not according to the scheme of work of the tutors. There were cases where
lessons observed had already been taught before but had to be repeated.
Table 1: Overall data set
Data set
ITE in action
Teacher Training Colleges
Tanzania
4 teacher training colleges (TTC) – two metropolitan, two
provincial including 1 private
College schemes of work
All relevant schemes for mathematics and language
Tutor interviews
8 interviews: 1 maths and 1 reading in each TTC
Observations of college teaching
8 observations: 1 maths and 1 reading in each TTC
Questionnaire with trainee teachers at the end of their training 848
Trainee focus groups
3 groups of 8 trainees ( 3 TTC)
NQTs in action (three years or less experience)
Questionnaire NQTs
164 from 33 schools
Observations and forensic interviews
18 reading & 21 mathematics = 39 NQTs in total
Profiles of CPD programs
3 key CPD programs
Ministries and other provider headquarters
CPD/experienced teachers in action (those with over 3
years experience)
Questionnaire with experienced teachers
88
Observations and forensic interviews
5 reading 10 mathematics = 15 in total
Total data set
Total schools: 33
Total respondents for teacher and NQTs‟ questionnaires: 252
Total respondents for trainees‟ questionnaires: 848
1.2.3 Data Analysis
Analysis of the different data sets represented by the colored rectangles in figure 1 enabled the project
to address the research questions. It did this by building up a detailed description of the knowledge,
understandings and practices of teachers during the different phases of preparation and using these as
a basis for comparing what is occurring in the field with what is intended. The qualitative data from
interviews and focus groups were transcribed and imported into Nvivo 8 qualitative data analysis
software with other appropriate texts such as summaries of observations. Data were coded and sorted
into using a system of hierarchical categories, most centrally those of knowledge, understanding and
practice. This enabled patterns to be identified and queries to be run.
Quantitative data from the trainees and teachers questionnaires were analyzed using STATA software.
Interpretation of the data was largely based on descriptive statistical analysis with some use of
inferential statistics such as the calculation of Pearson‟s Chi2 to test for independence and Cramer‟s V to
look at effect size.
1.3 Outline of the report
Chapter one situated the research project within the context of EFA and the international research on
teacher education. It also outlined the research questions and design underpinning the TPA project and
its methodology.
Chapter two focuses on teacher education in Tanzania. More specifically, it discusses the main
characteristics of initial teacher education and continuing professional development in Tanzania. Then it
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compares the TTC and school curricula in order to identify and discuss the continuities and gaps
between them. Particular attention is given to school and mathematics curriculum and to the extent to
which the content of curriculum material relates to what is implemented in the schools visited by the
research teams in these two topics.
Chapter three describes the research participants in order to help readers better understand where the
data come from and to what extent the respondents represent the different actors involved in teacher
education. More specifically, we look at the characteristics of teacher educators (TTC tutors), trainees
and teachers.
The fourth chapter reflects on learning to teach reading. It provides insights into teacher educators‟
knowledge, understanding and PCK related to reading and looks at how these knowledge and
understandings are put into practice. Then it looks at patterns in reading knowledge, understanding and
PCK of trainees and NQTs. It discusses the similarities and differences between the two groups of
respondents; what the teachers who took part of the study reported as their source of knowledge and
understanding of teaching reading as well as the findings from NQT‟s practices. Subsequently the
chapter offers insights into experienced teachers‟ KUP, the professional development programs which
have a reading focus as well as reflections on the role of CPDs in fostering PCK. The chapter concludes
by exploring the main gaps between teachers‟ preparation to teach reading and what teachers need to
become competent in teaching early reading.
Chapter five explores how teachers learn to teach mathematics. It begins by providing insights into
tutors and trainees‟ knowledge, understanding and PCK related to the teaching of maths. Then it
discusses briefly the practices in teaching maths as well as trainees and tutors‟ perceptions of what
makes a good teacher of early mathematics. This is followed by a discussion on the PCK differences
between trainees and teachers based on the quantitative data. The chapter continues with insights on
NQTs‟ KUP, their perception of the role of ITE and what is a good lower primary maths teacher. Insights
into experiences teachers KUP and PCK are then discussed as well as knowledge of CPDs and role of
CPD programmes. The chapter also ends by exploring gaps between teachers‟ preparation and what is
needed to teach maths.
Finally, chapter six concludes the report by summarizing the key issues for policy and practice. These
are discussed around initial teacher education, newly qualified teachers and more experienced
teachers. It also lists key recommendations to take forward. These recommendations relate to ITE, TTC
curriculum, primary curriculum and schools.
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Chapter 2: Teacher Education in Tanzania
The structure and content of teacher education shapes the way in which reading and mathematics are
conceived and taught in the primary schools. This chapter provides an overview of teacher education in
Tanzania. More specifically, it discusses the structure of initial teacher education (ITE), looks at the
teaching methods used in the TTCs and described the teaching practice observed by the research
team. Then, it provides a quick summary of the continuing professional development for Tanzanian
teachers. Finally, it takes a quick look at ITE and school curricula and discusses the continuities and
gaps between ITE and primary curricula related to mathematics and reading.
2.1 Initial Teacher Education in Tanzania
2.1.1 Structure of ITE
Tanzania follows the 7-4-2-4 education structure. The 2002 Primary Education Development
Programme saw expanded enrolment of primary students from 4,881,588 in 2001 to 8,441,553 in 2009
(United Republic of Tanzania, 2009). In 2004, the Secondary Education Development Programme
(SEDP) was launched to respond to the expanded completion and pass rate at primary schools. The
target of 50% transition from primary to secondary school was realized during the initial two years of
implementation.
Teacher trainees most commonly have followed seven years of compulsory primary education and four
years of junior secondary education to become Grade A teachers who can teach a primary school only.
A Diploma holder who can teach in both primary and secondary schools needs six years of secondary
school. Those who have a B.Ed can teach in advance secondary education as well as in teacher
training colleges. Following liberalization policies in 1994, a number of private education institutions and
colleges have been established in the country at all levels of the education system but with limited
enrolment capacity. Teacher training is now offered in some 34 government and 43 non-government
colleges (United Republic of Tanzania, 2009). The curriculum for the Grade A certificate and Diploma in
Education is designed and developed by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training through the
Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) and is examined by the National Examination Council of Tanzania
(NECTA). Grade A programme was changed to 1 year professional training and 1 year on-job training.
During training, teacher trainees were categorized into three biases which were Science and
Mathematics, Language studies, and Social studies. The emphasis, however, was on teaching
methods of the subjects concerned as well as on professional studies. With effect from 2009 this
system was phased out since it was realised that, this type of training created shortage of teachers in
some subjects like science and mathematics. It should be noted that performance of Mathematics and
Science in Form IV examination is normally poor. Therefore there is almost no pool from where to select
trainees to join Mathematics and Science stream. In July 2006, the duration for Grade A teacher training
changed again from one year to 2 full year‟s residential training. The curriculum remained the same
with some minor changes. One of these changes is making Early Childhood Education (ECE)
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compulsory to all trainees. In ECE subject, teacher trainees are taught the methodology of teaching
pre-primary children in primary schools.
There has been a dilemma on whether to give the trainees just the content needed to teach the
syllabus, or to teach them the discipline to as high level as possible, a situation that in turn constrain
students‟ entry levels and the time available for training. A related problem is whether subject content
and subject methods are taught separately or together, and what balance obtains between them.
The two year teacher training program is by taught sessions throughout the year of subject and
pedagogic content and professional studies and assessed through examination and a Block
Teaching Practice (BTP) of five weeks at the end of each year with one tutor visit for each trainee
and an evaluation of the observed lesson filled out. This structure means that practice is
disembodied from theory without the opportunity for trainees to discuss their experience back at the
TTC with tutors and peers immediately after their training.
2.1.2 Teaching Methods used at the TTC
For the teacher educators it would seem obvious that the main objective of whatever they were doing in
colleges was to ensure that they are able to prepare competent primary school teachers able to handle
all the subjects that are taught in primary schools. However, in practice this was not the only objective.
Behind the scenes there is the National Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA) and the examination
requirement. The teacher trainees have to pass the national examination. It is only through this national
examination that the college tutors will be seen to have done their job well. The examination assesses
academic knowledge and pedagogy across the whole breadth of the curriculum and in a dry, theorybased manner. This means that tutors have much material to cover with large classes within a short
time. Some tutors therefore resort to transmission teaching. For example, although the tutors we met
emphasized the use of interactive methods of teaching, they themselves did not translate this in
practice. In the observations conducted in the 6 classrooms, most of the time the teacher trainees were
given hand-outs for independent reading and tutors mainly used lectures and demonstrations – either
by the tutor or by the trainees.
Pedagogical content knowledge needs to be demonstrated as well as discussed in theory. Therefore,
lecturing about the potential of interactive methods like group work but not adopting it as pedagogy in
the training process, sent ambiguous messages to the trainees. Though most of the college tutors
interviewed were aware of a range of widely promoted pedagogic approaches, few seemed to practice it
or apply it to lesson planning advice.
Perhaps one of the challenges was large classes even at TTC level. Each had 55 trainees seated in
rows and columns. It was practically difficult, for example, to organize small group discussion in these
classes although the tutors tried to do so. Therefore, although interactive methods were often advocated
by tutors and included in the course aims there was little evidence of effective application to the training
we observed.
Although the colleges were far apart there seem to be a uniform pattern on how they prepared teacher
trainees. In all the sessions observed, several techniques were employed with demonstration/
simulation being the dominant one. The tutors played the role of a classroom teacher and showed the
various steps to follow when teaching while teacher trainees played the role of. The introductory part
always begian with a song either about letters or counting numbers. The role play was normally followed
by a discussion combined with questions and answers, as reflected in the quote below by a tutor:
13
I explain to them how they will teach and then I demonstrate while they watch.
Sometimes we do a role play. I act as Class X teacher and they act as class X pupils.
Thereafter, we discuss together about the lesson so as to chat out the main points and
aspects to consider when teaching that particular lesson in that particular class.
Ideally, they were supposed to do the same in the single lesson practice. But the
teacher trainees are many and time is not enough for everyone to do so. What we
normally do is to give them an assignment in groups to prepare a lesson which they
present in class in a form of a lesson. The teacher trainees act as pupils and after the
lesson they make comments/assess how the teacher trainee could improve his/her
teaching.
(Tutor interview, TTC4, maths)
While this appears learner-centred, without specific knowledge of the appropriate pedagogic strategy
from a knowledgeable and experienced tutor, the system of getting groups of trainees to prepare
lessons runs the risk of being both superficial and uncritical, replicating the way in which they
themselves were taught as primary school students. Sumra (2007) argues that few tutors model
participatory methods and find it hard to use teaching aids and improvise.
2.1.3 Teaching practice during ITE
All teacher trainees are required to do Teaching Practice as an integral part of their education
programme. It is done once in every academic year, and it ranges between one to two months
depending on availability of funds to support teacher educators who have to follow the teacher trainees
to their teaching practice stations for assessment. Prior to teaching practice, all students are provided
with an orientation programme as an introduction to teaching and what is expected of them while in
schools. Each student is supposed to ensure that she/he has procured the different syllabi for the
subjects taught in primary schools since they do not know which subject they will be assigned to teach.
However, they all admitted that no one ever thought of going to teach any subject in early grades. Even
the tutors themselves admitted that they normally do not expect that the teacher trainees would be
assigned to teach early grades during teaching practice. Therefore, they normally do not prepare them
for that – and the reality is that most schools do not allow student teachers to take the early grades on
teaching practice:
We have the ability to teach mathematics grade 1 and 2: the problem is that during
teaching practice we are not accepted to teach in these grades, we are just assigned
to teach other grades.
(Focus group discussion, trainees, TTC1)
Considering the importance of lower grades in children‟s overall schooling, it makes sense to assign the
best teachers to lower primary classes. However, we also gathered evidence that lower grade teaching
is perceived as less prestigious and that a majority of teachers would prefer to teach in upper primary. In
these conditions it would make sense to prepare all teachers to teach early reading and maths. Allowing
teacher trainees to get hands-on experience of lower grade teaching under the close supervision of
experienced teacher could also help them to develop a better awareness of the importance of basic
concepts and skills in reading and maths and help them to support pupils facing difficulties with these.
Teaching practice was strongly supported and appreciated by trainees because they felt that the match
between theory and practice was often missing while at the TTC. However, they also face some
challenges:
…teaching practice help us to get teaching experience but there are challenges of
lack of curricular materials like book, syllabuses and others. …....even housing is a
problem, we leave in poor houses.
(Focus group discussion, trainees, TTC2 )
…I think BTP is important because teachers are prepared to teach in primary
schools…and when they go for TP they teach primary school kids. So they get
opportunity to link theory and practice. BTP is good…but time is not enough…
(Tutor interview, TTC1, Kiswahili).
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Interview and focus group data revealed that the supervision of block teaching practice (BTP) can be
problematic. Many trainees noted that they had been left largely on their own to accumulate teaching
survival skills. Many of the placements in schools appeared ad hoc rather than being designed to
ensure that BTP was undertaken in situations where there was good practice. Often, however, trainees
reported that they are faced with many confusing situations which they do not know how to deal with,
and they have very limited support to help them solve problems. Learning to teach effectively requires
that trainees integrate the insights and concepts derived from the propositional knowledge taught in
college, with contextual and situated knowledge of specific classrooms and students. One frequently
mentioned example was the newly introduced approach to teaching and learning-“competency-based”
approach in primary schools which compel the teachers to develop lesson plans using a different format
and even a different approach to teaching and assessing a lesson. They found this innovation in
schools during BTP.
The lack of expert help or mentoring in maths or reading forced them to replicate methods known from
their own schooling or obvious teaching from college that chimes with their own experience. For trainees
from the private TTC, located in urban area, there was also the issue of the lack of exposure to the
situation of the majority of Tanzanian primary schools. During teaching practice, the private TTC send
the trainees to surrounding urban primary schools. However, after graduation, the majority of not all of
these NQTs are posted in rural areas and they have to learn afresh. Trainees also have to find the
different primary syllabuses themselves as preparation for BTP and this does not appear to be a
reference they have easy access to in the TTC. BTP is itself separated from the contents and method
part of the training both physically as students travel often long distances to their placement schools and
also synchronically as it takes place after the end of the „academic year‟. Without a curriculum or
standards for BTP and with different reference materials, the two curricula are symptomatic of the
theory/practice divide.
Other methods of field-based teaching practice like Single-Lesson and Double-Lesson teaching practice
held in demonstration schools prior to BTP and which make a great contribution towards mastery of
some important teaching skills, have either ceased or are seldom used in colleges. The purpose is to
enable student teachers to experience real teaching in a real classroom context, to practice a specific
teaching skill and have the chance to interact with experienced teachers and share ideas concerning
teaching. All TTCs have a primary school, or demonstration school, on site but it seems that their
pedagogic potential is underused. Theory and practice could be more easily integrated and discussed if
college tutors modeled some teaching with the students or if trainees observed lessons from
experienced teachers on a regular basis
2.2 Continuing professional development
While programmes to upgrade qualifications, focusing on subject content knowledge, are often available
to teachers (for example from Grade C/B to Ordinary Level Certificate and thereafter to Grade A teacher
training), this is not the case with professional development courses. Preliminary findings of a baseline
study that was conducted in support to the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training for the
development of an INSET strategy linked with the Teacher Development and Management Strategy
(TDMS 2008-2013) observed that opportunities for professional support through school-based INSET
workshops, seminars and training programmes are very limited. Hardman (2008) points out the weak
professional link between teacher training colleges and schools. Subsequently, Tanzania has developed
a five year strategy (In-Service Education and Training Strategy for Primary School Teachers) to ensure
the development of adequate quality primary school teachers through continued in-service and training
and professional growth (United Republic of Tanzania, 2010). The strategy is yet to be fully
implemented. It is therefore, difficult to demonstrate a country-wide CPD programme actively in
operation.
15
However, there have been several short courses in the history of CPDs for primary teacher training.
These include the UNICEF/UNESCO Primary Education Reform Project popularly abbreviated as
MTUU (The Kiswahili version of it) launched in 1970 and which enhanced the competence of 10,000
primary school teachers. There were a number of three month courses for science and mathematics
teachers and the „KKK‟ or „3 R‟s‟ CPD courses that aimed enhancing the low performance of teachers in
these areas. Apart from the subject-based Diplomas for secondary school teachers, the Ministry of
Education also run Participatory Teaching Methods to Primary School Teachers is offered to all primary
school teachers to learn to use and design participatory methods in learning.
Some of these courses took place in teacher resource centres. Tanzania‟s initial TRCs in the early 80‟s
were attached to newly constructed Teacher Training Colleges as part of donor – funded package
(MOE, 2010). Not all TRCs had an allocated building or room; some were virtual i.e simply affiliation of
teachers who would meet at a suitably situated school to discuss teaching problems. These
arrangements, however, were sufficient to promote links between teachers and their work places within
a wide circle of professional acquaintance. Although the centres shared a common aim of teacher
improvement there was little communication between the centres, as a consequence, their efforts
remained isolated and uncoordinated. in 1986 plans were drawn up to establish a national network of
TRCs so as to deliver on-going in service training on „on the spot‟ and also enable staff from cluster
schools to meet to share experiences and ideas (MOEC,1986). Only 40% of teachers said they had
visited one (SACMEQ chapter 5), approximately 9% said they did not have one and 10% said they had
never used theirs. Northern, Western and Kagera Zones remain disadvantaged with very few TRCS (Mrutu
et al., 2005) .
Further examples of CPD programmes are the Teacher Educator‟s Programme (TEP), the Children‟s
Book Project and the Education Through Quality Improvement Through Pedagogy (EQUIP). The TEP
aims to enhance the qualifications and experience of college tutors. The Education and Training Policy
of 1995 required the minimum qualification of tutors to be a first degree but more than 50% of tutors did
not qualify. At the same time, it was observed that university graduates posted in Teachers' Colleges
were not capable of handling the teacher education curriculum very well. From 2006 to 2010, 1,309
tutors have graduated from this programme.
The Education through Quality Improvement through Pedagogy (EQUIP) is a project based in one
district (Shinyanga District) on the Tanzania mainland and jointly implemented by the Shinyanga District
Authorities, and OXFAM GB, with co-financing support from the European Commission since 2006.
Many titles of children‟s books have been produced, including Big Books, and these are in school and
class libraries over 4,000 schools. 8 Teacher Training Colleges from the Eastern Zone began phasing
the Readership Skills into their curriculum. 928 teachers have been trained in the new child centred
teaching methodologies with emphasis on diagnostic teaching of reading and writing (Inyega, 2009).
The EQUIP INSET model is very much in line with the Primary Education Development Programme
(PEDP) and the Teacher Development Management Strategy (TDMS) of Tanzania. Its impact is well
recognised by the user, the Local Government Authorities of Shinyanga, and it has committed to sustain
and institutionalise it. This is a rare incident where a government has readily and willingly accepted a
donor project to be absorbed.
2.3 TTC and school curriculum: continuities and gaps
2.3.1 The TTC Curriculum
This section looks at the generic outcomes of the recent 2009 ITE curriculum and then analyses the
theoretical part that includes subject, professional and pedagogic content knowledge.
16
The 2009 curriculum has the following aims for all trainees:
1. Enabling teacher trainees to get theoretical knowledge in educational psychology and
counseling
2. Equipping teacher trainees with basic teaching skills
3. Promoting understanding of the primary school curriculum and the analysis of the syllabus of
each subject
4. Strengthening the knowledge base of the subjects they will be teaching in schools
5. Building capacity among teacher trainees to conduct small scale action-oriented research,
measurement and evaluation
6. Providing and promoting skills in educational leadership and administration
7. Promoting understanding of international affairs and cross cutting issues such as HIV/AIDS,
Gender, Children Rights and environmental education
From these aims, it is assumed that having gone through teacher training for two years the newly
qualified teacher would be competent, ready and able to handle all subjects that are taught in primary
schools at any grade including pre-primary children (see aims 3 & 4). Early Childhood Education (ECE)
is compulsory where teacher trainees are taught the methodology of teaching pre-primary children in
primary schools. There is an assumption that teaching is an art as well as science, based on secure
subject and theoretical knowledge and that the trainee will be taught to be innovative, creative and
develop research skills as well as leadership skills. These are ambitious, broad aims for students with
only four years of secondary school education and run the risk of overcrowding the curriculum.
In order to meet these broad objectives the curriculum is divided into two major parts: theory and
practice. The theoretical part is done through full-time training in colleges and covers major
requirements, which include:



Subject content: adequate knowledge and understanding of the subject to be taught in school;
Pedagogic content (often known as methods courses): knowledge on how to teach a particular
subject area and ways of assessing learning related to that specific subject area matched to the
capabilities of learners;
Professional studies: understanding of how children learn and how cognitive, affective,
psychomotor and social development take place, knowledge and skills in classroom
management and parental care, craft knowledge of effective techniques to promote learning,
acquisition of professional identities as a teacher, awareness of educational history,
psychology, sociology, legislation and responsibilities.
The second aspect is practical training or teaching practice which provides opportunities for the teacher
trainees to practice teaching under supervision from teachers and college tutors. As observed by Lewin
& Stuart (2003) this is the most expensive part of initial training because of the costs of travel,
subsistence, supervision and assessment.
Each subject in the ITE curriculum is divided into two main parts. The first part covers academic content
while the second part covers the pedagogy. The academic content contains several core topics that are
more or less similar to those studied at secondary school level but they are now being taught and
learned in Kiswahili since this is the medium of instruction at primary school level. In total (for the two
years), 128 hours have been allocated for this part against 192 hours for methodology (Pedagogy).
Reading is taught as part of Kiswahili.
What is apparent is that mathematics is perceived as consisting of 10 specific and detailed content
areas, each with their own knowledge base, for example whole numbers, fractions, measurements,
geometry, algebra, statistics and sets. Kiswahili by contrast appears to have only half the knowledge
17
base of mathematics, with a lack of specific detail in its five areas: basic language skills, composition,
oral literature, comprehension and structure of language. Comprehension is broken up into
comprehension in listening and reading, vocabulary, reading silently and reading aloud. Such a focus on
the pronounciation of Kiswahili is necessary and facilitates comprehension with its long and short vowel
sounds and tone (Brock-Utne & Halmsdottir, 2004; Trudell & Schroeder, 2007)
Specific skills such as knowledge of the orthography of Kiswahili are not specifically stated but are
presumably there in the content. The structure, grammar, vocabulary and cultural use of other local
languages is not mentioned nor the need to consider teaching and managing bilingual classrooms.
The second part of the curriculum is pedagogical knowledge. Generic topics such as interpretation of
curriculum materials, preparing schemes of work and use of teaching aids are to be covered in 192
hours. A sample of selected topics such as tenses and poetry in Kiswahili and numbers and algebra are
taught as examples in each subject. The curriculum does differentiate between lower and upper primary
but the sample topics are generic. The specific objectives indicate that reading intends to enable
teacher trainees to:
 Explain the basic skills in reading
 Discuss the reasons as to why some children fail to read
 Read clearly and correctly
 Learn how to teach reading
These objectives remain fairly generalized and do not give specific skills such as phonological
awareness, alphabetic knowledge, phonics, syllabic or a syntactic approach.
In the tutor‟s guide (as indicated for 2003 curriculum) the topic on reading is further broken down into
three aspects, namely;
 What the concept of reading means
 Important aspects to consider when teaching reading in Grade I-II and then Grade III-IV
 How to teach reading in primary schools
Within the tutor‟s guide it is explained how children learn to read and the aspects to consider when
teaching reading for lower grades (I-II) and III –IV. For example, it is indicated that the early lesson
starts by teaching vowels or vowel sounds, and later lessons work through the alphabet, attaching
vowels to different consonants, for example: .
a,e,i ,o,u
ba be bi bob u
Baba, meaning father
Bibi meaning grandmother
Beba meaning carry
This method works well with Kiswahili because it is a syllabic language and the syllables can form
meaningful words. Such a detailed consideration of how to teach early reading is unusual in the six
countries studied where generally the ITE curriculum is generic and does not specify knowledge or
pedagogies appropriate for the early grades.
The TTC curriculum requires tutors who have some primary school teaching experience so that they
know the specific strategies to use to teach the youngest children, but they also need to know some of
the underlying theory around why some children fail to learn. In addition, there need to be tutors who
can teach Kiswahili as a subject in terms of structure, grammar, literature and oral and written
comprehension. What remains unclear is whether the same tutors teach both subject and pedagogic
content or whether there are tutors with differing expertise. This of course leads to a division between
theory and practice.
18
This division is exacerbated by a lack of a curriculum or expectations for what trainees should know and
apply on teaching practice in terms of competences or standards that relate to the theoretical part of the
curriculum or are separate from it.
2.3.2: The school reading and mathematics curriculum
This section describes the primary school reading curriculum as presented in curriculum documents and
examined in terms of its consistency with research based knowledge on the teaching/learning of reading
and mathematics for young learners. This is followed by analysis of the perceived gap between the
TTC curriculum and the primary reading curriculum in terms of knowledge required to teach primary
school children. The same pattern of analysis is then applied to the primary mathematics curriculum.
The reading curriculum
The primary school curriculum is a new competency-based approach implemented in 2005. At the
school level, there is a curriculum to guide the classroom teacher in teaching. For Kiswahili, reading is
introduced for the first time in Grade 1 as the fifth topic in the syllabus to be taught. It is taught
concurrently with writing starting with vowels or vowel sounds, and later attaching vowels to different
consonants to form syllables; to simple words and finally short sentences. At the 165 th hour of tuition
children are introduced to reading for comprehension, recognizing different punctuation marks and
practicing reading short paragraphs of a meaningful story orally in class. They also answer questions
(orally) to test their understanding. In grade II, the emphasis is reading for understanding
(comprehension) be it orally or silently as well as pronunciation but reading and writing are integrated.
For example Topic One deals with naming items both in singular and plural forms simultaneously with
construction of sentences. In grade III, the emphasis continues to be comprehension and proper
pronunciation of words. Throughout all grades stories are used to teach aspects of the language such
as structure, vocabulary, pronunciation and comprehension. The difference is on the size and level of
difficulty of the story.
Children are therefore expected to learn to read through a synthetic approach, working from letter
sounds to sentences and to comprehend the texts they read. As such, this assumes both a synthetic,
word level approach and a global, text level approach to reading. An oral approach to reading at this
stage is important, with reading aloud seen as a key skill including short stories. These expectations
are from grade I onwards. Learning new words and the construction and comprehension of sentences
are embedded in stories and are synonymous with learning to write. Progression is understood through
learning more complex technical aspects of language structure and reading more complex, longer
continuous texts.
Figure 1 presents a model of reading according to the Tanzanian primary curriculum whereby reading is
presented as word level work embedded within the reading of stories.
Meaning
Text level – reading aloud stories,
riddles, songs
Decoding
Sounds
Blends
Syllables
Words
sentences
19
At first glance, the primary curriculum covers the key reading skills suggested in the literature around
learning to read: phonemic awareness and phonics, fluency and rate of reading, vocabulary and
comprehension (NICHHD, 2000; Cutting & Scarborough, 2006; CFE, 2010). The curriculum
encourages a phonics approach leading to a syllabic focus contextualized within texts and intertwined
with writing – appropriate for Kiswahili ((Brock-Utne & Halmsdottir, 2004; Trudell & Schroeder, 2007).
Comprehension is couched through technical language but is a key part of reading a grade 1. Reading
aloud for fluency (and perhaps reading rate, although this is not made obvious) is also a continuous
thread as is learning new vocabulary.
However, there are also some shortcomings here. There seems to be little progression or differentiation
between the three grades and a technical approach seems to dominate even within comprehension
where question and answer seem to be encouraged over and above other responses. Phonological
awareness, seen as crucial as an indicator of early reading ability by several scholars ((Ehri, 2002;
Oakhill et al., 2003; Lonigan & Shanahan, 2006) is not so evident here, nor a variety of different ways
of teaching this for Kiswahili or other local languages (Alcock et al., 2010). These skills may be
assumed by the curriculum developers and teachers to be taught in pre-primary or nursery schools
attached to primary schools (Mtahabwa & Rao, 2009) but our data showed that classes have mixtures
of children some of whom have been to pre-school, some who have not. Print concept is not taught
either, nor the importance of creating a print-rich literacy environment in the classroom with both
Kiswahili and local languages on display through dual labels or texts. The Kiswahili/reading curriculum is
very generalized in comparison to the mathematics primary curriculum – and would be difficult for an
inexperienced teacher to follow. One CPD teacher pointed out the Kiswahili curriculum is very slow for
native speakers, with such an emphasis on oral language, eg the teaching of greetings that it appears‟ a
method used to teach a foreign language‟. Another mentioned that reading comes very late in the
Standard I curriculum, presumably with the importance of oral skills coming first but this means that
students are expected to know a bit of reading for Science but have not been taught it.
In order to teach this reading curriculum, teachers would need to know about phonological awareness,
phonics, the syllabic approach and how to teach children to read aloud for fluency and comprehension.
They would need to know how to teach a story, making it meaningful to younger children, and to draw
attention to unfamiliar words within it to increase vocabulary and teach inference. Specific knowledge of
Kiswahili orthography and oral and printed literature in Kiswahili would be essential. They would need to
know how to integrate reading and writing and relate this to children‟s knowledge and background.
They would also need to know how to create a literate environment in the classroom and produce/write
texts in Kiswahili and other local languages if these resources are not readily available in the
environment. They also need to teach these skills to very large classes of mixed ability, multilingual
children from different cultural and educational backgrounds.
Trainees are taught an ITE curriculum for reading/Kiswahili that constructs the four language skills as
integrated. The focus on oral literature and on oral and written comprehension would support trainees in
understanding the general primary curriculum content. Knowledge of language structure would
theoretically exist in the requirement to teach some of the more technical details of the primary
curriculum. However, reading a variety of texts does not seem to feature strongly in the ITE curriculum
and this is a real gap. Trainees who are not themselves confident readers will not be able to teach
children younger than themselves.
Specific knowledge of reading skills required to make sense of a vague primary curriculum are not given
in detail, only under the heading of „basic reading skills‟. Pre-reading skills and activities are not
detailed in either the primary or the ITE curriculum. Comprehension has a central place in the subject
part of the ITE curriculum and in the primary curriculum but the teaching of comprehension is not
mentioned as a discrete skill in the pedagogic part of the ITE curriculum and is presumably subsumed
20
within the overall rubric of : „Learn how to teach reading‟. There is no specific guidance in teaching the
reading of continuous text with a variety of printed materials appropriate for young children nor how
teachers can make these themselves in a resource-poor context.
The syllabus for Kiswahili is the de facto syllabus for teaching reading. As such, it is constructed with a
focus on an integration of the four language skills, and on knowledge of oral literature, comprehension
that includes listening and reading aloud, composition and knowledge of structure. One gap is a focus
on written text materials in Kiswahili and specific linguistic knowledge of the Kiswahili orthography.
The primary curriculum for reading also comes across as a generalized one in comparison to the very
detailed sets of knowledge contained within the mathematic curriculum. This reading curriculum is
integrated with writing, and indicates an overall synthetic syllabic approach taught within the context of
oral stories and comprehension. There is however little detailed guidance on what stories should be
read, whether a range of texts are taught, and what constitutes progression here. Reading aloud is
prominent although the reasons for this are not discerned – whether for pronunciation or to teach
fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. Pre-reading activities do not feature strongly in this syllabus
even while reading is not introduced until later in Standard I following on from oral language practice.
The mathematics curriculum
In contrast to the Kiswahili curriculum, that for primary mathematics is very detailed and highlights
progression. The concept of moving children from pre-number activities to more complex abstract
computations is clearly stated. It is also possible to discern pedagogic strategies needed to introduce
number, such as using concrete objects to manipulate in various patterns.
In grade I children are introduced to counting, reading and writing numbers up to 100 but this it is done
in steps. In the first early hours children are introduced to pre-number activities including sorting by
colour, shape, texture, pairing, matching and using „more than, less than‟. They then learn counting,
reading and writing whole numbers up to 9 followed by the concept of zero. Numbers 10, then 11-99
and finally 100 are then introduced. Children learn to recognize simple fractions such as a half and
quarter and to recognize, differentiate, add, subtract coins up to 100. In grade II students count in
whole numbers up to 1000, are introduced to multiplication, learn one third and two thirds and are
introduced to geometry, learning simple shapes. Students learn beyond coins to currency notes up to
1000, moving a step further to adding and subtracting money up to 1000. In grade III the depth and level
of difficulty increases over the same topics. Measuring length, time and weight is introduced through
real life examples. Students count, read and write whole numbers up to 10,000. Division is introduced
slowly in a simple way. The numbers go up to three digits and are divided by numbers with one digit but
with no left over. Three quarters, one eight and one sixth is introduced. The topic on money goes up to
10,000 currency notes. For the first time in grade III problem solving tasks are introduced.
This primary curriculum for mathematics embeds the specific mathematical content that children are
expected to learn almost as competences by the end of each grade. Each content area such as
counting is systematically built on from grade to grade. Some of these are difficult for young children,
such as fractions and currency and writing whole numbers up to 10,000.
Teachers would need to have a secure knowledge of the four mathematical operations, of geometry,
measurement and how to understand the maths embedded in word problems. Pedagogically, teachers
would need to understand how to use concrete objects to represent numbers and to manipulate these
with children until they can manipulate these abstractly and so internalize them. They would have to
know children‟s misconceptions in mathematics and how to diagnose these and remediate them before
moving children onto more complex maths. They would need to know how to collect and store teaching
aids and how to integrate them into their teaching.
21
The contents part of the ITE mathematics curriculum gives a detailed breakdown of the 10 content area
and in this sense more fully supports the primary maths curriculum than the reading curriculum.
Pedagogic strategies for teaching maths remain generic, as they do for teaching reading, with number
and algebra used as examples of how to teach.
One important note, however, is that there are more mathematics lessons than reading lessons during
the week, with maths taught in the morning and reading often relegated to an afternoon slot. Our data
indicates this in that 18 reading NQTs were observed against 21 maths NQTs and ten observations and
interviews of maths experienced teachers were made against five reading. Trainees and teachers
appeared to be more confident and familiar with the teaching of maths because of this. While findings
from the quantitative data indicate that both trainees and teachers rate their capability and confidence in
teaching maths and reading very highly, this may well be because of the academic content of the
curriculum that they cover rather than the pedagogical understanding required in teaching reading and
maths to young children.
The new primary curriculum has too many subjects, which puts pressure on both teachers and students,
particularly as some subjects were not taught to them at college. Teachers as a group considered that
very young children could not accommodate so many discrete subjects and recommended going back
to the previous system of concentrating on the „3Rs‟ to form a strong foundation for studying other
subjects at latter stages:
…Yes! Too many subjects affect them because a child learns a lot of things in one day
so [they] can get confused. For example when I am marking you may find a child using
a geography exercise book to write Kiswahili subject. Not only that but also these
subjects are related such that pupils could not differentiate them due to their stage of
cognitive development. For example, history and civics subjects are very close…some
topics can be found in both subjects. So pupils mix up things…if possible subjects
should be reduced to three basic ones…reading, writing, and arithmetic… [We] better
go back to the old system.
(NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 21)
Such a view was corroborated by an experienced teacher who pointed out that children may hide from
the lesson if they cannot afford the ten books needed for each subject and they mix up the lessons,
writing Kiswahili in a Geography or Civics book. This teacher recommends going back to the basics of
just the 3Rs plus English.
Support materials for TTC tutors
Although the curriculum for teacher training was available, there were no tutors‟ guides and
text/reference books to assist the tutors and trainees. The tutors found the primary school curriculum
more useful in preparing pre-service teachers. However, they could not ignore the TTC curriculum
wholesale because the teacher trainees are also supposed to sit for the national examination which is
set based on the TTC curriculum. Besides, the two documents (curriculum for TTC and curriculum for
primary schools) are not exactly the same since they were developed for different purposes.
Training lacked uniformity even within one college if a subject is taught by different tutors and there are
different streams. Individual teacher educators had to look for suitable and relevant books and other
sources to implement the curriculum. For example in Kiswahili, some teacher educators were using
modules prepared by the Tanzania Institute of Education in line with the 2003 curriculum. Others were
using teachers‟ guides for the primary curriculum or their own materials collected and compiled from
different authors and sources. One college tutor referred to a text book published in 1977 and another
from 1999. One continued to draw on a booklet written for Kiswahili prepared for the MUKA programme
of 2003 for Grade C/B teachers who were studying independently for upgrading to Grade A. The same
22
situation was also observed for mathematics. At TTC 1 the tutor used a mathematics book developed
by the Mathematics Association of Tanzania as additional reference material for colleges. The book
contains almost all topics taught in primary schools but not necessarily in the same order as they
appear in the curriculum. At TTC 2 (a private college) the tutor used a guide (photocopy) developed by
the Tanzania Institute of Education to assist primary school teachers to teach mathematics.
Thus, the TTC curriculum is generalized with little direct guidance for tutors on how to teach
mathematics or reading methods appropriate for large classes in resource-poor classrooms. Teacher
educators draw on a wide variety of old and more current guidance materials that may not always match
with the curriculum. It is understandable that teacher educators rely on the primary curriculum and
guidance materials produced for primary teachers – but this may fail to give the larger theoretical and
practical understanding needed for trainees.
The ITE curriculum and primary curriculum are of course only constructs or models and only become
„real‟ through the way in which tutors interpret and then actual teach them in the TTCs to trainees – and
how trainees then understand and process what has been imparted by the tutors.
Chapter 3: Characteristics of respondents and TTC teaching
This chapter describes the research participants in order to help readers better understand where the
data come from and to what extent the respondents represent the different actors involved in teacher
education. More specifically, we look at the characteristics of teacher educators (TTC tutors), trainees,
NQTs and CPD teachers. These descriptions are based on the responses to the questionnaires as well
as the data gathered during interviews and focus group discussions.
3.1 Characteristics of the tutors
3.1.1 Characteristics of the TTC tutors
Tutors in Tanzania are either B.Ed graduates from the university who have little or no primary or
secondary teaching experience or experienced grade A or Diploma primary teachers. From 2006 to
2010, 1,309 tutors have graduated from the Teacher Education Program (TEP) to upgrade those
without a degree but this is the only support or induction for tutors. According to Sumra (2007) 65% of
college tutors are under qualified and few have taken up the „paradigm shift‟ towards more participatory
approaches. With no tutor guides for the new ITE curriculum tutors rely on an eclectic and often
unsuitable range of reference materials and text books, some as old as 1977. They rely on the primary
curriculum and its teachers‟ guides for more detailed, current information, but cannot keep up with the
frequent revisions to the curriculum despite some CPD run by ITE for tutors. This is rushed and does
not cater for classes of 55 trainees: “The only challenge that remained is the environment in which we
apply such methods…in overcrowded classrooms…” (Tutor, TTC 1, Kiswahili). These aspects
23
contribute to a sense of stasis in the development of pedagogic knowledge in the TTCs. Tutors with a
B.Ed will have read educational psychology which may include how children learn but without the
practice to make this relevant. Tutors from a teaching background will have little theory.
Qualitative data on the tutors comes from three public and one a private TTCs with only two tutors
observed and interviewed in each of them, one for reading and the other for mathematics. Due to the
small size of the sample, the descriptions from this section should not be generalized. Tutors who were
originally trained as primary school teachers in teachers‟ colleges claimed that they were given a strong
foundation in methods of teaching, while university graduates argued that the training they received was
theoretical such as general principles of teaching, psychology and philosophy with little pedagogy owing
to large numbers of trainees and unavailability of classrooms. Additionally, many teacher educators in
the universities do not have a primary teaching background and did not have enough opportunities to
practice using methods such as micro-teaching. This compelled lecturers to teach methods through
lectures. One tutor explained this by saying “….If I were to remember when I was at X College, tutors
gave us more knowledge on theories than methods. Methods were taught very little by using lectures…”
(Tutor interview, TTC 1, Kiswahili).
Teaching and learning materials like books were also inadequate causing them to rely on course
outlines and scanty notes given during lectures. The dominant approach of teaching during their
university training was transmission through lectures. However, although tutors trained from teachers‟
colleges claimed to have been prepared well in methodology, the general practice between tutors
graduated from universities and those from teachers‟ colleges was more or less the same, especially in
terms of the methods employed, as discussed in the section on teaching methods used in TTCs below.
While the research team did not notice differences in the practice of the two groups of tutors, our
sample is too small to draw conclusions on that particular aspect.
3.1.2 Continuing professional development for tutors
Tutors stated that CPDs – and particularly the Teacher Education Programme (TEP) – contributes much
to their professional growth, refurbishing the knowledge and pedagogical skills gained during preservice teacher education. The Ministry also runs some shorter orientation programs for newly
qualified tutors. For example, said:
I think skills increases especially in the choice of methods…because one who has
gone for in-service training will assist others on his return. For sure it helps because
we get new methods.
(Tutor interview, TTC1, Kiswahili)
In general the skills I got during that training assist me a lot to remember important
things to apply in the classrooms…and for us we get things valuable for our trainees.
(Tutor interview, TTC1, maths)
Some tutors who have been to external CPDs reported that they conduct internal CPDs on their return
in order to pass on the new knowledge and skills to colleagues, as reflected in the remarks below:
We often exchange ideas concerning what we learnt during the training. ..We discuss
and find different solutions. We have that culture… (Tutor interview, TTC1, Kiswahili)
Although the above experience was not reported by all tutors in the sampled colleges, it suggests that in
some colleges there is a practice of collaboration and knowledge. However, while CPDs are sometimes
provided to tutors and benefit them in various aspects, there is much to be desired. Such programs are
not frequent and the time allocated to CPDs is very short. According to some of the tutors interviewed,
this situation causes facilitators to rush through topics without providing adequate explanation and time
to reflect on the new knowledge and skills. Another challenge pointed out is the failure to apply such
new strategies given the situation of overcrowded classes in TTCs:
24
…some methods were not new to me because I had training before. …but they were
important though time was not sufficient in relation to what was discussed. In that
regard some of the things were just mentioned without adequate
explanations…example, jigsaw method, gallery walk, etc. so we relied on the training
hand-out provided for our own studies. The only challenge that remained is the
environment in which we apply such methods…in overcrowded classrooms…
(Tutor interview, TTC1, Kiswahili)
For those tutors who have little or no primary teaching experience, this situation exacerbates the gap
between the „ideal‟ curriculum as envisaged in the primary and ITE curriculum and the reality of the
crowded, multilingual and mixed ability learning environment as lived by trainees once out on block
placement and as NQTs. New strategies for teaching introduced in tutor CPD activities may not be
discussed and critiqued, nor reflected upon, in light of their application in typical primary school
classrooms. Internalising these to make a lasting impact on tutor practice is difficult under these
circumstances. Despite this, any CPD seems to be better than none but the potential for really
supporting tutors in teaching reading and maths remains somewhat limited, as these CPDs are not very
specific.
Despite the fact that the ITE curriculum is supposed to address the content of the primary curriculum,
tutors argued that frequent changes in the primary curricular materials like text books and syllabuses
pose some difficulties in TTC training as tutors may teach trainees to use a primary school curriculum
which is no longer in use. One tutor elaborated this by saying that:
… what is confusing is the change of curriculum in schools. When teachers graduate
here they find the things they have learnt in college different from those required to be
taught in schools…even when they go for teaching practice they are sometimes
confused and frustrated.
(Tutor interview, TTC2, Kiswahili)
From the aims of teacher education in Tanzania, it is assumed that having gone through teacher
training for two years the newly qualified teacher would be competent, ready and able to handle all
subjects that are taught in primary schools at any grade (see aims 3&4). This assumes also that the
teacher trainees are academically good in every subject before joining the colleges and that even those
who were weak and had no interest in a particular subject have been able to fill in the gap during their
training in colleges. Unfortunately, it is not necessarily the case.
3.2 Trainees’ characteristics
Qualitative data on the trainees came from three focus groups from two TTCs from the Coast and
Kigoma regions while quantitative data came from 848 questionnaires. 76% of the respondents were
aged 21-15 and 19% were less than 21 (see table 3.1). The private TTC have a higher percentage of
older trainees and that was represented in our sample with 11% of the respondents from the private
TTC being aged between 26 and 30. This is consistent with the findings from Morley et al (2009) and
Morley and Lussier (2009).
Table 3.1 Age range of Tanzanian trainees
Age range
20 or less
21 to 25
26 to 30
31 to 35
more than 35
Total
Freq.
164
646
31
3
4
848
Percent
19.34
76.18
3.66
0.35
0.47
100.00
25
There were fewer respondents by half from the private TTC but the responses to most of the questions
were similar across all four colleges and there was near gender parity. While the profiles of the
respondents from three out of the four TTCs were remarkably similar, those from the private TTC
differed slightly with respondents being older, showing less enthusiasm for training as a teacher and for
teaching in the lower grades.
Exactly one quarter of our quantitative sample of trainees had six years of secondary school while three
quarters had the basic four (table 3.2). Only 4 percent had any prior teaching experience.
Table 3.2 Level of qualification of Tanzanian trainees
Qualification
Basic School
Senior Secondary School
Total
Freq.
634
214
848
%
74.76
25.24
100.0
73 percent of the trainees who responded to the questionnaire stated that they would prefer to teach at
upper primary. This resonates with the qualitative data from the focus group discussions where
participants indicated that they are reluctant and feel unprepared to teach in lower primary classes.
This is somehow unsurprising given their lack of experience and the little focus given to early grades in
TTCs. 43 percent of trainees reported that they would rather be training for another career.
Table 3.3 Would prefer to be training for another career
Table 3.4 Would prefer to teach at higher
levels
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Total
Freq
141
221
275
211
848
%
16.63
26.06
32.43
24.88
100.0
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Total
Freq
294
322
152
80
848
%
34.67
37.97
17.92
9.46
100.0
3.3 Teachers’ characteristics
The 254 teachers surveyed by the research team came from 33 different schools from four regions in
Tanzania: Tanga, Coast, Mbeya and Kagera. 85 percent had the Grade A teachers‟ certificate while 8
percent had the lower qualification of the Grade C and 5 percent Grade B (see table 1.3.2A in appendix
1). These initial qualifications came from 44 different TTCs, thus giving a good indication of a range of
colleges from across the country, not just from the four regions directly sampled in the study. Such a
spread reflects the government‟s deployment policy for the posting NQTs where they are needed rather
than more locally or regionally. NQTs made up 65 percent of the sample while experienced teachers
made up 35 percent. In this research, NQTs are defined as those who had been teaching for three
years or less. 17 percent of all teacher respondents were male and 83 percent female.
It can be observed that NQTs are rarely assigned to teach the lower classes; for example, out of the 13
NQTs observed in Tanga region, only one NQT was teaching mathematics in STD I and only three were
teaching reading in STD II. This further confirms the comments by head teachers that STD I and II are
considered as special classes that require the patience of experienced teachers; and that NQTs
26
normally refuse being assigned the lower classes. This partly explains why the researchers had to visit
20 primary schools in Tanga Municipality alone in order to get 13 NQTs; and NQTs and CPD teachers
were not always found in the same schools.
Because so few NQTs taught the lower grades, respondents were spread across lower and upper
primary school. 12 percent taught Standard I, 9 percent Standard II, 26 percent taught Standard III, and
18 percent of respondents taught Standard IV and 11 percent taught Standard VI. (see table 1.3.2C).
Teachers working in lower grades were mostly experienced teachers. Therefore, the NQTs who taught
Standard IV were also included in the sample of NQTs who were observed and interviewed in order to
get a fuller picture of those who taught the youngest children even though this was just outside of the
study‟s remit. 83 percent of all respondents had never attended any CPD. Those who had attended
CPD were the older teachers who had been on the „3 R‟s‟ or KKK training or MUKA (upgrading) for two
years. 94 percent of the eachers stated they are most confident in teaching in Kiswahili for the main
reasons – that it is easily understood by students, it is the national language and the language they are
trained to teach in.
The age of teachers was more spread than trainees with the most respondents being over 35.
Table 3.5 Age of teachers
Age range of
teachers
21 to 25
26 to 30
3 to 35
More than 35
Total
Frequency Percent
43
71
31
109
254
16.93
27.95
12.20
42.91
100.00
A major finding from this study is that many of the NQTs dislike teaching in lower grades and were often
not to be found in the lower grades. The reasons given were the same as those given by the trainees in
the focus groups. Many NQTs considered that their TTC training had inadequately prepared them to
handle lower primary classes and so refused to do so. This was compounded by the conception that
older, more experienced teachers are the ones who are supposed to teach lower classes, perhaps
those with a vocation to teach originating from the first wave of UPE in the 1970s rather than the
younger ones who see their training as improving their overall career prospects (Barrett, 2008). Over
the years, this sense of identity as teachers of older children has become embedded: “What I see is the
attitudes these people have… That, if they teach lower classes they degrade themselves…” (Tutor
interview, TTC1). Experienced teachers commented on this:
Frankly speaking, I think they are not taught well maybe because of the short training
period, the tutors do it quite fast. So you find that when teachers are given lower classes
they do not want to teach them because they were not given good training. This is why
they refuse lower classes. The methods are not enough to match the needs of the
learners.
(CPD interview, Kigoma, teacher 10)
… when we went through college, we were assessed while teaching Standard one not
the upper classes. Now none of these new teachers agree to teach Standard one.
None! Everyone who comes says if I am given standard one I will kill them. This gives
us the impression that these days the training does not focus on skills for teaching the
lower classes. The assessment should also be on teaching lower classes. We should
focus on Standard one because that is the foundation. For example now standard 2
has no teacher because she is on maternity leave. None of those new teachers can
agree to go and teach the children in that class. It is because colleges did not prepare
them well.
(CPD interview, Tanga, teacher 18)
27
Table 3.6 shows the high percentage of teachers who agreed that they would prefer to teach at higher
levels and table 3.7 shows the proportion of teachers from our sample that would prefer another career
than teaching. The figures next to the tables show the differences in responses from experienced
teachers and NQTs.
Table 3.6 I would prefer teaching in upper primary or secondary than lower primary
.5
Would prefer teaching in upper primary or secondary
.3
Freq.
%
67
117
60
10
254
26.38
46.06
23.62
3.94
100.00
0
.1
.2
Mean
.4
Would prefer to be
teaching at higher levels
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Total
Experienced teachers
Strongly agree
Disagree
Newly qualified teachers
Agree
Strongly Disagree
Table 3.7 I would much prefer to train for another career than to be a teacher
.2
Would prefer another
career
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Total
Freq.
%
63
71
86
34
254
24.80
27.95
33.86
13.39
100.00
0
.1
Mean
.3
.4
Would prefer to be training for another career
Experienced teachers
Strongly agree
Disagree
Newly qualified teachers
Agree
Strongly Disagree
28
Chapter 4: Learning to Teach Reading
In this chapter, we take a closer look at the knowledge, understanding, pedagogical content knowledge
and practices of the different groups of respondents and how they seem to evolve from trainees to
NQTs to more experienced teachers in order to get an insight into how teachers learn to teach early
reading. We begin by looking at teacher educators‟ knowledge, and then we discuss their understanding
of approaches to reading before looking at how these knowledge, understanding and PCK translate into
practices in the TTCs. The second part of the chapter discusses patterns in trainees‟ knowledge,
understandings and PCK of reading. The third part presents insights into NQT‟s knowledge,
understanding and practices and is followed by a discussion on experienced teachers‟ practices in
relation to the main reading CPDs. Findings from the different groups of respondents are compared and
gaps between expectations and actual practices are identified. These are finally discussed in relation to
initial teacher education and professional development opportunities.
4.1 Insights into Teacher Educators’ knowledge, understanding and practices
4.1.1 Tutors’ sources of Knowledge
Tutors commented on several sources for their knowledge about the teaching of reading: pre-service
teacher training, experience in teaching in colleges (their own practice), from experienced tutors, written
text from in-service training (hand-outs, pamphlets), books, and from the internet. Of these, most of the
experienced tutors mentioned their own teaching experience in teaching as their major source while
newly qualified tutors mentioned experienced teachers in colleges:
I did not learn these things from a college. As I told you before, my background has
been teaching in primary schools and secondary schools. So it is out of my personal
experience in teaching in primary schools and the love I have in teaching this subject.
By the way I also write books which are used to teach Kiswahili in primary schools.
Even the book I used as a reference point for my lesson was written by me.
(CPD interview, Coast, teacher 1)
It can be seen that tutors draw on a range of sources that include professional experience, experienced
colleagues and their own studies to teach – with curriculum guides and reference materials appearing to
play only a small part. If professional experience is not augmented by further study or appropriate CPD
that can in turn critique that teaching experience, then, once again, tutors‟ own level of understanding
remains static. The depth of knowledge needed to teach reading may not always be reached by these
tutors.
With such a generalized curriculum unspecified in terms of content for lower primary, it falls on tutors to
analyse this in relation to the ITE curriculum and teach accordingly. Tutors‟ own knowledge indicates an
understanding of reading that follows the ITE curriculum‟s sequence of teaching speaking, listening,
then reading and writing but their knowledge of the theory underpinning this remains weakly articulated.
29
They consider that each language skill needs to be drilled into each student until mastered – rather than
an integrated approach where the skills combine together to support the emerging reading and writer.
Tutors talk about using new learner centred methods of teaching reading but their demonstrations
remain theoretical. When simulations are used, they can be effective, however, in teaching the steps
seen as important in a Kiswahili lesson. They rarely bring in teaching aids or books and so
comprehension is not as often discussed as a reading skill as the more basic word level skills.
4.1.2 Tutors’ knowledge and understanding about learning to teach reading
Tutors described clearly the curriculum they use to prepare reading teachers. The main curricula
materials used were the new ITE syllabus and modules prepared by the Tanzania Institute of Education
(TIE) in 2009. Others included pamphlets, handouts, training manuals from In-service training (INSET)
like the Teacher Educator‟s Programme (TEP) and the primary school curriculum materials. Textbooks
and teachers‟ guides specifically for teaching reading in TTCs were not available to all tutors; as a
result, they used primary school reading textbooks and teachers‟ guides to inform their teaching.
In terms of academic content, the ITE reading syllabus/course outline was described in relation to the
primary school syllabus. However, some tutors were of the opinion that the TTC reading (Kiswahili)
syllabus lacks some important components necessary for teachers to be able to guide pupils in
pronunciation. For example, one tutor said:
I think it [syllabus] is inadequate because if the trainee has not learned phonology can‟t
teach pronunciations to pupils… because in phonology they get knowledge of
pronunciations.
(Tutor interview, Kiswahili, TTC1)
Tutors insisted that teaching reading in the early grades should focus on four major skill areas. In
teaching reading to pupils who are beginners, the teacher should first encourage students to enhance
their oral language by listening to people who are fluent in the language in order to learn the way the
language is spoken. This should be through interaction with their knowledgeable peers as well as
teachers themselves. After that stage, teachers should let students practice speaking the language.
Thereafter, they should proceed to the skill of reading, and then to the skill of writing. This strongly
mirrors the content of the ITE curriculum. Tutors argued that it is important to start that way because
Kiswahili may not be the first language of some students. Tutors believed that teachers should engage
pupils to practice each skill through drills (e.g., repeat pronouncing, reading and writing letters or words)
until he/she reaches a mastery stage, as one of the tutors elaborated in the quote below:
….so the teacher should start with the skill of listening. Thereafter he gives the skill of
talking, followed by the skill of reading, then writing. In each stage he [teacher] should
drill the skill until the student master it. If the teacher will go like that, will be in the right
track…
(Tutor interview, Kiswahili, TTC1)
This implies that teaching reading is informed by both behaviouristic and constructivist theories of
teaching and learning. The use of drills to consolidate the skill just taught draws on behaviourism, which
is based on transmission of knowledge to learners; while involving learners in hands-on practices such
as pronouncing, reading, and writing reflects the constructivist view. Trainees reiterated the importance
of drilling in the questionnaire (see table 1.4.1A in appendix) for example, 75.7 percent strongly agreed
that the best way of getting children to read is to get them to repeat words aloud after the teacher has
said them. From a western point of view, this drilling and cramming approach may appear in
contradiction with reading for comprehension. However, repeating and memorizing does not always
mean surface learning. Research into learning in Asia (Volet, 1999; Marton, Dall'Alba & Tse, 1996) has
shown that in some cultural contexts, memorizing is conceived as a crucial part of understanding and
should not be equated with rote learning. According to Lee (1996), memorizing typically precedes
understanding, and implies that the learner becomes familiar with the text in order to achieve a deeper
understanding. While the question has been less researched in Africa; Koranic education, which is
30
influential in Tanzania, is somehow based on such an understanding of memorization. Although this
may be seen as an interesting hypothesis to explain the focus on drilling uncovered by our data, more
research would be needed before we can conclude that tutors and teachers use drilling and cramming
as a way to generate deeper understanding rather than because it is the way they have been taught
themselves.
4.1.3 Tutors’ Perception of what Makes a Good Reading Teacher
Generally tutors argued that a good reading teacher should be one who possesses good mastery of
subject matter, and is able to guide pupils through different learning activities. Others include using
appropriate motivation to encourage learning, loving and caring for pupils, using teaching aids, marking
exercise books and providing timely feedback. For example, during interviews, one tutor said:
First he must have [greater] mastery of Kiswahili language than the kids he is teaching.
Second, should have mastery of contents of the syllabus…there are some elements
like pronunciation, structure,…should have teaching methods and good hand writing
because that is a foundation stage. Others include to love children, to mark exercises
so as to encourage them to work more. In short those are the qualities of good reading
teacher.
(Tutor interview, Kiswahili, TTC1)
The above insight goes hand in hand with the views of another tutor who foregrounds the need to
encourage progression and differentiation.
Personally, I would like to prepare a teacher who is competent and knows well what
he/she teaches. A person who can guide a child and ensure that the child knows how
to read so that the child does not move from standard one into two and thereafter
upper classes without gaining competence in reading. If you find a child who is failing
to read while in upper classes say standard six it means the teacher who was teaching
in lower classes did not make follow-up of individual pupils. Therefore, my aim and
what I really want when I am teaching to trainees is to ensure that they will also be
able to make follow-up of individual children.
(Tutor interview, Kiswahili, TTC 2)
What is missing is a detailed breakdown of what a good reading teacher should know and practice in
terms of the reading skills and pedagogic strategies needed for very young children. This generic
approach perhaps reflects the generalized content of both the Kiswahili ITE and primary curriculum.
4.1.4 Tutors’ Knowledge and Understanding in Practice
The data obtained from observations, interviews with tutors and focus group discussions with trainees
suggest that there is a gap between the participatory methods that tutors claim to be promoting and the
majority of teaching that takes place in the TTCs. The lessons observed were structured is a similar way
for all tutors. They began by introducing the new lesson‟s objectives and followed by making a short
presentation. This was followed by a demonstration from the tutor or by a demonstration prepared by
small groups of trainees (role play). For example, in one reading lesson at TTC 1, a tutor demonstrated
how to pronounce the vowel “a” and guided trainees – who were pretending to be Standard 1 students through the steps involved in writing “a”. These steps involved drawing a vowel in the air, and then
taking them outside the class to draw the vowel on the ground and later in exercise books in the class.
Following this, she reflected with the trainees on the steps for teaching reading that she had just
demonstrated to them. The tutors met demonstrated PCK and could describe alternative ways of
teaching the same lesson. For example, during an interview, one tutor said:
Yes! I would have explained instead of using role play. Just instructing the trainees the
steps to follow when they teach standard one to read vowels like the letter “a” for the
lesson today and thereafter how to form syllables and finally words out of this vowel.
(Tutor interview, Kiswahili, TTC 2)
31
Although tutors indicated using various methods of teaching, contradictory information came from the
focus groups discussions where it was observed that tutors were rarely able to engage trainees in
demonstrating the various teaching methods due to lack of preparation time, extent of content to cover
and lack of teaching materials. What was not observed, however, is how the tutors teach the
„academic‟ content of the ITE curriculum, such as the theory about pedagogy, and how this relates to
the pedagogical content. What comes across is that „methods‟ or „pedagogy‟ is interpreted by tutors as
demonstrating interesting ways of teaching reading in a kind of „tips for teachers‟ approach rather than
discussing the theory behind the phonics or syllabic approach, or how comprehension of longer texts
work, and then to integrate this theory with actual practice. As such, a superficial knowledge and
understanding of reading „techniques‟ is learnt in colleges and then reproduced in schools by trainees in
far from ideal circumstances.
4.2 Trainees Knowledge, Understanding and PCK
4.2.1 Trainees’ perception of the good reading teacher
When asked what makes a good teacher of early reading (see table 4.2 and figure 4.1), the majority of
respondents strongly agreed with the option „being a good reader themselves‟. Other most agreed
options include „reading aloud in the classroom‟ and „giving a range of strategies to make sense of
words‟. „Getting children to memorise words and sentences‟ got the lowest level of agreement. This is
consistent with their view of the most important quality of a primary school teacher where „being
knowledgeable in the subject you teach‟ was the option most agreed by trainees along with being caring
for children.
Table 4.1
What makes a good teacher of early reading?
(a) Being a good reader themselves in the language.
(b) Telling lots of stories and linking them to text.
(c) Getting children to memorize words and sentences.
(d) Giving a range of strategies to make sense of words.
(e) Reading aloud in the classroom
Percentage
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
77.12
58.02
43.16
66.98
62.69
20.40
33.37
44.34
26.89
32.70
2.00
7.08
9.55
3.66
2.83
0.47
1.53
2.95
2.48
1.77
Figure 4.1
32
4.2.2 Trainees knowledge and understanding of teaching reading
Data from the three focus groups shows that trainees are aware and knowledgeable of the primary
reading curriculum. They argued further that the topics in the primary reading syllabus for class one, two
and three relate to the ITE curriculum because they are also found in the ITE Kiswahili syllabus.
However, trainees also cautioned that the ITE syllabus does not specify explicitly the level in primary
school to which the content is to be taught.
…the primary Kiswahili syllabus relates with that of ITE. Topics, for example, in the
primary one, two, and three are also found in the ITE curriculum though not in the
same order. When we analyze the primary syllabus we discover that most of the things
in the ITE Kiswahili syllabus relate to the primary Kiswahili syllabus…
(Trainees, focus group discussion, TTC1)
Findings from the quantitative data indicate that trainees are confident in the teaching of technical word
level reading skills but have limited understanding of phonics and reading aloud, and poor knowledge of
the teaching of comprehension (see appendix 1.4.1). Interestingly, despite the focus from the TTC on
the teaching of letter sounds, the survey indicates that most trainees would use the whole word
approach with the syllabic approach as shown in table 4.2.
Table 4.2
You are planning how to teach your class early reading.
Which one approach would you use?
(a) Write whole familiar words on the board next to pictures and ask children
to repeat many times after you
Trainees
Freq.
%
482
56.84
81
9.55
39
4.60
(d) Combine letters to make syllables that can make up simple words
246
29.01
Total
848
100
(b) Read short stories and ask the children to read short sentences back to you
(c) Show examples of the different sounds that letters make at the beginning, middle
and end of words
The teaching of punctuation and capital letters, letter sounds and joining sounds together to make
syllables was seen as „very easy‟ by trainee respondents. However, they perceived text level skills
harder to teach (see table 1.4.1B and related graph in appendix) with „finding meaning from a word‟s
place in the sentence‟ being the skills on the list perceived as difficult to teach by the most trainees. „The
way a story is put together‟ and „understanding the overall meaning of text‟ were also perceived difficult
to teach by a majority of trainees. This affects the use of a syntactic approach to reading. Even though
„recognizing words and sentences in songs, poems or stories‟ is one of the key approaches advocated
in the primary curriculum, almost 25% of the respondents to the trainees questionnaire thought that is it
not suitable to teach lower primary children (Table 1.4.1B) and 15% disagree that it is the best way to
help children in early grades school to read (See table 1.4.1C in appendix). However, more complex use of
phonics within words was not seen as a good approach, and further data from the survey indicated
weaknesses or gap in knowledge in teaching strategies to support children in distinguishing final
phonemes.
Strategies that trainees opted for to teach children to read and understand stories are those more
appropriate for teaching older children who can read fluently such as reciting a story aloud or to
themselves and answering questions to the teacher or one another rather than using pictures to tell the
story or explaining what happens as the story is read (see table 1.4.1D in appendix). This is not
surprising considering that ITE doesn‟t really focus on early reading but it raises the question of whether
33
trainees are aware of the extent of suitability of the different strategies for teaching to read in early
grades.
Focus group discussions revealed that trainees were able to explain the alternative ways and materials
that tutors could have used when teaching to make their lessons even better, for example, on more
imaginative, kinaesthetic approaches to teaching letter sounds:
…when the tutor was showing us how to teach reading vowels to kids…she could
have as well used other materials like models of vowels made from clay soil or grinded
papers instead of cards so that pupils can touch and feel the shapes…
(Focus group, trainees, TTC2)
When asked to explain the source of their knowledge, these trainees pointed to a synthesis of the
theoretical and practical knowledge they accumulate during their training, private reading, and from their
own curiosity: “…we learn from teachers here at college like during the today’s lesson…. and from our
own private studies…but also it just come from our own creativity…eeh! we can also think!“ (Focus
group with trainees, TTC2). Some trainees were able to show that they are synthesizing their theoretical
knowledge gained from the TTC with the experience gained from the classroom.
From the above observations it can be learnt that trainees were very aware of things concerning
teaching in general and teaching reading in particular. However, trainees are weaker in their knowledge
and practice of teaching complex phonics or phonological awareness, and in teaching word meaning
through a syntactic approach. If these approaches are used, a phonics approach might further support
children‟s understanding and speed up the memorization process, amalgamating a grapho-phonological
approach to the more visual whole word linked to picture approach. Trainees appear to depend on a
whole word approach to the teaching of reading without also bringing in phonics or a syllabic approach
which would support young children. Teaching words and sentences through story does not feature
much in their training nor declared understanding. Their declared weaknesses in teaching story
structure and overall meaning is concerning as these trainees will be teaching comprehension to older
children if not younger children at some point. Our respondents may not themselves have understood
that these questions related to comprehension. However, it is not known if they will be able to apply the
knowledge they have in mind when they will be teaching in schools. The study below of NQTs partly
answers that question.
4.3. Insights into NQTs Knowledge, Understanding and Practice
4.3.1 NQTs Knowledge of what makes a good Reading Teacher
NQTs revealed that a good reading teacher is one who can speak the language fluently and properly,
use teaching aids when teaching as well as understand the steps involved when teaching a child how to
read. For example, several teachers made comments similar to the one below:
I think he/she must have three main qualities. For example, must know the steps in
teaching a child reading, if it is to start with letters, later syllable, then the actual word.
Second, must be able to speak Kiswahili. Third, must be able to use techniques of
presenting the subject matter to the children. For example, the use of songs …you can
use songs to teach the kid a certain letter. If you do that the child will understand
quickly. I think by doing so he becomes the best teacher.
NQT interview, Kigoma, teacher 15)
This is reflected in the quantitative data for both NQTs and experienced teachers (see table 1.4.2A in
appendix) who strongly agreed that a good teacher of early reading was knowledgeable in the subject
and taught a range of strategies to make sense of words. While reading aloud in the classroom gained
34
the third highest agreement, it also gained the largest number of responses who disagreed that this was
the most important strategy. Reading aloud is perhaps ambiguous – teachers may consider it important
as a means of gaining active participation, correcting pronunciation and diagnosing whether children
know the words as well as an aid to understanding the text. Semantics is important here. Research
indicates that an early focus on tone and vowel length supports reading of Bantu languages (Trudell &
Schroeder, 2007). In this sense, „pronunciation‟ is an important skill to learn.
4.3.2 NQTs Source of Knowledge and Understanding
Most NQTs mentioned pre-service training as their major source of knowledge and understanding.
Other sources mentioned include: experience in teaching at schools, experienced teachers, books and
from fellow NQTs as reflected in the quotation below:
I learnt these when I was at college… the first thing we were told in college was that
we should never enter a class without a teaching aid. We were also told to understand
the needs of the students we have in class. This was in order to enable us to know
how to teach them. But I gain more experience as I am teaching in schools…through
consulting experienced teachers and colleagues.
(NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 21)
However, implementation of the new curriculum remains a challenge because in some of the schools
the new syllabuses and the associated curricular materials were not available. Even when books are
available, there are many publishers with different styles of approaching the content as is the same with
the ITE curriculum explored in Chapter Two. This causes confusion to both teachers and pupils during
teaching and learning. For example, when asked to describe the challenges associated with the
implementation of the new curriculum, one NQT asserted that “….first is overcrowded classrooms and
lack of teaching learning materials… if they change the curriculum they should ensure that they have
prepared books…” (NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 8). This implies that although there have been
curricular changes to improve basic education, and that teachers are aware of these changes,
implementation is still a problem because there are no support materials and user friendly environments
in schools.
As mentioned in the previous chapter, it is a common practice in Tanzania to assign lower primary
classrooms to experienced teachers. If trainees and NQTs so rarely get the opportunity to teach lower
primary, then this raises the question of where NQTs get their experience from. With the definition of
NQT for Tanzania extended to those with three years of teaching, then some may well have been on
CPD or learnt through experience or other teachers. Figure 4.2 and table 4.3 summarizes where the
teachers who respondent to the questionnaires said they developed their best understanding of
teaching reading.
Figure 4.2
Table 4.3
Where developed understanding of teaching reading
.6
Where did you develop
your best understanding
of teaching reading?
%
36
20
161
37
254
14.17
7.87
63.39
14.57
100.00
0
.2
Mean
.4
In-Service training
Other teachers
Training College
Working in Schools
Total
Freq.
Training college
Work in school
other
In-service training
Other teachers
35
As we can see from table 4.3, 63 percent of NQTs and teachers as a combined group selected TTC
when asked where they had developed their best understanding of teaching reading but CPD and
experience in schools were also selected by 14 percent of the respondents. This is consistent with the
qualitative data in which NQTs mainly referred to their TTC training and experience teaching in primary
schools as their main source of learning. They explained further that during pre-service teacher
education they acquired basic knowledge but most of their professional knowledge came from
experience in teaching in schools and through experienced colleagues as elaborated in the following
quotes: “…I learnt these strategies at college…” (NQT interview, Kigoma, teacher 15); “…You just learn
through experience…” (NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 9); “….Our fellow teachers, the ones who are
accustomed to it, are the ones who teach us about this new system. Fortunately there was one of us
who had the opportunity to attend a seminar about this and he is the one who guides us… (NQT
interview, Kigoma, teacher 11). It should be noted that the NQTs interviewed had not taken part in CPD
at the moment we visited them. Qualitative data on CPDs will therefore be discussed in the next section
on experienced teachers.
Initial teacher education therefore provides an introduction to the teaching of reading and is hugely
influential in this respect. Further specific training is acquired through experience and through peers,
although these are slightly less influential for the teaching of reading than for the teaching of maths.
This has implications for the quality of the initial training but also places a positive construction on the
concept of in-school continuing professional development routinely taking place.
4.3.3 NQT’s knowledge, understandings and PCK
NQTs demonstrated detailed knowledge of the primary syllabuses and developed schemes of work as
well as lesson plans based on it. They were also able to describe how different sections of the lesson
they taught related to the current syllabus:
Ooh! I followed the syllabus because the syllabus says we should first teach the
meaning of vocabularies and then let the students make sentences using those
vocabularies. It says later on that they should study silently the poem and then answer
questions from it. Later they should read it aloud. That is what the syllabus directs.
(NQT interview, Kigoma, teacher 14)
I was teaching the section of reading aloud. The syllabus directs that one should guide
learners on punctuation and accent. Also it says that this topic should be taught in two
periods in order to complete it. And that‟s how I did.
(NQT interview, Kigoma, teacher 15)
These NQTs statements were further corroborated by a CPD teacher who said that despite the constant
changes of the primary syllabus, the teacher had to follow it „to the letter because if the inspector finds
that you are doing something different, he will not understand‟. (NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 18).
Thus while helpful for new teachers, such a reliance on a paper syllabus may not support the kinds of
critical skills needed to adapt pedagogies for particular classrooms. However, what is also evident here
is that without the underpinning knowledge and understanding that reading aloud for fluency increases
and contributes to comprehension (and so reading a text aloud should come before and after answering
questions on a text), these NQTs may be following a curriculum without informed understanding on the
purposes of the reading skills it contains.
Despite the difference between what is taught in colleges and what is actually practiced in schools, most
of the NQTs were able to describe important things a reading teacher should consider when preparing
for a reading lesson, especially on the choice of methods. During interviews, teachers explained that:
36
…there are a number of factors that determine the selection of teaching method in the
class (i) Number of pupils in the classroom, (ii) T-L materials or resources available
and (iii) the nature and requirements of the lesson itself….
(NQT interview, Coast, teacher 2)
.3
.4
When asked to pinpoint the methods used and why they choose to use such methods, most NQTs tried
to justify their decisions based on the instructional objectives and the circumstances at hand as
exemplified below:
I used question and answers because I think that method arouses the interest of the
pupils in the lesson... I used word cards to enable them see syllables…example I wrote
syllabi “nda” and then form word “ndama”, so they knew that syllabi “nda” can
produce word “ndama.
(NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 21)
This focus on the syllabic method reflects the way in which they have been taught as trainees and it is
the method they seemed most comfortable with, i.e. a synthetic buildup of individual syllables to form
whole words with affixes and prefixes. The quantitative data (see table 1.4.2B in appendix) indicated
that NQTs found teaching letter sounds easy but they also found several other – perhaps more
complexes – word level skills harder to teach than experienced teachers: joining sounds together to
make syllables; reading aloud at sufficient speed to create meaning and finding meaning from a word‟s
place in the sentence. This may well indicate either more teaching of letter sounds at the TTC or a more
superficial understanding of the phonic and syllabic approach which wrongly gives them confidence.
Further data indicated that they would not use a phonics approach entirely to teach early reading. As
with the trainees, 43 percent of NQTs stated that they would write whole familiar words on the board
next to pictures and ask children to repeat after them as another strategy – i.e. „look and say‟ (see table
1.4.2C in appendix and figure 4.3 below). Another finding from the survey confirms that both NQTs and
teachers, and trainees, would show pictures rather than words and letters to help children distinguish
between final graphemes in written words. A more complex understanding of phonics that teaches
children to recognize graphemes within words and at the end and to blend digraphs is not well
understood by NQTs. This skill may not be as appropriate as decoding whole words into their individual
syllables (Trudell & Schroeder, 2007). Neither data set found direct evidence of this approach with the
synthetic approach being used far more widely than the analytic. Using rhyme and analogy for spelling
in Kiswahili does not appear to be used but songs, rhymes and riddles are often used to teach
phonological discrimination and to motivate learners and this may well translate into more formal
Approach
usedet to
early children
reading
spelling
exercises (Alcock
al., teach
2010). Teaching
to infer the meaning of a word by its place in
the sentence and, linked to this, encouraging the reading aloud of sentences (and longer texts of two to
three sentences) to increase reading rate, fluency and comprehension were not common strategies
found in either dataset.
Figure 4.3
Mean
.2
0
0
.1
.1
.3
.2
.4
Approach used to teach early reading
Write words next to pictures
WriteRead
words
to pictures
storiesnext
& ask children
to read
the sounds of letters
ReadShow
stories
& ask children to read
Combine letters to make syllables/words
Show the sounds of letters
Combine letters to make syllables/words
37
As with the more experienced teachers and trainees, NQTs find text level reading skills more difficult to
teach, in particular the way a story is put together. Some 23 percent would never let students choose a
book or story to read themselves, and 9 percent would never teach the structure of a non-fiction text.
These findings may be seen within the context of resource-poor schools as well as reflecting a more
word-level focused understanding of reading. It does mean, also, that concepts around print, seen as a
prediction of later reading ability, are not taught and that opportunities to practice reading fluently that
also encourage comprehension-monitoring and ultimately motivate children to want to read are missing
(NICHHD, 2000; Lonigan & Shanahan, 2006). Conversely, 70 percent state that they ask students what
they like about a text most days – indicating an understanding of a child-centred approach.
NQTs also demonstrated good knowledge of an inclusive pedagogy as they were able to describe the
way some strategies could trigger better learning as well as inclusion of all categories of learners who
may be present in one classroom, for example, in mixing students who are able (fast learners) with
those who are less able (the slow learners) so that the more able help the less able. This can be further
reflected below;
...the groups had many people, but due to my knowledge of the class, if I had set up
groups with few people the slow learners would have been affected negatively. By
doing that, calling numbers 1 to 4 help me to mix the slow and fast learners. I made
sure I passed through all groups to see if each student was learning.
(NQT interview, Kigoma, teacher 14)
Although in practice sometimes teachers organized pupils in groups of more than ten (10), the idea of
mixing students on the basis of ability is commendable. This idea reflects, and in fact, is consistent with
the concept of “scaffolding instruction”. Scaffolding instruction as a teaching strategy originates from
Lev Vygotsky‟s sociocultural theory and his concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). “The
zone of proximal development is the distance between what children can do by themselves and the next
learning that they can be helped to achieve with competent assistance” (Raymond, 2000, p.176). In
scaffolding instruction the more capable other provides the scaffolds or support so that the less capable
learner can accomplish (with assistance) the tasks that he or she could otherwise not complete.
However, few observed lessons indicated that teachers had such an in-depth understanding of group
work, with groups often being too large – 10 or more – to share a text book effectively with anything
approaching sightlines and the teachers had little idea of how to manage group work to ensure
engagement and participation, often letting groups work alone while they stayed at the front of the class
surveying but not working interactively with each group.
Nevertheless, other NQTs showed a different understanding of the suitability and appropriateness of the
teaching strategies to lower grade students. They explained that although some strategies may be used
to teach young children, they could not yield better results, especially in grade I and II because students
would require more explanations and repetition before they provide an answer; a situation that would
eventually affect time management. The need to teach children to express themselves orally was
important too for this NQT:
For students in lower grades the problem is on creation of a story. Pupils cannot create
story or express themselves. Therefore even teaching them becomes difficult.
(NQT interview, Kigoma, teacher 14)
Thus, these NQTs appeared to understand that very young children require a different pedagogical
model than that appropriate for older children, with the need for careful grouping of children and greater
explanation, as well as a variety of ways of teaching reading .
38
4.3.4 NQTs’ practice in teaching beginning reading
‘Standard’ practice
Most of the NQTs‟ practice teaching reading by using methods like question and answers, reading in
groups, individual reading, brain storming and role play. They began their lessons by reviewing briefly
the previous lesson or a song to arouse learners‟ interest in the subject as well as to alert them that they
were now in a Kiswahili lesson. For example, one teacher began by a song “asiyejua kusoma ni mjinga
kabisa” meaning “the one who does not know to read is foolish”. When asked to explain why she started
like that, the teacher said: “ …I wanted to make them ready and know that we are reading… also to
encourage them to learn more how to read due to that song…” (NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 21).
Others began with a light physical exercise like standing up and sitting down. Afterwards, they wrote on
the chalkboard either vowel, syllables or words for pupils to read, depending on the stage in the syllabus
they were currently teaching. Students were requested to read aloud both individually or as a whole
group. The majority of teachers finalized their lessons by providing exercises to be done in the class
individually and mark so as to assess how well the objectives have been achieved:
…I began teaching that lesson about syllables…I gave pupils a chance to read those
syllables…then to compose words from those syllables. They composed a few words.
Later they composed short sentences using such syllables. I later write such
sentences on the chalkboard for them to copy…
(NQT interview,
Tanga, teacher 21)
From the data above it seems that teachers use the syllabic approach when they are teaching
beginning reading. They begin with vowels like “a”, “e”, “i”, “o” and “u”; and afterwards they teach pupils
to combine vowels and consonants to form syllables like “ba”, “be”, “bi”, “bo”, “bu”. They progress
alphabetically in this way up to “z”. Later on they move a step further to form meaningful words which
are applicable to pupils‟ life situation. This pattern appears to be consistent with the primary Kiswahili
curricular materials like the syllabus and lower grade text books because their contents progress the
same way. A majority of teachers teach reading and writing concomitantly because in most of the
lessons observed, pupils were required to write in their exercise books what they have read (see above
quote and photo below).
Photograph showing a reading session in Tanga region, Tanzania.
Teachers seemed to consider their lesson successful if over 60 percent of pupils understood. They
usually gauged their understanding through question and answer either in class recitation or
individually. During several lessons, especially towards the end, teachers went around the class
39
marking the exercises of those who finished first and collected the exercise books of those who did not
finish during class time to mark them in the office. So, there is an understanding of the form of
continuous assessment to monitor, evaluate and gauge the overall understanding of pupils followed by
summative assessment. One NQT said: “…I know that my lesson was successful because about 60 –
70 percent of pupils were able to pose and solve riddles…” (NQT interview, Coast, teacher 2). This
means that with such large classes and the use of traditional methods of checking understanding, some
40 percent of students are not included or marginalized. Those who go „astray‟ when they read a text
are asked to repeat the text aloud. Other strategies include giving extra lessons, sometimes two hours
every day, to help pupils understand. However, it is not known whether they repeat lessons using the
same methods or if they change the approaches. Repeating lessons using the same methods could
implicitly mean that teachers assume the problem to be in part of learners; while changing the approach
and teaching and learning materials assumes that the problem is in the approach.
Most of the teachers taught comprehension in a three step process. At first, the meaning of
vocabularies found in particular texts were taught with students making sentences from the new words
learnt. The text in which this new vocabulary is found is read in the next lesson where students are
guided to read the text both silently and aloud. NQTs then guided students to answer questions from the
text read. Those who have direct access to a book read from the book, otherwise the teacher wrote the
passage up on the chalkboard including longer passages. Teachers explained that they begin that way
in order to make pupils conversant with the kind of vocabularies applied in the texts so as to assist them
understand the story when they will be reading. This is due to the fact that making them read a story
before introducing them to the difficult words would affect their understanding of the story: “….it is
essential for it to be that way because they need to know the meaning of those vocabularies so that
when they read them in a story they already know their meaning…” (NQT interview, Tanga, teacher 10).
One NQT had taught vocabulary connected to the theme in a prior lesson. She now used a small
manila chart stuck on a wall to get students in groups of 10-15 to form sentences from different word
structures using the syllable „me‟. Once this was achieved, the same groups read half a page of a text
with „me‟ in it. Groups had to come up to the board with their own sentences with „me‟ in and write them
up. All students then wrote the sentences generated in their books.
While ostensibly this looks as if it was an effective lesson, there were several aspects that meant that in
reality little learning took place. The writing on the manila chart was small and difficult to read, and the
edges of the chart kept on turning over to hide the writing. The groups were too large for all students to
participate so that only a handful in each group were active in making sentences and few had visible
sight lines to the text book. The whole class did pay attention to see the sentences other groups came
up with but this could have been better consolidated if instead of simply copying down the sentences
already written and read out on the board, individual students were encouraged to generate their own
new sentences using „me‟.It appears that teaching comprehension in that way is a standard practice
because it follows syllabus recommendations very closely.
The use of teaching aids in teaching reading varied among NQTs depending on the nature of the topic,
availability of such resources, creativity and willingness to prepare and use. A majority of teachers used
cards with words on, the black board, manila sheets and other surrounding real objects. However, some
teachers collected and brought into the class a lot of teaching aids but could not make use of them at
all. Yet others had no teaching aid other than the black board. One NQT respondent who did not have
any teaching aid other than the black board and chalk justified her decision by saying that:
The use of teaching aids depends on the subtopic you are teaching. Some of the
subtopic require the use of teaching aids while others do not….. Because the today‟s
subtopic was not new and it is a repeated one, I did not see the need to bring
punctuation (teaching aids showing punctuations) because they already know.
(NQT interview, Kigoma, teacher 15)
40
This implies that although teachers recognize the need to use teaching aids relevant to nature of the
sub-topic being taught, they sometimes tend to assume that teaching aids may not be used simply
because one is repeating the lesson.
NQTs‟ PCK, knowledge and understandings show the benefits of learning on the job. NQTs managed to
synthesize these new learning relatively successfully with that gained from the TTC. They see the
importance of using songs, rhymes and pictures with younger children and follow the primary curriculum
closely, but sometimes uncritically and with some misunderstandings. They follow the steps of a lesson
without reflection at times. NQTs also draw on a syllabic and whole word approach but find joining
sounds to make syllables, reading aloud and using syntactic cues hard to teach. Vocabulary is taught
separately to the reading of a text indicating a poor understanding of how children learn to infer the
meanings of new words within longer continuous text. They find teaching text level aspects difficult,
especially teaching story structure and do not encourage students to read independently or to choose
their own books. They do not teach concepts around print very much, and consider non-fiction texts too
difficult for young children. They have good knowledge of differentiation although the practice of this
sometimes is not as inclusive as it could be with expectations that 30-40 percent of children do not learn
in their lessons. They do, however, offer remedial lessons but this is time-consuming and parents do
not always allow their children to attend these.
4.4 Insights into experienced teachers’ knowledge, understanding and practice
As explained in chapter 1, the research design of TPA implied looking at CPD participants. Since NQTs
have fewer opportunities to take part in these activities, the research team gathered information on
CPDs through experienced teachers. The dataset for more experienced teachers includes surveys from
88 teachers (34.65 percent of the teachers). A further five, who had been on some form of reading
related CPD were observed and interviewed. Their characteristics are summarized in appendix 2. The
data from these interviews has been treated as case studies as they yield rich data to compare with the
NQT data and can be useful to find out where and how teachers gain the knowledge and skills they
need to teach lower classes and the role these teachers play in training NQTs to teach reading.
4.4.1 Characteristics of professional development programs with a reading focus
Due to the duration and scope of the project, we were unable to collect enough specific details on the
different CPDs to draw conclusions on their effectiveness. Doing so would have required looking at the
teaching and learning strategies used and taught in each CPD which was not realistic given the
project‟s timeframe.
The CPD most attended by the respondents of the questionnaire was KKK – meaning „reading, writing
and arithmetic‟ – (17 respondents) followed by MUKA – meaning in-service teacher training – (11
respondents). A table of all the CPDs mentioned in the questionnaires is available in appendix 3. There
is little CPD in action nation-wide which focuses on teaching reading. CPDs run by the government do
not take place on a regular basis and when they run, they usually last a short time only. However, there
have been several short courses run by NGOs. They include Education Quality Improvement through
Pedagogy (EQUIP) and the Children Book Project, as discussed in chapter one. According to the
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, the overall aim of CPDs is to support teachers to
enhance their skills both academically and professionally and thereby improve quality of education in
schools in Tanzania. The CPD trainers include experienced tutors from teachers‟ colleges and some
experienced long-service primary school teachers.
Teachers explained that in the past there was regular in-service training concerning teaching the 3Rs or
KKK in lower classes in primary school. Such training helped them to sharpen up their knowledge and
41
skills concerning teaching various subject particularly reading but now there are very. For example, one
teacher said:
I think I am lagging behind, As I have told you I have not attended any other course
apart from the teachers training I attended. I have never attended a single course,
even a one month or one week course or Seminar since the old days of MTUU
[UNICEF/UNESCO Primary Education Reform Project] there had been no any other
training, You just find others being given these opportunities but not me I have never
attended even training in teaching of three Rs, this is quite unfair.
(CPD
interview, Coast, teacher 5)
This implies that despite the fact that CPDs are very few, opportunities to attend are unevenly
distributed to all teachers in primary schools. The form of CPD alluded to here goes back to the 1970‟s
with the first wave of UPE in Tanzania, indicating lack of funds to support CPD amidst this second wave
of UPE. CPD teachers stated that pre-service teacher education gave them basic and general
knowledge concerning teaching primary schools., Specific knowledge, however, comes from reading
primary school text books for reading, teachers‟ guides, and the syllabus, experience in teaching - and
CPD programs. The respondents interviewed said that programs such as EQUIP and KKK („3 R‟s‟)
increased their knowledge and confidence in teaching reading in lower grades in primary schools:
I wouldn‟t say that pre-service teacher education prepare well a reading
teacher…because that training is for general primary school teachers and not specific
for teaching reading in lower classes. It was in INSET where I learnt better to teach
these children… I can say that experience in teaching in primary schools and EQUIP
training enabled me more to become a good reading teacher in lower grades…
(CPD interview, Shiyanga, Teacher 2)
From my training, what I know is that, before a reader starts to read, he/she must know
what to consider such as, pronunciation and not to join words. I also learnt that I
should ensure that correct pronunciation and correct punctuation is used so that the
passage is well understood. After that, from my training, I am supposed to ensure that
the passage and the main points have been understood. That is what I considered in
my lesson depending on what I learnt in college. (CPD interview, Kigouma, teacher 10)
CPD teachers were asked to explain the added value they got from CPD programs. EQUIP has helped
them to understand how young children learn and how to apply motivational and participatory aspects to
facilitate their learning and to improve their skills in making and using relevant teaching aids from
available materials in the learners‟ environment:.
…Training (EQUIP) has helped me because I got different methods of teaching young
children… for example how to use teaching aids and real objects. So I got to
understand that teaching a child using real objects is better than teaching using mere
words…training has simplified my work... (CPD interview, Shiyanga, teacher 3)
Another teacher, teacher 18, said she had been taught to use the participatory method in teaching while
on a CPD seminar on teaching methods organised for all the teachers in Tanga. “We were told that we
should not teach as if we are everything, the teacher, the pupil is everything. You should make the
children participate in class” and said that the result was that she used this method now every day and
was more confident. This same teacher was adamant that the short course KKK that focused
specifically on reading should be taught to all teachers and then teachers “would come back here very
well prepared”.
These more experienced teachers commented that CPDs have helped them to gain more confidence to
teach lower classes and how to make the classroom atmosphere pleasant and learner friendly, for
42
example, they gained skills of preparing pictures with words and placing them on the wall in the
classroom for pupils to read and enjoy. This was evident during classroom observations in which
classes handled by teachers who have undergone CPD were fully resourced in terms of teaching and
learning materials on walls and in cupboards and they were used adequately. An ability to prepare and
use locally available learning materials may partly explains why, in most of the schools, CPD teachers
were the ones who teach in lower grades. The quantitative data showed that more experienced
teachers for both reading and maths tend to agree more strongly than less experienced teachers that
using play, games, songs, rhymes and pictures in teaching is the most important quality of a primary
school teacher, suggesting that the need for pre-reading skills is recognized amongst those teaching
very young children – who in this study are largely more experienced teachers. CPD programs appear
to refocus teachers on the specific pedagogical strategies that best support very young learners within a
learner-centered paradigm. The importance of creating a stimulating print-rich environment and an
integral use of home-produced teaching aids is the hallmark of a CPD graduate‟s classroom practice.
Very few classrooms had a class library, books, shelves or a cupboard so the teacher was seen as the only
knowledge producer. (Mrutu et al., 2005)
4.4.2 CPDs and Pedagogical Content Knowledge
CPD teachers, NQTs and trainees all sounded very similar in their approach to teaching reading –
almost verbatim – but the slight differences in understanding and practice led to very different outcomes
for students‟ learning. The quantitative data showed differences between the new and more
experienced teachers: more experienced teachers came across as less confident and appeared to see
reading in particular as more complex than their less experienced counterparts (see table 1.4.2E in
appendix). They also used a wider number of strategies to teach reading (table 1.4.2F in appendix).
More experienced teachers found linking stories, actions and pictures with writing, and joining sounds in
syllables easier than NQTs. Given the findings above that CPD programs tend to focus on enhancing
reading through the use of pre-reading activities, this finding is not surprising.
NQTs, on the other hand, found teaching letter sounds to be very easy in comparison to experienced
teachers who, it can be inferred, may have realized from experience the specific linguistic pedagogical
content knowledge needed to teach letter sounds or phonics very well. Reflecting this more
sophisticated understanding, experienced teachers are more likely to use a combination of phonics and
syllabic approach to teaching reading than NQTs. Similarly, experienced teachers draw on a slightly
wider range of environmental print materials to encourage recognition of letters in written words than
NQTs. However, answers from both groups show a similar misdiagnosis in how to teach children to
distinguish between final graphemes in words, relying on pictures rather than looking at actual letters.
Experienced teachers appear to draw on a wider range of text level strategies than NQTs. Their more
situated professional knowledge meant that they were more willing to declare some aspects of teaching
at text level more difficult than NQTs – namely finding meaning from a word‟s place in the sentence,
recognizing parts of words, and understanding the way overall meaning of a piece of writing. When
asked to describe the steps involved when teaching reading to class one pupils, one teacher easily
summarized the now familiar progression from letter sounds to sentences, but with a depth of detail that
indicates ease and practice and a focus on the learner:
…when I am teaching a Standard one pupil who is a beginner I will first diagnose his
strengths and weaknesses to know where to start…then I would start teaching him one
vowel after another, their form and pronunciation. Then I would proceed to syllables. I
would teach him to form syllables using letters and vowels. For example, I teach a, e, i, o, u,
then consonants like “b” “c”, later we connect “b” and “a” we get syllabi “ba” etc.etc. then we
can form “ba”, “be”, “bi”, “bo”, “bu”. After this I would teach him to combine syllable to form
words like “baba” (father), “bibi” (grandmother) and the like. That is the strategy I would use
to enable a child to read and eventually to form words and later compose short sentences…
(CPD interview, Shiyanga, teacher 2)
43
One CPD teacher pointed out that the analytic method used to be employed with the learning of the
word first and then used to break it down into syllables and said that children now sound out each
syllable without blending. Another, CPD teacher 9, pointed out that the syllabic approach can slow
down pupils‟ fluency and hence, their understanding, if they read too slowly – one syllable at a time like
in „ba-bu- ya-ngu ni mze-e sa-na (my grandfather is too old). One teacher explained how she assesses
her pupils.
I usually ask pupils to read after me in chorus so that everybody practices and hears
from their fellow students...but this does not tell me exactly if all children have
understood since some of them may hide behind others ….it is individual questions
which can ensure that each individual is able to recognize and pronounce words or
letters properly…
(CPD interview, Shiyanga, teacher 4)
This deeper understanding that the teacher needs to evaluate each individual and the ease with which
students can be hidden within the classroom is significantly different to the broader brush approach of
the trainees and NQTs where most of them relied on undifferentiated choral.
Two of the CPD teachers discussed the difficulty of teaching Kiswahili and English, suggesting that both
were taught, even in the same lesson and that children confused the pronunciation of letters present is
both languages such as „a‟. The teaching of letter sounds in English is taught earlier than the same
topic in Kiswahili so teachers have to make the distinction between the two languages. Another teacher
mentioned the challenges of mother tongue influence, especially in the pronunciation of words for
example, for the word „jirani‟ (neighbour), pupils use „l‟ instead of „r‟.
The findings from the TPA project tally with earlier research on reading undertaken in the country. For
example, the SACMEQ report indicated that although there was variation amongst teachers‟ views,
Tanzanian reading teachers tended to see learning vocabulary as the most important pupil activity
followed by reading for comprehension, but that listening to reading and reading at home were
perceived as being less important. „Improving reading comprehension‟ was rated by their respondents
as the most important goal in teaching reading and „making reading enjoyable‟ the least important goal.
The report also suggested that asking questions to deepen understanding and for comprehension in
reading was the strategy the most used for teaching reading in upper primary (Mrutu et al., 2005). This
resonates with the practices observed by TPA‟s research team as discussed below.
4.4.3 CPD teachers’ practice in teaching reading
The way experienced teachers structured their lessons was not overtly different from NQTs. Most of the
teachers began their lessons by a song or a short task. A new skill was presented by engaging learners
in some kind of activity, reading a book, reading from the blackboard and so on depending on the
lesson of the day. This was followed by practice and later assessment where teachers evaluated the
lesson achievement by asking pupils oral questions and finally a written exercise which is marked in the
classroom. CPD teachers were, however, more confident in their delivery and methods than NQTs. This
confidence was apparently gained from professional experience and CPD programs. There were five
specific ways in which CPD teachers‟ practice in reading differed from their less experienced peers:





good understanding and use of participatory method
a faster cognitive pace to the lessons and sense of progression
the use of team teaching
an integrated use of teaching aids
good class management that ensured that they could assess all their students within the lesson
time.
44
Good understanding and use of participatory method
CPD teachers were aware of the effectiveness of using participatory methods but used them
appropriately for their large classes even while this was not always as successful as they might have
wished. CPD teacher 18 said she used a mixture of song and demonstrations with fast choral work
“because we have been asked to use this method. I should not be chewing food for them and all they
do is swallow”. CPD teacher 13 understood the use of song to support memory in reading (Croft, 2002)
and ensured that when she taught a letter, eg „K‟ for „kuku‟ (chicken), „kinu‟ (mortar) and „kiti‟ (chair) it
would be followed by students coming up with their own words.
A faster cognitive pace to the lessons and sense of progression
Two of the CPD teachers rapidly went through the familiar teaching sequence from vowels and
consonants, already written on the board. Students individually wrote syllables on the board and then
joined them to make two syllable words and then put these words into whole sentences. She took the
students back through the process of sounding vowel again, but let a student lead the process. Much
use was made of songs and clapping in 13 minutes of active learning before students turned to writing.
In another class, a teacher taught complex syllables with two to three consonants together – using flash
cards to teach „sza‟, „zwu‟ and „zwi‟. She went through the entire alphabet from vowels to syllables of
two letters to syllables of three letters. In both of these lessons, the pace of learning was rapid, with
cognitive challenge, working from letter sounds to syllables and taking in the whole alphabet
systematically to make sense of that particular consonant combination and consolidate learning. A third
CPD teacher talked about the need to increase the speed of learning in teaching letters, to form words
and sentences and simple punctuation marks: “You are then expected to take 10 minutes, 5,3,2. I
taught all of them because we are behind the syllabus” (CPD teacher 18).
The use of team teaching
Some teachers used a method called “Team teaching” so as to assist each other manage large
classrooms.
…we normally teach in a classroom together so as to assist each other…so, as one is
teaching the other teacher is assisting students to follow a lesson...students are so
many in the classroom thus we find it easier to team teach….also these children need
great care, so even when one teacher go out the other one remains to control class
discipline…
(CPD interview, Shiyanga, teacher 2)
This more collegiate way of teaching was common in Standard I, II and III classrooms and offered great
potential for the teachers to discuss teaching strategies and learn from one another. It would be useful
for CPD teachers to be paired up with trainees or NQTs if this is seen as a norm since this could give
NQTs the opportunity to further their understanding of how small children learn and to increase their
PCK for lower grade teaching.
An integrated use of teaching aids
Experienced teachers were also better at using teaching aids than NQTs. Almost all teachers observed
used appropriate teaching aids to teach their students. For example, they used cards, pictures, real
objects like cups or sometimes models of different things to help their learners connect concepts being
introduced to them. For instance, when teaching the vowel “U” they tried to relate its shape with a cup,
“i” with a stick and so on. According to them, that strategy helps learners to remember the shapes of the
different letters or vowels easily when writing and playing with word cards allows children to have fun
and to be engaged. Another interesting observation was that experienced teachers prepare most of the
teaching materials on their own or in collaboration with students. The NQTs that we observed only used
45
the materials available at school and sometimes did not use teaching aids other than the blackboard.
That situation was interpreted by some experienced teachers as a lack of commitment as one of the
head teachers said:
….these fresh teachers don‟t seem to care about their job…they do things in hurry and
most of the times they seem to be busy with other own things…they don‟t have time to
prepare lessons….this is very interesting….
(Head teacher, Tanga)
However, other reasons may explain this situation such as misunderstanding how these aids actually
shape children‟s learning or requiring longer preparation time than more experienced teachers.
Good class management that ensured that they could assess all their students within the lesson time.
Good classroom control and time management was another aspect that distinguished the CPD
teachers‟ classrooms from the NQTs‟. In most of the CPD classes pupils were attentive and welldisciplined because teachers kept on alerting them using various techniques whenever they seemed
tired and losing attention. For example, they used songs after every few minutes or sometime they call
students “Childreeen!” and pupils reply “madaaam!” then the teacher says “don‟t make noise” or “let us
continue”.
Also CPD teachers were able to manage instructional time since they finished their lesson on time and
in most cases they taught according to the time planned in their lesson plans. They were also able to
assess whether individual children had understood the lesson through asking a child to pronounce and
then write the word on the board and through marking all exercise books in class with exception of only
few cases where teachers failed to accomplish their tasks in the classroom: “it is after marking that you
know that this child understood me well or not” (CPD interview, Tanga, teacher 18). This was not the
case for NQTs since most of them taught beyond the time limit and were compelled to collect exercise
books to the office for marking.
More experienced teachers, those who have been on further training, are characterized by their
teaching of specific skills, understanding how to motivate children to read, using books and pictures and
creating a reading environment in their classroom through home-made charts and books. They draw on
a wider number of strategies to teach early reading, with a greater focus on teaching letters‟ sounds in
syllables, in an integration of a phonics and syllabic approach. NQTs, as discussed above, focus more
strongly on syllables, whole words and pictures. The CPD teachers‟ approach, embedded in a print-rich
environment, is more appropriate to help young children to learn to read since word level and text level
skills are more integrated and taught simultaneously. CPD teachers are less adamant than NQTs that
there are strategies that they would never use and so it can be inferred that they are more likely to teach
from a variety of texts including non-fiction texts. They would not, however, allow a child to choose their
own text.
4.5 Exploring gaps: From training to gaining experience
Insights from CPD teachers‟ practice are helpful to identify what is missing from trainees‟ and NQTs‟
knowledge, understanding and PCK and to explore the gaps in teacher education. Experienced
teachers‟ practice is closely aligned with the primary curriculum with their syllabic approach leading to
meaningful reading of paragraphs but they also fill in the gaps in the curriculum by adding in pre-reading
skills. They also „fill in a missing chunk‟ from TTC education by developing a more systematic
understanding of phonics related to syllables and creating a literate environment. Their model of
teaching works because it is adapted to large classrooms with mixed ability children in resource poor
environments – eg faster pace, integration of teaching and learning aids including real objects,
managing groups and pairs and understanding the need to engage individuals who might hide behind
others. The paradigm shift towards learner-centred teaching, mentioned so often, is apparent in the
classrooms of both NQTs and CPD teachers but is more overt in the CPD teachers‟ classrooms and
46
several of the five could link this to CPD activities as well as their own experience. These methods are
appropriate for the learning context – they may not be seen as ideal forms of group or pair work from a
global north point of view, but they are culturally specific – and work (Alexander, 2000). Key here is that
teachers appear to understand that reading has to be both decoding and reading for meaning and
therefore takes place in the minds of the individual student – and this conception of reading drives the
way in which they interpret the primary curriculum in the classroom by ensuring that individuals grasp
the word meaning. What they still need more of are different ways to teach texts and comprehension –
ie drawing pictures, students asking one another questions, and recognizing words within context, so
not dissociating learning of new vocabulary from texts.
CPD teachers‟ model of reading has its roots into TTC education but developed through interaction with
their pupils. Over time, they became more realistic about their possibility and gained knowledge of what
can be done and what could be effective in big classrooms filled with young children. It is this kind of
PCK, specific to early reading, which lacks at TTC level. In particular: skilful use of phonics and
syllables; better awareness of the literate environment; use of a wider number of strategies; awareness
of the importance of using a variety of text; informed use of phonological awareness and alphabet; and
finally, understanding that reading is about the individual interacting with written symbols.
Respondents consistently indicated that text level work and reading for meaning was the most
difficult for them to teach, such as finding word meaning through sentence syntax, teaching the way
a story is put together and understanding the overall meaning of a story or poem. The primary
curriculum advocates that word level work should be learnt through story and yet there is poor
understanding of how to use text and sentence level to teach word meaning and increase
vocabulary. Respondents had a weak understanding of the reading attainment of very young
children in considering they would be fluent enough to read a short story themselves and ask one
another questions. The lack of exposure to the early grades for both trainees and their tutors and
the lack of specificity in the ITE Kiswahili curriculum may contribute towards this. As discussed at
length in the previous sections, the quantitative data (see appendix 1.4) indicated gaps in trainees‟ (and
teachers‟) knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of phonological awareness, phonics and
reading fluency and rate. If tutors are uncertain about phonology, with its implicit relationship to the
teaching of phonics, this might partly explain this gap in such a key reading skill. Two NQTs made
suggestions to improve TTC education.
...I suggest college tutors spend a great deal of their time sending teacher trainees to
schools and learn more than they do today. This can provide feedback to colleges on
the state of the art as far as actual school teaching is concerned.
(NQT interview, Coast, teacher 3)
…I suggest teaching to be more practical rather than spend too much time in
theoretical teaching in classes also teacher trainees to spend most of their time
teaching micro lessons in schools…
(NQT interview, Coast, teacher 4)
Observations in TTCs, interviews with tutors and focus group discussions with trainees indicated that in
the simulations or reading lesson, tutors drew on a synthetic approach, reading out sounds and words
as trainees listened and read out – following the sequence of listening, speaking, followed by reading in
the curriculum. In the field, teachers follow instructions from the teachers‟ guide which does not
encourage rote learning but recommends an analytic approach, starting from words and pictures and
breaking these down into syllables and sounds. These are two very different approaches to the
teaching of reading and the visits in schools suggest that NQT may be more inclined to reproduce the
way they were taught than what appears in the teachers‟ guide. The main problem with demonstrations
from the teacher and role plays in which trainees themselves are doing the demonstration is that they
are often perceived as faithful representations of a primary school situation when they are not. Literate
adults, especially when they have so little exposure to real classrooms, cannot reproduce the struggles
47
of children learning to read. Trainees have therefore little opportunities to be exposed to realistic
classroom management scenarios and the relative ease in which the different skills are taught during
these demonstrations reinforces the misconceptions that trainees have of what small children can and
cannot do.
The model of reading in the primary curriculum and taught in the TTCs may be appropriate for Kiswahili
but our findings suggest that it also needs to include:
1. strategies for large classes;
2. pre-reading skills;
3. more focus on comprehension with coherent teaching of vocabulary through texts;
4. strategies for managing bilingual classrooms and code switching.
TTCs should also pay more attention to general skills such as classroom management and formative
assessment since practices from experienced teachers reveal that these have a considerable impact on
how reading is taught and learned.
4. 6 Summary
Overall, teachers of reading in Tanzania use songs, rhymes, riddles and pictures to motivate young
children to read and recognize through this the importance of oral language and its relationship to
reading. They use phonics in the form of initial letter sounds, but this approach is linked to the main
syllabic approach, combined with whole word or look and say and the use of pictures. Reading aloud is
important for pronunciation and this may also involve teaching children to distinguish between tones and
short and long vowels essential to Kiswahili. The four language skills are seen as integrated.
Vocabulary is first taught separately from the context in which the new words are found. Synthetic
building up of words into sentences is a usual approach. Comprehension is often in the form of children
reading a story from the board aloud and answering questions on it posed by the teacher. Trainees and
NQTs appear to communicate a higher sense of personal efficacy than experienced teachers. However,
this high perception of capacity and confidence is accompanied by more superficial understanding and
a more limited repertoire of teaching strategies for reading. More experienced teachers don‟t necessarily
communicate a low level of efficacy, but a more realistic one. Trainees in particular tend to
underestimate the challenges of teaching lower primary reading.
There are gaps in the teaching of reading, however. The place of pre-reading skills is uncertain and not
easily identified from the ITE curriculum or primary curriculum. Perhaps both curricula assume that
these should be taught at pre-school and therefore not necessary for children in Standard I.
Nevertheless, phonological awareness is missing from ITE leaving this skill unknown to some teachers.
The use of songs and rhymes are, however, common and could be used to teach phonological
awareness. Systematic phonics including recognizing letters within words and at the end of words –
onset and rime - and blending letters together may not be as well-known as the syllabic approach.
Using syntactic cues to make sense of a new word seems difficult to teach. Reading aloud for fluency,
reading rate and comprehension is not a focus, although pronunciation is. Teaching longer continuous
texts is not well taught and more teaching around print concepts is needed, as well as a focus on
reading for meaning and inference. These skills are embedded in the primary curriculum from Standard
I but some respondents considered these skills inappropriate for young children. Encouraging a reading
culture and the integration of word level work with text level seems to be mainly practiced by
experienced older teachers who have been on CPD – the minority in our sample. It isn‟t clear whether
this is due to attending CPD‟s only but it seems that this could be given more attention at TTC level.
Exposure to printed materials seems difficult, with materials in Kiswahili perhaps more difficult to get
hold of. There is little or no independent reading by children nor do they choose their own books.
Comprehension-monitoring skills are difficult to teach under these circumstances.
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TTC is seen as the key source of influence for the trainees, NQTs, more experienced teachers – and
even some of the tutors. It is central in the construction of trainees‟ subject knowledge, their
pedagogical content knowledge, and their understanding and application. Trainees usually arrive in
TTCs as young students with only four years of secondary school training and are taught in English –
which they only partly understand. Viewed as a continuation of secondary school in the upgrading of
their subject knowledge, their conceptions of teaching are created in TTCs. With little structured
guidance in the schools as NQTs, this conception will remain until their own experience revises it
perhaps with the help of CPD or influence of other teachers – as our data shows. However, with little
CPD available as yet, NQTs are dependent on more experienced teachers to train them in situ to teach
the lower classes. What was learnt from the TTC and what they gain during the teaching of older
children will influence the way they teach lower primary. This may mean that many teach the truncated
form of reading – word level within a sometimes hypothetical text – but without also introducing prereading skills and print concept. Students under their tutelage may therefore not learn the basics of
reading – alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness – and struggle to make sense of the letters,
syllables and words presented in their class, particularly if the teacher‟s knowledge of phonics is not
strong. Without a print-rich literacy environment in the classroom and without the songs, stories,
rhymes and play that children need, they may never grasp the ability to decode or understand the
purpose of reading.
Data from interviews, focus groups and surveys suggest that the time allocated to teach teaching
methods during ITE is not enough to really make an impact on the depth of prospective teachers‟
knowledge. This is exacerbated by tutors who, themselves, may not know enough about the methods
or the theory of teaching reading. In order to help trainees to learn teaching methods appropriate to
large classes and develop skills in classroom management and formative assessment in reading, ITE
should be more practiced oriented and include discussions and analysis of real classrooms scenarios.
Although our sample of CPD teachers was quite small, interview data suggest that long-term CPDs may
not be the best way to enhance teachers‟ knowledge of reading. However, what seems to be most
appropriate is to organize short courses of 2-3 weeks on very specific knowledge and practice related to
the teaching of reading for particular grades. Short courses on participatory methods such as the MOE
were seen as having a positive effect on teachers‟ practices.
Chapter 5: Learning to Teach Mathematics
The international research on primary mathematics teacher education reveals that teachers‟ knowledge
of maths, how it should be represented in teaching, and their knowledge of pedagogical procedures
influence how their pupils learn mathematics (Fennema & Franke, 1998). Teacher trainees join TTCs
with whatever knowledge and understanding of mathematics they gained during their own schooling yet
research has shown that “when a teacher has conceptual understanding of mathematics, it influences
classroom instruction in a positive way” (ibid 1998:151). The depth and breadth of knowledge at the end
of initial teacher education is therefore really important. Ma (1999) also reveals that the extent to which
teacher trainees get exposure to and develop understanding of curricular materials such as syllabus
49
and textbooks shapes their level of effectiveness in teaching mathematics in schools. Many teacher
education programs make the assumption that a strong subject knowledge base is essential in learning
to teach primary or secondary mathematics (Ball, 1990, 2000). However, Hill and Ball (2004:330) argue
that “how teachers hold knowledge may matter much more than how much knowledge they hold”. We
begin this chapter by looking at tutors and trainees‟ knowledge, understanding, practices and PCK of
mathematics. More specifically, the first part discusses the sources of knowledge as mentioned by our
respondents, the different types of knowledge gained, the practices used in the TTCs and the
perception of trainees and TTC tutors of what makes a good math teacher. The second part of the
chapter looks at the knowledge, understanding, practices and PCK of newly qualified teachers. It starts
by presenting the knowledge and understanding, and then reflects on their sources before moving into
NQT‟s practices and the challenges that NQTs face in their work in schools. Three main types of NQT
practices are discussed. The third part of the chapter looks at more experienced teachers who took part
in CPDs. Findings from the three groups of respondents are finally pulled together to reflect on the gaps
identified from teacher education to mathematics teaching practice.
5.1 Insights into Teacher Educators and Trainees’ knowledge, understanding,
practices and PCK
5.1.1 Teacher educators and trainees’ source of knowledge for teaching mathematics
Both tutors and trainees mentioned the TTC training as their major source of knowledge of teaching
mathematics. Tutors replicate the way that they were taught to teach mathematics, moving from theory
to practice in one and the same seminar. Some of this practice is embedded within real contexts:
...what I do when teaching is to explain to the trainees theoretically, and then I give
them an opportunity to practice what I have taught. This is the way they learn teaching
mathematics…and of course is the way I learnt also to teach mathematics. If there is
adequate time we go to the demonstration school for further practice of teaching
mathematics.
(Tutor,
mathematics,
TTC1)
This was also confirmed by trainees:
…we learn in theory in classroom, we observe and learn from our tutors‟ practices,
…but sometimes we do micro-teaching and single-lesson in schools…
(Focus group with trainees, TTC1)
Tutors and trainees also mentioned private reading of books and knowledge gained while students at
secondary schools as another important source of knowledge, especially disciplinary knowledge.
Whether such knowledge is used to support understanding of the place and progression of certain
mathematical concepts such as addition or subtraction from its pedagogical origins in grade 1 up to its
more complex use is not known.
Tutors mentioned more sources from which they obtain knowledge and experiences of teaching
mathematics. They include their long experience in teaching primary schools and teaching in TTCs as
important sources of knowledge of the discipline itself and how to teach mathematics. For example, they
argue that as they teach in TTCs they get the opportunity to evaluate their teaching and reflect on how
well they can improve their teaching as reflected in the following quote;
you know… when you teach you get the chance to evaluate your own teaching every
day…and you use that evaluation to improve future practice, so experience in teaching
gives me a very good source of learning to teach… (Tutor, mathematics, TTC2)
Some trainees mentioned other sources like reading from hand-outs prepared by tutors and informal
teaching of students in tuition centres as pointed out by one trainees:
50
I have had an opportunity to teach in tuition centers…I taught chemistry, mathematics,
and biology to Form One Students. As I was teaching I was writing on the board and
as I wrote I learnt how to use a chalk board… also through this I built more confidence
in teaching…
(Focus group with trainees, TTC1)
Tutors also mentioned subject panels and mathematics clubs as their important source of knowledge
about mathematics where they get opportunities to share experience on teaching of various topics and
discuss different ways of dealing with challenges in teaching mathematics. Tutors mentioned more
experienced colleagues as their source of knowledge, especially when they begin teaching in TTCs.
The research team came across some best practice in terms of TTC support for their tutors such as a
mentoring system for new teacher educators. While these support mechanisms are not specific to
mathematics and are likely to take place in other topics as well, they were reported as particularly
helpful by one of the maths tutor interviewed. In that TTC, long service tutors assisted other tutors to
learn some teaching skills. Other good practices mentioned by maths tutors included the initial
orientation provided at college when they were first appointed and observing other tutors teach.
…I attend mathematics subject clubs for my own interest in mathematics. Also when I
came here the college principal was teaching mathematics too….so he also guided me
in teaching mathematics…sometimes we go to attend classes of experienced tutors
and observe the way they teach some challenging topics like geometry…
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC2)
However in-service learning opportunities for tutors varied from one college to the next and one tutor
mentioned a gap between continuing professional development in private and public colleges:
…as you know in private institutions as opposed to public institutions; it is very hard to
get the in-service training opportunity… Having said so I think in one way or another my
teaching is affected. If I could get such training, I would have been competent in
several areas and I could have helped more students.
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC 3)
5.1.2 Tutors’ and trainees’ knowledge and understanding
Tutors demonstrated awareness of both the TTC and primary mathematics curriculum. They argued that
the TTC mathematics syllabus is meant to teach subject knowledge and pedagogical content
knowledge, contending that the TTC mathematics syllabus encompasses topics which will be taught in
primary schools;
I would say the relationship is very high, because there are about 11 topics which are
found in the TTC curriculum can also be found in primary schools. These include
numbers, algebra, sets … the other one is statistics, square and square roots, Roman
numbers, and many others which I can say they can be found in primary schools and
the teachers college syllabus.
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC2)
Chapter Two of this report confirms the relatively close synergies between the two. However, as with
the reading/Kiswahili syllabus, the syllabus for TTC is general and does not differentiate between upper
and lower primary school. Specialization comes later after somebody has attended further courses
specifically for teaching lower grades, for example, such in-service courses like KKK (a 3 month course
on reading, writing and arithmetic). At TTC level, tutors do not make a thorough analysis of the primary
mathematic syllabi for each grade and particularly for the lower grades. Tutors complained of not
participating in curriculum reviews and development for both the TTC curriculum and the primary
mathematics curriculum. They remain therefore unaware and uninformed of changes made in the
syllabus or new text books introduced. Hence, trainees are prepared to teach mathematics in the
primary school using outdated documents and textbooks. Thus, discrepancies arise between what is
taught at colleges and what students find when they go to the field.
51
Tutors further argued that the current TTC syllabus of 2009 is not supported by a teacher‟s guide and
relevant text books and subsequently tutors use their own understanding of mathematics, their
experience and primary text books to interpret the syllabus and teach. A similar comment was raised by
trainees that the new syllabus is not supported by text books, a situation that compels them to rely on
tutors‟ notes and handouts. Research on teaching suggests that subject-matter knowledge is important
up to a point and that taking more courses in mathematics is not linearly related to teaching quality for
maths teachers (Darling-Hammond et al., 1999). Ball (2000) insists that knowing „big ideas‟ of the
discipline is not enough. While our review of the curriculum shows that primary mathematics content
knowledge is covered in the TTCs, the question of whether student teachers‟ understanding of the key
mathematical concepts is deep enough to teach them to small children meaningfully deserves attention.
In order to get an idea of whether the breadth and depth of the knowledge acquired in TTC is adequate
to teach lower primary mathematics, it is necessary to look beyond the classrooms and consider what is
happening during block teaching practice (BTP) and in schools.
Both tutors and trainees considered BTP as essential to their learning. In order to better prepare their
trainees to the teaching practice and to boost their confidence before they get into the classrooms,
some TTC hold preparatory activities.
Before students go to the teaching practice, they have to attend a two weeks seminar,
where we teach them some of the important things. We do this in order to make them
more confident, it is like we want them to confirm to us that they are supposed to do
something, it is a kind of commitment. This is also an ample time to complement
whatever was not covered in ordinary classes. It helps to create in them a sense of
commitment.
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC3)
While trainees teaching maths also found BTP useful in building their confidence, and linking theory and
practice, they were not allowed to teach the younger children during block practice:
We believe in ourselves that we have the ability to teach mathematics grade one and
two, the problem is that during teaching practice we are not accepted to teach in these
grades. We are just assigned to teach other grades. Schools doubt our ability to
handle such classes… Schools do not allow as teaching in lower grades…they have
no confidence over us….some of us refuse to teach such classes due to perceived
disturbances in teaching young children….yet others feel inadequately prepared to
teach such classes…
(Trainee, focus group discussion, TTC1)
The lack of up to date syllabi, limited time allocated for the teaching practices and lack of funds to
support the teaching practice decreased the intended impact of BTP and could lead to serious
consequences:
…apart from the advantages, BTP has the following problems…first is lack of teaching
learning facilities which affect us since we are new to the environment. Second, is the
issue of funds…the amount that we are given is very limited….does not suffice our
requirements…for example, money for buying materials for making teaching-learning
aids. This causes other trainees to engage even in dirty activities like prostitution.
(Trainee, focus group discussion, TTC1 )
The issue of lack of resources like books and syllabuses was verified even during classroom
observations. For instance, it was noted that in some schools one hundred pupils had to share only four
mathematics text books, such that the teacher was forced to write everything on the black board.
Trainees therefore receive little guidance in the teaching of mathematics on block practice, often having
to decide themselves what and how to teach, with no experience of teaching the very youngest children.
52
5.1.3 Tutors and Trainees’ PCK and practices in teaching mathematics
Tutors and trainees argued that at grade I and II mathematics is concerned with basic numeracy skills
like recognition of numbers, counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Tutors insisted
that mathematics should be taught by using teaching aids like real objects such as soda caps, counting
sticks and stones or any other tangible materials to represent numbers and figures, which can help
pupils to grasp concepts introduced to them:
Mathematics is a subject that can‟t be taught to standard one kids without teaching
aids…they will not understand…those kids need to be shown things first and assisted
to use such things to learn something… (Trainee, focus group discussion, TTC1 )
In teaching a concept like addition to Standard One pupils, there appeared to be a standard set of steps:
demonstration, practice, teacher assessment and a home assignment:
When teaching mathematics… say addition… teachers should demonstrate a skill to
pupils and ensure that they follow his demonstration…for example, pupils should
repeat numbers after the teacher has said them out loud. He can call a few of them to
do the same after him and before the class. Then all pupils can be given room to
practice addition using their stones or anything else and write answers on their
exercise books….the teacher can go around checking if they practice a skill….at the
end pupils should be given a take home assignment for them to practice at home….
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC1 )
Trainees mentioned similar approaches. As illustrated in the table below, more than 85 percent of
trainees strongly agreed that using concrete and practical examples was the best way to help children
understand basic concepts in maths.
Table 4.1 Perception of the best way to help children understand basic concepts in maths:
Percentage
(a) Show them lots of worked examples
(b) Teach them to remember important steps in solving maths
problems
(c) Make them practice lots of worked examples
(d) Use concrete and practical examples to teach
Strongly
Agree
46.11
Agree
Disagree
39.74
10.73
Strongly
disagree
3.42
59.55
34.32
4.72
1.42
56.25
85.61
35.73
13.44
5.66
0.83
2.36
0.12
Tutors and trainees also mentioned play activities, using number cards and songs to teach pupils to
recognize numbers and to perform some mathematical activities because play engages the learners
and can increase their attention span. During interviews one tutor put it clearly that:
Through plays and songs children in class one can be taught even skills, which seems
to be difficult if you teach them verbally…for example, you can tell children that
subtraction is removal of things….then you tell them to stay in a group and count their
number. Thereafter you ask one member to move from a group and you ask them
again to count the remaining members…so, they can keep on doing that until the
group remains with zero members. This way, learners will be excited at the same time
will learn and remember the concept for a long time…
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC)
53
Another tutor emphasized the need to adapt methods to learners‟ needs and to use creativity to support
students with difficulties.
…me I would be very happy if I could prepare students with good skills of helping
students to learn effectively when teaching. One should have skill to help students
according to various abilities. But the other thing is an ability of a teacher to identify
different problems of pupils at different points of time, whom among them has problem
and how to assist. I am also interested on teachers who are able to make students
participate in the teaching and learning process. I would also like to see teachers who
can innovate, especially when it comes to improvising instructional resources. The
teacher who can use the environment to make teaching and learning more interesting.
(Tutor, mathematics,TTC3)
These second year trainees who are about to go and join the field of teaching had already developed
good knowledge and understanding of pedagogy, verified further when they describe the concept of the
“paradigm shift” from teacher-centred learning to child-centred learning:
…the concept of paradigm shift means improving teaching which differentiates
between the traditional and modern style of teaching…this (paradigm shift) implies
moving away from teacher dominated teaching to more student centered
teaching…using students as source of knowledge, for example, when you get into the
class you can introduce a lesson of the day, then you ask them to give you the
meaning of what you want to teach afterward you proceed with the things you want to
teach… (Trainees, focus group discussion, TTC1)
Such child-centered approaches appeared to be more aligned with mathematics teaching at the TTC
than reading. According to respondents from the four TTC, a range of methods are used such as
demonstration, giving handouts, question and answer, brainstorming Knows, Want to Know and has
Learnt (K.W.L.), think-pair and share, and group discussion. Demonstration are sometimes done by the
tutor himself or by the trainees who prepare lessons and conduct them in front of the rest of the class.
Demonstration (be it teacher-led or student-led) is highly valued as an effective way of teaching
mathematics to trainees in colleges, it is recommended in the TTC syllabus.
In one of the TTC lessons observed, for example, a tutor introduced a lesson to learn about teaching a
topic on whole numbers and a sub-topic of counting whole numbers from 1 to 9 to Standard One pupils
using locally available materials. He asked trainees to explain what they understand about whole
numbers. After two or three answers, the tutor continued his lesson by demonstrating to trainees how to
guide Standard One pupils to count whole numbers up to 9 and get a sum. He took a group of sticks in
his left hand and started showing how to count by taking one stick after another from his left hand to the
right hand until a particular total was reached. In the course of doing that the tutor was speaking aloud
the numbers for students to hear and see. Students were also speaking after the tutor. There after he
started calling about two trainees to demonstrate the same to others using the same steps as the tutor
did. Other trainees were observing and participating in doing what they were asked to do. After that
series of demonstrations the tutor asked trainees to say what they had learnt.
Demonstration is an effective method but as Ma (1999) pointed out: “a good vehicle … does not
guarantee the right destination”. In order to help students to make meaning of the mathematical and
pedagogical concepts, demonstrations need to be combined to other forms of activities where students
can take control of their own learning. The research team has two concerns regarding the supremacy of
the demonstration method in TTC. First, some of the demonstrations are performed as a type of
simulation supposed to represent a classroom reality but it is not possible for adults to replicate the
behavior and reaction of small children especially with the low level of exposure that trainees have to
54
lower primary classrooms. Without guided analysis and reflection on the demonstration the approach
may lead trainees to believe that replicating what they have just seen in a real classroom would
guarantee their success. This can ultimately create a false sense of confidence. Second, while the
discourse of tutors and trainees tend to value „student centered teaching‟, TTC practice is more an
illustration of what Kuhs and Ball‟s (1986) call a „classroom-focused view of teaching‟, described by
Thompson (1998) as a perspective where effective teachers are those who “skilfully explain, assign
tasks, monitor student work … manage the classroom environment, preventing, or eliminating,
disruptions that might interfere with the flow of planned activity” (Kuhs & Ball 1986:26). Thompson
adds, “accordingly, the students‟ role is to listen attentively to the teacher and cooperate by
following directions, answer questions, and completing tasks assigned by the teacher” (p. 137). As
we will see later on, this resonates also with what has been observed in NQT classrooms thus our
concern that trainees may reproduce this type of teaching in their own pedagogical practice in spite
of the progressive views they expressed.
5.1.4 Tutors and Trainees perceptions of what makes a good lower grade mathematics
teacher
Tutors consider that a good mathematics teacher should be very creative, employ different teaching
methods, manage the classroom well and use teaching aids effectively;
You know mathematics subject needs a sort of competencies…therefore, the first
quality that a mathematics teacher should possess is the ability to use various
techniques of teaching….if he find a particular method not working he changes quickly.
He should be very competent in the use of teaching aids…should be able to manage
the class and time.
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC1)
Generally, I would say such a teacher in the first place should be able to manage the
class; but also such a teacher should able to support students in during classroom
situations help students to achieve what was intended. It is important also for the
teacher to be able to manage time. But for mathematical teacher, I think it is important
that he can have adequate knowledge n mathematics. Should be able to teach
students using more than one teaching methods. One needs to have a good knowledge
in mathematics. Mathematics teacher also need to be competent in devising teaching
aids, this is because employment are becoming fewer and fewer.
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC3)
Trainees agreed but subject knowledge was seen as crucial, too;
… a good mathematics teacher should have mastery of the subject itself, use different
methods according to situations and the nature of students…he must also use
teaching aids…
(Trainee, focus group discussion, TTC1)
This was confirmed by the quantitative data as indicated in table 4.2 where the most popular
characteristics of a good teacher were being able to explain maths topics sing simple materials and
being good at mathematics.
Table 4.2
What makes a good teacher of primary school mathematics
(a) Being good at mathematics
(b) Being able to show maths in everyday situations
(c) Teaching children to remember important mathematical facts
(d) Showing children lots of worked examples
(e) Being able to explain maths topics using simple materials
Percentage
Strongly
Agree
80.78
72.41
61.79
52.24
81.01
Agree
Disagree
17.22
24.17
34.43
36.08
15.80
1.30
27.12
3.07
9.91
2.12
Strongly
disagree
0.71
0.35
0.71
1.77
1.06
55
5.2
Insights into NQTs knowledge, understanding, practices
5.2.1 NQTs Source of Knowledge and Understanding
Most of the NQT who took part in the research project said that their disciplinary knowledge was based
on their secondary school experiences. This is because most of them had gone through the teacher
preparation system that lasted only one year and concentrated on methodology rather than academic
subjects. Other sources mentioned include experience in teaching in schools, books, primary
mathematics syllabus, other experienced colleagues, and to some extent, TTC training. In this sense,
the competence and depth of knowledge on various topics and subtopics taught in the primary schools
will depend on how best they were prepared in the ordinary level secondary education; and the extent to
which they were competent in mathematics during their secondary education.
One of the questions on the teacher‟s questionnaire asked the respondents where they had developed
their understanding of teaching maths. As shown on figure 4.1 and table 4.3, the majority of the
respondents answered from teaching college.
Figure 4.1
Table 4.3
.1
.2
.3
In-Service training
Other teachers
Training College
Working in Schools
Total
Freq.
%
44
19
135
56
254
17.32
7.48
53.15
22.05
100.00
0
Mean
.4
.5
Where developed understanding of teaching maths
Training college
Work in school
other
In-service training
Other teachers
5.2.2 NQTs knowledge and understandings
Most of the NQTs seemed to be well informed of the structure and content of the primary mathematics
curriculum and linked these to their lesson objectives, scheme of work and the syllabus. They took note
of the recommendations found in the curriculum such as the use of activities like plays, songs and
concrete materials obtained from the local environment to support teaching in mathematics. Teachers
were able to describe the relationship between the topics or subtopics they were currently teaching and
previous topics taught in terms of progression and relationship between concepts and ideas:
It [the lesson] relates to the syllabus in that in the syllabus the main topic is Whole
Numbers, under which sub-topics are: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
We are now in the sub-topic of multiplication; once we complete the main topic we
move on to the next one which is Fractions; therefore, my lesson relates to the
syllabus… what I taught today, is what I had planned to teach in my scheme of work.
(Teacher interview 6, NQT)
While the content of the curriculum seems to be known, some of the NQT met mentioned a mismatch
between the syllabus and the many text books from different authors that they see in schools. Many of
these text books were not used in the TTC and NQT find confusing that the way the content is
presented and the approaches suggested vary so much from one to the next.
56
NQTs‟ content knowledge of maths varied. Some NQT observed showed gaps in knowledge when
teaching while others understood the concepts well. For example, when asked to explain the
concept of multiplication, one teacher clearly explained that multiplication means “adding
repeatedly” and that the concept of multiplication could be taught after a child has managed to add:.
…multiplication means to add repeatedly…this concept can easily be taught if learners
have already learn such concepts like addition…multiplication is a continuation of
addition…
(Teacher interview 6, NQT)
However, there were instances in observed lessons where teachers made basic mistakes of
multiplication resulting in confusion for their young students. The researcher in one example
referred back to the video observation made with one maths teacher:
Researcher: In the video there you saw how you gave an example of 18 ÷ 6 = 3. You
said that was equal to having three groups of six. How did you get these groups of six?
Do you think pupils understood clearly what you wanted them to learn?
Teacher: In fact I have watched the video and I acknowledge that the example was
wrong and I misled my pupils.
(NQT interview, Teacher 5)
When asked to explain how he would rectify this, in teaching students the equation 18 divided by 6, he
showed further confusion by teaching 18 divided by 3 instead:
First, I would have counted 18 books then from three points where I would have asked
pupils to start distributing the books one by one to these points until when the 18
books were finished. I would have then asked them to count books in every group to
tell me how many books they got in each group. The value they report to me would
have been the answer.
(Teacher interview 5, NQT)
The poor mathematic knowledge of some of the NQTs was corroborated in the quantitative data. For
example, 24 percent of NQTs considered 3/5 to be a bigger fraction than ¾. Only 9.2 percent of
experienced teachers made the same mistake (see figure 42), perhaps justifying their appointments to
the youngest children over NQTs and trainees.
Figure 4.2
Which is the bigger fraction?
Which is the bigger fraction?
Experienced teachers
Newly qualified teachers
3/4
3/5
Graphs by NQT
Responses from the quantitative data indicated that NQTs found place value and multiplication the
easiest to teach, as well as recognition of fractions. Addition, the meaning of numbers and counting
were perceived as hardest to teach, along with length, volume and weight, solving word problems and
division (see table 4.4 and figure 4.3). Some NQTs observed that teaching addition is very complicated
especially when they need their students to learn a skill of adding by carrying numbers from tens. They
claimed that pupils forget to carry the one and so they spend more time on this than on any other topic.
One even suggested that the concept was too complex for very young children, who need to get this
57
basic computation right in order to progress. They understood precisely how children make mistakes in
carrying over:
In my knowledge, the most challenging topic is addition of number…. In my opinion
this is the topic that is complicated as I have even used too much time reaching it
unlike other topics…. Probably it is because pupils tend to forget about the concepts of
addition using various procedures. For example pupils got confused when they added
by carrying numbers from tens; this is always a complicated concept to them. You
don‟t see these concepts in multiplication and division of numbers. When for example
adding 16 + 24 = adding 6+4 they get 10; they write 0, when they add 1+2 to get 3
they simply write 3 and forget that they have 1 to add three that was carried from the
10. They simply forget, thus more exercises often are needed to such a topic. That is
why I find it as a challenging topic.
(Teacher interview 13, NQT)
Table 4.4 Which of the following primary maths topics would you find difficult or easy to teach in the first
three years of primary schools?
Topic
Difficult
(a) Adding two or three digit numbers involving renaming („carrying‟)
(b) Comparing fractions
(c) Division
(d) Estimating and Measuring of Length, Volume and Weight
(e) Multiplication of numbers (two digits and three digits)
(f) Place value (0 to 100) i.e. tens, units etc
(g) Recognising fractions
(h) Solving word problems
(i) Subtraction from two or three-digit numbers involving regrouping („borrowing‟)
(j) The meaning of numbers and counting
59.45
36.22
66.93
64.17
45.23
21.65
29.13
69.96
73.91
24.41
Percentage
Not suitable
Easy
for grade
2.76
37.8
57.88
31.1
26.38
53.57
78.34
69.29
28.46
26.09
72.83
5.91
1.97
9.45
1.19
0
1.57
1.58
0
2.76
Figure 4.3
Difficulty of teaching maths topics in first 3 years of primary
Q22A
Q22B
Q22C
Q22D
Q22E
Q22F
Q22G
Q22H
Q22I
Q22J
0
20
40
60
80
100
percent
Very Difficult
Easy
Not suitable for this grade
Difficult
Very easy
NQTs considered that in terms of progression and mathematics, children should start learning to
recognize and write numbers, then counting, adding, subtracting then progress onto the more complex
areas of multiplying and dividing. They described the specific stages of the mathematics lesson drawn
58
from the primary syllabus of 2005: introduction, recap of prior learning, presentation of new knowledge,
application, reflection (the plenary) and evaluation. This is in contrast to the simpler sequence of
teaching maths described by tutors and trainees above. While this suggests a routinized way of
teaching, using drilling and cramming, NQTs were also able to explain alternative ways of approaching
mathematics lessons through improvisation either to suit the situation at hand or to make their lessons
easier and interesting. For example, in the teaching of addition, one teacher said:
Yes, that‟s how the syllabus directs although I have also improvised. For example, the
syllabus recommends using seeds or soda caps to guide children to do addition. So, I
found that if I use such things I could not be able to tie them in groups of tens easily.
Thus, I decided to use pieces of sticks instead of seeds. If you use seeds you must
hold them in your hand and children will not be able to see. With sticks, the child could
see well that they are tied in groups of tens. So, I tried to improvise to find something
more appropriate given the circumstances in the classroom. If you use seeds, for
example, even a child cannot hold them well as opposed to sticks. I instructed my
pupils to come with counting sticks and sometimes I help them to find such materials.
(Teacher interview 3, NQT)
The quantitative data suggests that NQTs favour this more concrete approach to teaching mathematical
operations. For example, rather than simply writing „2 + 3‟ on the board, the majority chose the option of
embedding a mathematical problem within a story („Kwame has 2 mangoes and 3 oranges. How many
fruits does he have altogether?‟) or getting two groups of children in a two and a three to join together to
create a group of 5. Likewise, in subtracting 52-25, NQTs chose to manipulate real objects such as
sticks but would also show this vertically on the board, suggesting a variety of different approaches. It
appears from the interviews and the choices made by the NQT in the teaching scenarios from the
questionnaire that the message passed on from the TTC tutors on the importance of concrete and
practical activities to develop mathematical concepts has been retained and well understood. Indeed,
NQT and trainees spoke about the value of using teaching material, manipulation and practical activities
in facilitating better learning which might suggest that they possess understanding of how to enhance
mathematics learning using concrete objects. However, as mentioned earlier, “the direction that
students go with manipulatives depends largely on the steering of their teacher … in order to promote
mathematical understanding, it is necessary that teachers help to make connections between
manipulatives and mathematical ideas explicit …it seems that only the teachers who have a clear
understanding in the topic might be able to play this role” (Ma, 1999:5-6).
The TTC thus was seen to play a central role in preparing NQTs to teach mathematics. Some of the
NQTs acknowledge the importance of using different teaching methods they gained from their tutors
and use of local resources. For example, one NQT had this to say;
…We have also learnt how to use teaching aids and the importance of them in
teaching children. We have seen that a teaching aid is very important thing in
simplifying pupils‟ learning…
(Teacher interview 11, NQT)
This notion of simplifying students‟ learning was repeated several times throughout this study, indicating
a slight shift in recognizing that teaching can be constructed as a problem-solving activity where the
teacher has to work out the best way of getting students to learn a new concept. Innovation in teaching,
however, according to this NQT, begins with initial training where reflective practice is encouraged:
Therefore, successful training starts with the trainer, because what the teacher trainee
receives from the trainer (plus innovation through teaching experience) is what he/she
can pass on to pupils. If you have not received good training, you cannot be innovative
and cannot discover things like: „now I have made a mistake, I will do this and that to
rectify the situation so that my lesson is successful‟. If a pupil gets a good teacher in
59
Standard I and again in Standard II and proceeds like that throughout the different
levels, that pupil will end up with good education; and that success is mainly because
of the teacher.
(Teacher interview 10, NQT)
However, TTC do not really train new teachers to teach the youngest children. Most newly employed
NQTs are not normally placed to teach in lower grades and there is an assumption that they need to
learn from senior teachers before they are fully involved in teaching grade I and II. This was evident in
one interview:
...it is a practice that the newly employed teachers are not assigned to teach in lower
grades of I and II; and sometimes some them are not interested and not confident in
teaching these grades.
(Teacher interview, 7, NQT)
Specific knowledge of teaching maths to younger children therefore is dependent not only upon initial
sound mathematical subject knowledge and a good training in which teaching is constructed as
reflective practice, but, in Tanzania, dependent on the quality of the further in-school training offered by
experienced teachers.
5.2.3 NQTs perception of what makes good teacher of mathematics
NQT‟s perception of what makes a good teacher is similar to the perception of trainees. Good subject
knowledge, ability to innovate in response to students‟ learning needs and use of teaching aids was
seen as important, indicating that NQTs do develop their understanding after leaving training and
tallying with the quantitative data from both NQTs and teachers:
I think a good mathematics teacher need to have several qualities; need to have
adequate knowledge of the mathematical content, perseverance and must have
adequate knowledge of students. It is important for mathematics teacher also to be
resourceful and able to use different teaching methods in different contexts and should
be ready to keep on learning without ceasing.
Table 4.5 shows what they mentioned on the questionnaire.
Table 4.5
What makes a good teacher of primary school mathematics
(a) Being good at mathematics
(b) Being able to show maths in everyday situations
(c) Teaching children to remember important mathematical facts
(d) Showing children lots of worked examples
(e) Being able to explain maths topics using simple materials
Percentage
Strongly
Agree
74.41
45.85
61.02
40.16
74.70
Agree
Disagree
24.41
48.22
35.04
48.03
24.90
1.18
4.74
2.36
11.02
0.00
Strongly
disagree
0.00
1.19
1.57
0.79
0.40
Despite these ideals, NQTs actual practice demonstrated fewer strategies for teaching mathematics
than what they claimed should be done, with rote learning most employed as shown in the data on
teaching practices in the next section. What has to be understood is why NQTs in practice used fewer
strategies than their more experienced colleagues.
5.2.4 NQTs Practice Teaching Mathematics in Lower Grades
‘Standard’ practice
A common practice in teaching mathematics for lower grades, is drilling and cramming, in particular the
drilling of multiplication tables 1 to 12 in grade III. It was noted that pupils have to make as many
multiplication drills as possible and in some cases they have to cram in order to remember. For example
one teacher explained that:
60
one good way of assisting learners to catch up the multiplication table is to drill them
until the whole table is known in their heads …you can do that through songs…
(NQT interview, Kigouma, teacher)
For example, the whole class had to sing a song of multiplying from 6×1 to 6×12, reading from a manila
sheet: “six times one is six; six times two is twelve; Six times three is eighteen….” etc. The teachers
used a pointer to guide them. When they finished singing table six the teacher praised them by saying
“good!” Afterwards the teacher removed the manila sheet and individual students were asked in random
order to drill from 6×1 to 6×12 and they received a clap when correct. During evaluation the teacher
asked questions to individual students. For example, six times five? six times eight? six times three? …
To give another idea of standard NQT practice, in one lesson the teacher was teaching multiplication to
standard two students. Following a counting song, the teacher asked pupils to put their counting objects
on desks and look at her as she started presenting a new lesson by showing one example of multiplying
2×3. She drew three groups of two oranges each on the chalkboard and let students count them all and
get the total. Then she explained to pupils that 2×3 means you take three groups of 2 objects and you
add them up. She gave a second example where she asked them to use their counting objects (sticks)
and arrange three groups of two sticks each and then combine them and count the total. She called a
few pupils, one by one to come in front and show the others the same activities - putting things in
groups of 2 or 3 and combined them and counting them to find their total. If a child got a correct answer,
the whole class clapped their hands for him or her. After three to four examples the teacher wrote an
exercise on the blackboard for them to practice individually and write in their exercise books. Students
were guided to multiply using their counting sticks and write the answers in their exercise books. The
teacher passed around checking their progress and marked as well. She finished by collecting the
exercise books of pupils who did not finish on time to the office for marking.
The teacher indicated her understanding here of the need to move from concrete objects that students
manipulated themselves many times to representing them on the board and then later to using written
numbers. She also showed understanding that in multiplication the product is the same if the numbers
are reversed:
By taking such as 4 X 1, it means they had one group of 4 that has to be added only
once to get an answer 4. This would have given the same answer even if the question
would have read 1 X 4.
(Teacher interview 4, NQT)
In the standard NQT practice, students know mathematics if they are able to demonstrate certain skills
described by the instructional objectives. This is what Thompson (1998) calls „content-focused‟
teaching. NQT follow a sequence to present knowledge to the whole class and student participate by
answering questions, replicating what the teacher is showing or making exercises in their note books.
This often leads to instrumental understanding (Skemp, 1978). Research has shown that “students who
perform adequately on routine mathematical tasks often have impoverished conceptions and significant
misunderstandings of the mathematical ideas in those tasks” (Thompson 1998 p 136).
Variation from the standard practice
A slight variation of this practice was one where the teacher better understood the need to directly
involve students in the mathematical manipulation with full integration of teaching learning aids, rather
than the teacher demonstrating while the students were initially passive. Progression and challenge for
students was also embedded within the pedagogy. Here, the teacher was teaching division to class two
pupils. Having started with a song, she wrote a question on a chalkboard, i.e., 4 ÷ 2 =. Then she asked
learners to take their sticks or lids and put them in front of them on a desk. The teacher instructed them
to take four sticks and put aside. From the four sticks, she instructed them to take two sticks and put
aside and then asked them to say how many groups of two sticks they have. Learners answered in
chorus: “two”. The teacher wrote the answer on the chalkboard as 2. Then she said “…so if you take
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four and divide by two it is equal to two…” She then wrote example two - 6 ÷ 3 = and instructed pupils
to take six sticks and put them in three groups of two each and give the answer. Another example was
of a teacher counting lids aloud at the same time as all her students were doing rather than
demonstrating while they remained inactive. Such slight variations made a significant difference to
student engagement and learning.
In most of the lessons observed teachers and learners used bottle caps, sticks made from thick grass or
trees, and stones. The use of these materials suggests that teachers use locally available materials to
teach their learners. In some of the lessons, for instance, teachers asked their pupils to go out quickly
and collect say 20 little stones each and bring in the class for use either in counting, multiplying,
dividing, addition or division. The chalk board was mainly used to write numbers for children to visualize
and copy the material taught for their records.
Poorer practices
One NQT observed teaching fractions to 45 Standard II had spent much time carefully drawing circles
on the board at the beginning of the lesson, ignoring good teaching aids illustrating fractions made out
of card and hanging on a cupboard door. She taught halves and quarters by asking a girl to shade in a
half of a circle. Then she moved students into groups of 6-8 children. They watched a peer cut an
orange into halves and quarters but this group work was not supported by the teacher actively
commenting and teaching each group. She had remained silent, hovering by each one. One child
sliced the orange rather than cut it into fractions. Individual students came to the front and verbally
rehearsed what they had done to the fruit. In the written exercises following, the teacher divided shapes
into three and shaded one in, thus silently introducing the concept of a third without having taught this
previously in her presentation. The teacher went around and marked just a few students‟ work, wrongly,
just ticking even where they had got the exercise wrong. Brief examinations of students‟ work indicated
that they had been taught this lesson before but in short discussions with five different students, none
could say what a half, quarter or third was when asked to look at the copied and shaded shaped in their
books.
While this lesson contained variation for the students, with teacher demonstration, group work, verbal
explanations by students holding their fruit sections, the understanding of how young children learn at
each stage of the lesson was not well formulated. Time was wasted chalking up the board rather than
using the existing, good, teaching aids. Most students were passive observers in the group work rather
than active, engaged participants and discussants with some major misconceptions about the nature of
the task illustrated by the group who sliced rather than cut up their fruit. Rather than consolidating and
assessing their existing understanding through the group exercise, the teacher introduced a new
concept of a third without having taught it. Her individual assessment of students at the end did not
result in actions taken to remediate their misunderstanding but rather she added to it by ticking work
that was erroneous.
In some cases students had no exercise books or pencils but teachers did not seem to bother to supply
them with materials. Hence, such pupils were just sitting and observing or doing only a few practices
without a place to jot them down. When asked to explain what they do with such students, the teacher
said:
some children are very stubborn…they don’t like schooling at all…even when you try
to advise their parents to buy them books they don’t do so…what can I do? You
decide to concentrate to those who are ready to learn… (Teacher interview 1, NQT)
The challenges of teaching large classes of children, many of whom will come unprepared to school
are great, but not insurmountable, as earlier evidence indicates. Comments such as the one above
were relatively rare in this study.
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4.2.5 NQTs Challenges in Teaching Mathematics
Large numbers of students and congested classes make it difficult and sometimes nearly impossible for
NQT to control the class and attend to every child‟s needs and interests:
...in a class of more than 100 pupils it becomes difficult for me to manage students‟
learning activities or make a follow up for each of the students individually to ensure
that they learn properly, this is really a big challenge for me…
This situation, according to respondents, has been the cause for some of the grade I and II pupils to
remain illiterate even after staying the whole year or two in their respective grades. Related to this is
inadequacy and lack of teaching and learning resources. The NQTs indicated a serious shortage of
materials, many of which are unusable because of their poor condition:
...to be sincere the teaching and learning resources are critically limited and most of
the available teaching aids are in a very poor condition to the extent that they cannot
be used for teaching. Sometimes we use cards, we place them on the classroom
walls, and since the classrooms have no doors and windows sometimes they are
destroyed.
(Teacher interview 6, NQT)
In this regard even though some of the teachers are motivated to improvise and use instructional
resources, they are constrained by the poor physical environment and the lack of resources such that
they are sometimes forced to teach mathematics with only a chalkboard.
Classroom management, especially with big groups of pupils, is complex but TTC training, in the
institutions that we visited, rarely related to actual contexts of schools. Our data suggest that the extent
to which NQT develop effective teaching practices depends on their own motivation and coping
mechanisms and on whether they are well mentored and supported on the job. While flexibility and
adaptability cannot be learned through lectures, there are strategies and tips that could be discussed
and reflected on during initial teacher training. As mentioned earlier, demonstrations and simulations do
not reflect the reality that NQT face in the schools; it is therefore really important that tutors bring into
their teaching concrete examples of lower primary classroom teaching and samples of small children‟s
mistakes. Video of math lessons and case studies from real life teaching situations, for example, could
help to prepare prospective teachers to the challenges they are likely to encounter in their schools.
In spite of the lacking in NQT‟s knowledge observed during school visits and also captured in the
questionnaires, teachers perception of their capability to teach maths at lower primary and their
expressed level of confidence are quite high. As shown on table 4.6, really few teachers rated
themselves as having low or very low capability or confidence in teaching maths. This means that after
their ITE, they feel ready to teach lower primary maths. Interestingly, these numbers are nearly
equivalent to the ones from the trainees‟ questionnaire with slightly less NQT going for the option „Very
high‟ than the trainees.
Table 4.6
Very High
High
Low
Very Low
Total
Capability to teach lower
primary maths
Freq.
%
58
22.83
190
74.80
3
1.18
3
1.18
254
100.00
Confidence to teach lower
primary maths
Freq.
%
60
23.62
189
74.41
1
0.39
3
1.18
253
100.00
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This is in contrast with some of the findings from Morley et al (2009) where the teacher students
interviewed in 2 Tanzanian institutions had felt that the mathematic classes they had received at
secondary school had not prepared them sufficiently for their course. It differs also from what some of
the tutors said.
This is because most students whom are enrolled in almost all Teachers colleges are
those who are academically weak, and in most cases they come to our mathematics
classes with negative perceptions assuming that they have low skills in mathematics,
they come here saying, „mathematics is a very difficult subject but I have no option
because it is a compulsory subject, for other subjects you can choose but not for
mathematics'. So being a tutor in mathematics I know exactly what they need. ... one
being the psychological counseling to make them prepared psychologically to
understand that maths is like any other subjects, but also to help them know
mathematics using very simple methods.
(Tutor, mathematics, TTC3)
5.3 Insights into experienced Teachers’ Knowledge, Understanding and Practice
As discussed in chapter one, the corner stone of the conceptual framework that guided this research
project is the relation between what is expected of teacher education programmes and teaching
practices. The earlier sections have looked at ITE by contrasting trainees‟ knowledge, understanding,
practices and PCK with NQT‟s. To look at continuing professional development we need to turn our
attention to CPD program participants and see to what extent they differ from their less experienced
colleagues. Unfortunately, observation of the different CPD in action was beyond the scope and means
of this one year research project. However, interview following classroom observations of CPD
graduates were conducted (5 in reading, 10 in maths) and the same questionnaires used with NQTs
was answered by 88 teachers. In Tanzania, CPD programs are generally offered to teachers with more
than 3 years of experience thus our focus on experienced teachers in this section.
5.3.1 Continuing Professional Ddevelopment Programmes
Several formal and informal institutions and sources of knowledge exist for CDP in Tanzania.
Responses from some teachers interviewed in this category suggest that some of the institutions that
provide CPD include the MTUU (Mpango wa Taifa wa Unicef and UNESCO) which is the teachers‟
education programe coordinated by UNESCO and UNICEF. However, this programme no longer exists.
Other CPD include a three month course established in 1993 called KKK (3Rs) -meaning Reading,
Writing, and Arithmetic; and EQUIP - Education Quality Improvement through Pedagogy funded by
Oxfam. There are also up-grading courses offered by TTCs either from Standard seven qualification to
secondary level or from secondary education level to the Diploma in Education level. In 2003, the
Ministry of Education officiated a 3 years in-service training program known as MUKA (Mafunzo ya
Ualimu Kazini which means In- Service Teacher Training) for upgrading grade B/C teachers to Grade A.
Other on the job training mentioned by respondents include short term seminars and in-house training
given to teachers in schools as well as other non-formal training offered by organizations such as the
Tanzania Mathematical association. Most of these programs, however, with the exception of KKK and
EQUIP, are not subject specific, rather they are intended for all categories of primary school teachers.
There is also a ward-based CPD often taking place in teacher resource centres but this remains to date
rather erratic and difficult to locate.
According to teachers, KKK was focused and was meant for lower grade teachers in primary schools.
Through KKK they learnt how to make and use teaching aids to teach young children mathematics, how
to assist pupils to recognize and write numbers, how to teach mathematics using various methods
including songs and plays. For instance, one teacher said that:
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KKK has made me good in teaching mathematics in class one …even two and three.
We learnt how to prepare teaching aids like [an] abacas, box of numbers, and the
other instrument I have forgotten the name…but it is used to teach mathematics…we
were taught even how to keep teaching aids. Unlike now days these new teachers
don‟t know even to keep their equipment… (Teacher interview 12, maths, CPD)
From 2006, EQUIP organizers began to prepare and offer training specifically for mathematics and
reading in lower grades. Teachers reported that EQUIP prepares even teachers‟ guides for teaching
mathematics and reading in class one and two in primary schools, focusing on teaching skills and
making teaching aids rather than enhancing disciplinary knowledge.
5.3.2 Knowledge and understanding
Experienced teachers were confident in explaining the content of the syllabus for lower grades and
perceived strong links between the syllabus, text books and teachers‟ guides. They argued that the
contents in all these resources are appropriate for lower grade pupils. They also explained that the
syllabus helped them to know generally what and how to teach to lower grade pupils while the text
books provided them with the exact content in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to be
taught to children. The teachers‟ guide on the other hand guides them step by step on how they should
deliver that content to children. However, they also showed the ability to draw on their own professional
judgment in deciding on specific strategies and use of time indicating confidence based on experienced
and reflective practice:
Yesterday when I was preparing myself to teach this lesson, I took my scheme of work
that I derived from the current syllabus. My scheme of work directs me to teach in six
periods….I should teach squares for six periods, rectangles and all other shapes for
six periods each. But according to my understanding I thought I should teach them to
recognize all the shapes at a time in one period. Thereafter, I can proceed teaching
each shape separately. Therefore, I looked first the syllabus, then scheme of work and
later came to prepare for this lesson.
(Teacher interview 13, maths, CPD)
There was agreement with the NQTs in critiquing the variety of textbooks available that lead to
inconsistencies in implementing the primary curriculum. With gaps in training and little CPD available,
the textbooks become a central teaching resource for both NQT and experienced teachers:
…I don‟t think if there is adequate consistency, there is a different approach for
different writers. For instance, you will find that the topic I have taught today is the 17th
where as it is different for other publishers, sometimes even the contents differ. There
are many different books even between one school and the other, you will find so huge
differences and you reach a stage where you are confused…
(Teacher interview 5, maths, CPD).
The primary syllabus and teachers‟ guides appear to provide an adequate guide from which teachers
can plan schemes of work and lesson plans. However, teachers depend on text books for actual lesson
content indicating lack of confidence in their own pedagogical content knowledge. This weakness is
exacerbated by the proliferation of textbooks from different publishers.
Data shows that experienced teachers had a more adequate knowledge of mathematics than NQTs.
One teacher for example explained that division means to put a whole into sections – meaning dividing
into parts according to a need. Their pedagogical content knowledge was manifested in their detailed
analysis of how young children learn mathematical concepts.
..young children should be taken through slowly when teaching…therefore we should
begin with simple things and concrete to complex ones…when I am teaching addition
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to class one, for example, I start with adding units, then tens and units…there after I
can teach them adding tens, then tens and hundreds and continues that way to more
complex numbers…
(Teacher interview 13, maths,CPD)
Experienced teachers were able to explain alternative ways and materials to use when teaching young
children such concepts like division and multiplication. Again, their greater confidence in the pedagogic
steps is noteworthy with this integral use of teaching and learning aids. During interviews one teacher
had this to say:
When I teach division I try to use real objects. I could use maize or bean grains. Mmh!
for example, may be 6÷3, I tell them ok let us take six grains and put them in groups of
three, how many groups will you have? When he answers, you tell him directly that
when you divide 6 by 3 you get 2. Therefore, we can use real objects. Even in
multiplication I could use real objects.
(Teacher interview 2, maths, CPD)
Unlike the NQTs, however, CPDs were more confident in explaining their planning processes,
articulating a more learner-centred understanding, particularly of students with special needs.
Respondents considered both the content, the audience (pupils), and the means (methods and teaching
aids) and provided detailed answers. One teacher made it very clear how she taught her lesson in an
inclusive classroom, with visually impaired and blind students and those who are physically challenged.
Teaching aids here become central to teaching key concepts, individually designed to support specific
needs:
…, if you saw, my manila had large font size and it was also a little bit bold. Also, all
other items had white color. The aim was to enable albino students to see well
because they have partial visual impairment. That is why I was asking them….can you
see well? I am not sure if you noted that I was concentrating to them! Ohoo! So I used
different colors so that they could see well. That is because if you write only on the
chalkboard they could not see well…Especially for the blind, because they could not
see what I posted on the blackboard I looked for items which they could touch and get
to know how the shapes on the blackboard looks like. And if you noticed when I was
teaching about the circle, I asked one blind student to tell me the kind of item he uses
to put food in the dining room and he answered that he uses a plate. Then I told him
that your plate is in a circular shape. I learnt these methods when I was at college. But
after getting here I found other students with special needs so I just used my brain to
see how well I could help them from the experience I got through teaching. Therefore I
learnt some techniques right here through interaction with the environment.
(CPD interview, Kigoma, teacher 13)
This teacher was able to synthesize knowledge initially gained from the TTC with experience to become
a flexible and innovative teacher. Her teaching was based on confident pedagogical content knowledge
of mathematics and specific knowledge of the learners and was constructed as a problem in how to best
match the two – not that the learners were a problem in themselves. Further discussion with the
teacher revealed that she was aware that there were aspects of special needs that she lacked
knowledge and experience in - using sign language to help the deaf as she honestly said;
For the deaf, today they were in the classroom but I don‟t think if I included them in my
lesson. Honestly, we don‟t have much experience in teaching students of that nature.
They were present, but I could not use sign language…we have not managed this to
be honest!
(CPD interview, Kigoma, teacher 13)
This more reflective practice and approach is characteristic of the CPD teachers and is a definitive
difference between them and the NQTs and trainees. They are able to identify what learners need and
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what more they need to know, so perceiving teaching as a profession that required criticality – and
constant retraining from their own research and experience, other colleagues or more formal CPD.
5.3.3 Experienced teachers’ practice and PCK in teaching mathematics
Experienced teachers organized their lesson based on the five major stages according to the current
format used throughout the whole country that exemplifies what many teachers here identify as the
paradigm shift towards a more learner-centred approach:, introduction, presentation, practice, reflection
and conclusion. This was the same structure followed by NQTs. For both groups of teachers, the
reflection stage was a concept new to them and entailed sharing understanding of what was learnt with
the students in a form of recapitulation or plenary.
Standard classroom practice was very similar to NQTs. However, the main difference between them
was that experienced teachers‟ use time more effectively; they pay greater attention to ensure that
students understand and complete the exercises and they integrate teaching aids more effectively into
their teaching. One teacher began a lesson on addition by using a counting song, then wrote simple
sums such as 5 + 2 = or 7 + 3 = on the board and for eight minutes of presentation, asked individual
students to come up to solve the question, rewarded when correct by whole class clapping. This was
followed by students doing exercises in their books individually while the teacher moved around the
class marking. Over two thirds of the lesson time was given over for students to do the exercise rather
than have repeated teacher demonstration. Greater sensitivity was observed in that the teacher
checked that all students had writing equipment and wrote correctly, as well as observing if students put
place values in their appropriate positions. She also guided individual students to add using their
counting objects. This part took most of the instructional time. In the three minutes before the end she
concluded the lesson by saying “all of you have done well the exercise…let‟s clap hands!” This was the
reflective part – and perhaps the least developed.
Another variation in teaching practice that distinguished the more experienced teacher was in their
ability to understand concepts and explain these in a simple way to students, drawing on teaching aids
as an integral part of this, often learnt from training courses. In teaching fractions to a Standard III class,
one experienced teacher used real objects like oranges to teach the concept of whole, half and quarter.
She hung a manila sheet on a wall and used pictures of circles shaded in half to explain that a „half
means a whole thing divided into two equal parts‟. She then called one student to come in front and cut
an orange into two equal parts, followed by another student cutting the halves into quarters. The teacher
was also trying to show the relationship between them as indicated in her explanation:
A quarter means one whole thing divided into four parts, so a quarter is smaller than a
half because a half means one thing is divided into two equal parts.
(Teacher interview, Tanga, teacher 2)
She then asked pupils to draw those sections in their exercise books and marked. What was noteworthy
here was that the teacher drew directly on the manila sheet to use visual representations of fractions in
the form of shaded circles in tandem with her simple but correct verbal explanation. This was followed
by a third way of representing fractions by the physical cutting up of an orange into two halves by one
student in front of the class and then into four quarters by a second student – indicating the different
fractions in the changeover of student. This lesson was ostensibly the same as that of the NQT in the
previous section. Here, the CPD teacher integrated teaching aid, verbal concept and physical
manipulation of a concrete object within one tightly timed explanation. She could explain the concept of
fractions to an adult in equally straightforward language.
While NQTs were concerned with lesson delivery, and sometimes ignored or did not notice students
playing or talking, CPDs classrooms were notable for their calm discipline and active, busy students.
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One CPD teacher was asked to explain this aspect of their practice and linked it to age, experience and
parenting;
…we are more like mothers than our [NQT} counterparts. Even pupils have the ability
of recognizing who is who…so they see us like mothers, sometimes like
grandmothers. But these children need more parenting than being a teacher…I think
that‟s why they prefer to be with us most of the time…NQTs are in hurry…they don‟t
have time to care…
(CPD interview, Kigoma, teacher 13,)
More experienced teachers therefore had a strong grasp of the primary syllabus and used the teacher‟s
guide effectively but critically, supported by strong content knowledge of mathematics. While their
practice mirrored standard practice, it was innovative where necessary, focused on the learners and
used teaching aids creatively and adaptively as an integral part of the lesson. Teaching was perceived
of as problem solving, needing „reflection-in-action‟ as well as „reflection-on-action‟ (Schon, 1983) to
have a lasting effect on all the learners with a change in their understanding. This was couched as
caring for students in the parental sense of being concerned for their welfare as well as learning.
5.3.4 CPD teachers’ challenges and training needs in teaching mathematics
Despite the existence of the different CPD programmes, teachers felt they still needed training on
inclusive teaching, effective use of teaching aids, and some content such as geometry. Teachers and
college tutors pointed out that text books give different approaches, leading to confusion. Teachers also
wanted support in meeting the frequent changes occurring in the mathematics syllabus and textbooks
that require different methods to the ones teachers were originally trained in.
Preliminary findings of a baseline study that was conducted in support to the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training for the development of an INSET strategy linked with the Teacher Development and
Management Strategy (TDMS 2008-2013) observed the same that in the area of professional support
through school-based INSET workshops, seminars and training programmes, there appears to be very
limited opportunities. Similar observations had already been made by Hardman (2008) in a review report
of teacher education in Tanzania and the potential for closer links between PRESET and INSET. He
observed for example that there was a weak professional link between teacher training colleges and
schools. Teacher Training Colleges hardly know what is happening in schools while in actual fact they
could become developmental institutions with a substantial outreach to schools. College staff for
example could work in schools periodically to give them relevant and recent experience, and ensure
that their training activities were closely grounded in the realities of the schools and learning problems.
It is from this situation that Tanzania has realized the need for a systematic and coordinated INSET
provision and has developed a five years strategy (In-Service Education and Training Strategy for
Primary School Teachers) to ensure the development of adequate quality primary school teachers
through continued in-service and training and professional growth (United Republic of Tanzania, 2010).
The strategy is yet to be fully implemented.
5.5 Exploring Gaps: from Training to gaining experience
In order to see whether the perception of the difficulty to teach different mathematic topics varied
between teacher trainees and NQT we compared the data from the question presented for NQT in
section 4.2.2 (table 4.4) to the ones from the trainees questionnaire and ran some statistic tests to
check whether the answers depended on the status of the respondent (trainee or teacher) and when it
did, whether the effect size was meaningful. Both groups of respondents gave similar answers to 7 out
of 10 questions. For example, they all said that recognising fractions and place value were easy to
teach. Interestingly, teachers found three maths topics more difficult to teach than trainees: addition,
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subtraction and division. For example, 51% of trainees believe that teaching division is easy or really
easy while only 31.1 % of teachers think the same way.2 Similarly, 59.45% of teachers find adding two
or three digit numbers involving renaming difficult as opposed to 27.36% of trainees.3 This may appear
strange at first sight but it makes a lot of sense if we consider that trainees have so little exposure to
how children learn and understand mathematical concepts. In the TTC, trainees are rarely exposed to
the range of possible mistakes that pupils make when they learn basic operations or to the
misconceptions they have. Teachers, however, have experienced the challenge of teaching addition
and subtraction, they are therefore more likely to have an accurate perception of the difficulty that
teaching different topics represent.
Some of the items in the questionnaire were designed to provide insights on different views of teaching
and the choices were provided in order to reflect specific theories. We found that teachers selected
more learner-centred approaches and had a stronger focus on the concrete level while trainees went
quickly from a concrete approach to a more abstract one. However, as discussed earlier, even though
NQT talked about the importance of manipulation and concrete activities to foster pupils‟ understanding,
their practice was often teacher-centred; more so than their experienced colleagues. This is consistent
with the way teaching takes place at TTC level and let the team wonder whether NQT are simply
replicating the way they were taught.
Another area of differences between trainees and NQT is their knowledge of the contents of the primary
maths syllabus. For example, where subtraction of higher numbers, word problems and measurement
are introduced in Standard III: 9 percent of trainees thought that the subtraction of 2 or 3 digit numbers
involving regrouping was not appropriate for lower primary and 25 percent of trainees thought that
estimating and measuring of length, volume and weight was not appropriate to lower primary teaching
compared to 9 percent of teachers. Similarly, 11 percent of trainees as opposed to only 1 percent of
teachers thought that solving word problems was not appropriate to lower primary teaching. This lack of
specific knowledge of the contents of the primary curriculum from the trainees reflects low expectations
of what young children can be expected to learn over three years but also suggest that they need more
exposure to the primary curriculum during their time at the TTC.
The ITE mathematics syllabus covers all of the content areas needed to teach primary maths in what
appears to be some detail. There is a specific body of knowledge for each topic e.g. number, algebra
and measurement. This matches the detailed primary curriculum well. The primary curriculum for
maths begins with pre-number activities, is based on concrete progression and on „real life‟ examples,
moving from the idea of concrete representation of numbers to the more abstract internalization and
manipulation of number. Progression is built in a spiral manner over the three years. With no tutor
guides to support the ITE curriculum, maths tutors use this curriculum and the primary school teacher‟s
guide to teach. Reference books are also drawn on, however, resulting in a lack of uniformity in how
the ITE maths curriculum is taught. As we mentioned earlier, the number and diversity of books present
a challenge for NQT and this is reinforced when the manuals used in the TTC are not the same as the
ones used in their school.
Tutors replicate the way they were taught at secondary school and indeed much of the academic
content replicates or repeats that taught at secondary school. As Lewin & Stuart (2002) pointed out,
replicating or teaching for the first time the content of the secondary syllabus in TTC is an expensive
way to teach this content. It may be important to look at the content of the secondary maths curriculum
and the way it is taught to get a fuller picture of the methodology that trainees carry with them back to
the primary school. They rarely get the opportunity to upgrade their own skills in mathematics nor are
they involved in curriculum reviews.
2
3
(2(4, N=1102)=60.33, p<0.001, V=0.23)
(Chi2(4,N=1102) = 100.65, p< 0.001, V =– 0.30)
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The frequent changes in the primary curriculum mean that even while tutors teach from „the‟ primary
curriculum, this is often out of date by the time their trainees come to teach in schools as NQTs.
Trainees‟ pedagogical content knowledge is more abstract than teachers, with a poor knowledge of the
primary curriculum and its specific contents for Standards I, II and III. They are not aware that some
maths topics such as subtraction of two and three digit numbers, measurement and using words or
stories to embed mathematical sums in are taught in Standard III and hence may have low expectations
for those who come into their classes in Standard IV.
There is great similarity between trainees and tutors in terms of their knowledge and pedagogical
content knowledge with agreement about the sequence of a maths lesson and the need to move from
the concrete to the abstract. Trainees, however, discussed the „paradigm shift‟ towards a more learnercentred teaching approach more often than tutors – who did not appear to discuss it at all. Trainees
replicate demonstration methods as shown at the TTC in maths. Other participatory methods are
seldom used in TTC. Tutors say this it is due to large numbers of trainees and lack of resources for
tutors to create their own teaching aids. However, some primary schools also face such constraints and
more diversity in the methods used by TTC tutors could have a positive influence on what is happening
in schools.
NQT appear to have quickly learnt to read and follow the current primary curriculum in some detail, if
with little critical reflection. They are hampered by the numbers of different text books available for
reference. Their content knowledge varies with some NQT showing discernible gaps for example in
multiplication and fractions. Such gap has serious consequences for the successful learning of their
young students. Some NQT continue to use rote learning and drilling – and demonstration – as their
key teaching strategies. Their lessons can be characterized as having a poor use of time, with teaching
and learning aids not always integral to the concept being taught. Most of the NQT we saw used group
work ineffectively. They find it hard to meet the specific needs of all the students in their classrooms,
having to take books home to mark and therefore not being able to diagnose what students have
misunderstood in the same lesson and so remediate to it there and then. According to Ball (2000:244)
“identifying core activities of teaching such as figuring out what students know, choosing and managing
representations of ideas, deciding alternative courses of action, and analysing subject matter knowledge
are essential elements of content knowledge for teaching mathematics”. Yet, so far, curriculum
developers have paid little attention to develop the capacity of future teachers to link mathematical
content and pedagogy in ways that are flexible and responsive to the context in which teaching takes
place. Ball (2000:246) points out that the challenge teacher education faces “is how to create
opportunities for learning subject matter that would enable teachers not only to know but to learn to use
what they know in the varied contexts of practice”.
However, some NQTs show that they have learnt on the job from observing more experienced
colleagues and show variation from this „standard‟. They can use teaching and learning aids as an
integral part of the lesson, involve their students immediately and concretely in the lesson and use a
variety of teaching approaches. These specific areas of teaching and learning are aspects that could be
made visible to tutors at TTCS as concrete aspects that trainees need to actively embrace and
demonstrate through their BTP, in their modelling of teaching to one another. This implies that their
tutors will have to understand what these apparently „minor‟ differences between a good and a less
effective NQT is, and teach these directly at college. Perhaps ITE needs to find a balance between
direct teaching of PCK and teaching their trainees how to learn as a teacher.
CPD programs for maths have taught teachers how to prepare and use a greater variety of teaching
and learning aids for their classrooms. This has a great impact on their teaching. The more
experienced CPD teachers have a confident knowledge and critical interpretation of the syllabus and
related documents. They draw on their own judgment and are innovative. They use their knowledge of
70
their students to create teaching and learning aids that directly teach the concept. They also use clear
verbal explanations to back this teaching up and understand the need to explain a concept several
times in a number of ways. They keep their students busy, and active, and have a faster cognitive pace
to the lessons. They synthesize their different knowledge and know what they don‟t know.
It is unclear whether the differences identified between NQT and experienced teachers come from
taking part in CPD or from experience but it appears that ITE, on-the-job support and CPD programs
can all contribute to support and speed up the process by which teachers develop their teaching
capacity. The ability to explain mathematical concepts in several ways and to get students to use
teaching and learning aids in a hands-on way, for instance, could also be taught at the TTC.
Better use of time, the ability to work with all the students and to identify those who are not following is
an aspect that may have to be learnt on the job as an NQT – but learnt within the first year of teaching.
Understanding the specific requirements of students with special needs and innovative, imaginative
approaches to including them is taught at the TTC but experience appears to be the better teacher.
5.6 Summary
Both tutors and trainees saw TTCs as their main source of knowledge. They believed that the TTC
syllabus is relatively well aligned with the primary school curriculum since it covers the main topics
taught in primary schools. However, curriculum is presented generally and without separating the
content between lower and upper primary. This may explain why many trainees thought that some of
the content of the lower grades syllabus was not appropriate for lower primary children. The interviews
also revealed that TTCs are not informed when the primary curriculum is changed or when new text
books are produced. This is problematic because it leads to inconsistencies between TTCs and trainees
are prepared to teach maths in primary school using out-dated documents and textbooks.
A frequent approach in TTCs is for tutors to teach the theory then demonstrate the practice in front of
the group or sometimes ask the trainees to demonstrate themselves. Tutors said that they draw a lot
from their own teaching experience when giving their lessons and teach trainees the importance of
using songs and games to engage pupils. There also seems to be an emphasis on teaching aids and
manipulation of small objects to learn maths. However, since the delivery method is teacher-led,
trainees are likely to associate this type of practice to what they should do in schools. There seems to
be little attention on how to manage group work or supervise a classroom when pupils are using
material. In the lessons observed, there was a lack of realistic scenarios that could help trainees to
understand how small children can behave with the material and what the teacher should do in terms of
group work supervision and formative evaluation. Adaptability and classroom management were
recognized as important but the extent to which TTC contribute to develop such capacities is unclear.
Some teacher education practices assume that primary school mathematics is not difficult, and that
trainees who acquire sufficient mathematics content knowledge and knowledge of methods for teaching
mathematics in schools will become good math teachers. This can lead to the belief that teachers only
need to know a collection of facts and rules and that children can do math just by following set
procedures to arrive at an answer (Ma, 1999). Ball‟s research (2000) contradicts this assumption and
shows that even when a teacher is able to do mathematics, he/she may not have the kind of
mathematical understandings that can help pupils to learn it meaningfully.
This somehow reflects what the research team observed. The NQT who took part in the research
generally showed good knowledge of the primary curriculum although they mentioned being confused
by the mismatch between the syllabus and some of the text books. Their disciplinary knowledge
appears to come from their secondary school experience while they claim that they gained their
understanding of teaching maths predominantly from TTC then from working in schools. NQT‟s
71
knowledge and understanding varied considerably between teachers with some NQT showing big
gaps in their understanding of mathematical concepts and pedagogical content knowledge. They tend
to teach sequentially and although they say that they prefer more concrete and learner-centered
activities, they use a lot of drilling. Some NQTs did make the attempt to engage or involve pupils
actively in learning, but in a superficial manner. The activity method is about focusing on the pupils‟
personal construction of mathematical knowledge. It is a teaching model which fits a problem-solving
or constructivist view of learning mathematics and is meant to emphasize conceptual understanding
(Kuhs and Ball, 1986). NQTs‟ practices were often instrumental and lacked the kind of learner-centred
focus which has the potential to allow children to construct their own understanding of the concepts.
The main differences between NQT and the experienced teachers who took part in maths related CPD
programmes such as KKK, EQUIP, MAKUTA or local on-the-job training appears to be their PCK. Their
adaptability to learners‟ needs was stronger and they were better at time management, group control,
supervision of exercises and formative assessment. They also had a deeper understanding of
mathematic concepts which enabled them to provide simple explanations. CPD teachers are also more
reflexive in their approach to teaching and learning.
Chapter 6: Key Issues for Policy and Practice
6.1 Initial Teacher Education
While the ITE curriculum for mathematics is detailed and relatively well aligned with the primary
curriculum, the reading one is not sufficiently detailed to support tutors to teach it well nor for trainees
and NQTs – who follow it uncritically – to use as an appropriate guide to teach reading and
mathematics. The ITE curriculum is overly generalized particularly in the pedagogy section and needs
to be differentiated for lower and upper primary. Also, the ITE curriculum has many aims and is
overloaded with many subjects for trainees to cover and be examined on. These examinations assess
both content and methods but actual teaching practice is underused as an assessment mode.
Tutors do not have access to specific tutor guides to teach the ITE curriculum and the plethora of
different textbooks means an inconsistent approach even within one TTC. Tutors are not involved in
curriculum design either for the TTC or primary and they are not always informed when curricula are
updated. With frequent changes in the primary curriculum, trainees are taught content that does not
necessarily match that actually taught in the primary schools. Tutors often do not have primary school
experience themselves and so cannot critique the TTC curriculum nor the primary curriculum from an
experiential point of view. There is no demand that tutors have primary experience nor seek to gain
recent and relevant primary experience. With their trainees only getting practice in teaching upper
primary, these tutors may have very little or no direct contact with lower primary school classes and
pedagogies. CPD opportunities are of a great help but these are rare and are not specific to reading or
maths.
72
Tutors teach much theory to cover all the expected outcomes from the ITE curriculum. While they
attempt to talk about learner centred methods, they are constrained in their own pedagogies by large
classes, few resources and what appears to be a separation of content and methods within the college.
They tend to replicate their own education and use demonstration or simulation but these can be at a
superficial level. Because of their lack of primary experience, the reality of Tanzanian classrooms
remains abstract. Pedagogies appropriate for large, congested classrooms filled with mixed ability and
sometimes mixed age children with very few resources are not well known to them. Theory and practice
remain very separate.
Block practice is seen as highly beneficial to trainees, integrating theory and practice. However, they
are not allocated lower primary classrooms, nor do they get the opportunity to teach lower primary as
NQTs. BTP can be a difficult time, too short for meaningful learning, with little school support, few
resources and hard living conditions. The potential benefits that could be used by integrating theory
and practice through the demonstrations schools that are on most TTC campuses are not exploited.
However, the TTC is the major source of influence in terms of developing teachers. It can produce
innovative, critical and reflective NQTs who understand that they need to synthesise their knowledge
gained from the TTC with that of more experienced colleagues, private study and CPD. Making changes
here will reap great benefits in a short time. The importance of training for the teaching of young
children has been demonstrated. Mtahabwa & Rao (2009) argue that training is more important than a
resource-rich environment but training need to provide the type of pedagogical content knowledge that
teachers need.
6.2 Newly Qualified Teachers
Usually, NQTs are only allowed to teach in upper primary where they are happy to be as they often
consider lower primary teaching degrading. They are trained for this through working with older more
experienced teachers but this is on an ad hoc basis and dependent on the good will and expertise of
these teachers should NQTs then want to teach the youngest children.
Some NQTs follow the primary syllabus without thinking but it changes rapidly and so there is a gap
between what they were taught at the TTC and the content and methods they are expected to teach.
They are unprepared to teach large classes in resource-poor environments – and this is their major
complaint. Some children have been to pre-school while others have not but NQTs are ill prepared to
teach pre-reading and pre-numeric skills. NQTs are, however, aware of the paradigm shift towards
more learner-centred approaches and some are able to develop their practice and move towards this as
appropriate in their context.
Some specific gaps in NQTs‟ knowledge appear to stem from their weak grades at „O‟ level, particularly
in maths. Other gaps, however, may reflect the lack of focus in the TTC on the theory and pedagogic
skills necessary to teach the youngest children. In reading, they lack knowledge and pedagogical
content knowledge of phonological awareness, phonology, teaching of phonics, and comprehension of
longer continuous texts. In maths, they find teaching subtraction, solving word problems and division
hardest to teach and appear ill-equipped to teach early numeracy. The TTC curriculum may not give
enough depth of understanding of mathematical concepts to sustain developing teachers over the first
few years of their career.
The TTC curriculum outcomes expect that trainees will be innovative and secure in their theoretical and
practical knowledge but only around a third of the NQTs observed fell into this category. Observed
variations in practice indicate that the initial training is not strong enough to ensure regularity or that all
NQTs will be innovative. The development of practice is therefore dependent on NQTs‟ self-motivation
and efficacy, on opportunities for good mentoring and collaboration, and on CPD programs. NQT‟s pre-
73
service teacher education gave them basic knowledge but most of their professional knowledge came
from experience in teaching in schools and from experienced teachers.
6.3 Experienced teachers
In their practice, the experienced teachers observed can be characterized and distinguished from NQTs
in five specific ways:
1. They teach at a faster cognitive pace, getting students to learn more materials in a more
systematic way with a sense of progression within each lesson
2. They create teaching and learning aids and integrate them into their lessons
3. They are more inclusive of children with special needs, analyzing what their specific needs are
and using their imagination and knowledge in using teaching aids and verbal explanations to
include them.
4. They team teach more often than NQTs, perhaps a policy appropriate for younger children but
use this to discuss issues together and to learn from one another in an active ongoing
construction of knowledge.
5. They are good managers, using time effectively and ensuring learners get more time to practice
the new skills. They ensure all learners understand, identify those who do not, and mark all
books within the lesson.
Some of these skills develop over time but crucially within the specific learning context of the large,
multilingual and resource-poor Tanzanian primary classroom. Some, however, could be expectations of
trainees and NQTs such as inculcating a sense of progression, integral use of teaching aids and
specific strategies to include students with special education needs. Bringing experienced teachers
more directly into the TTCs and clarifying their roles in training NQTs early on will support the
acquisition of these professional skills in trainees and NQTs.
The paradigm shift that began in Tanzania in the 1970s under the Education for Self-Reliance (ESR)
curriculum put a large emphasis on teaching agriculture, health and life skills with participatory and
child-centred pedagogies that included children with special educational needs and encouraged teacher
training (Omani et al., 1983; Taylor & Mulhall, 1997; O-saki & Agu, 2002; Barrett, 2008). In the research
there was ample evidence to show that both NQTs and experienced teachers had grasped participatory
methods and were able to adapt these and extend them for less able and disabled students. They used
methods appropriate in their circumstances with some room for manoeuvre (Croft). However, what was
present in our sample of CPD teachers but somehow missing from NQTs is better knowledge and
deeper understanding of the content in both maths and reading and their specific strategies. Once this
gap is filled in, we are suggesting that teachers may be able to integrate the subject and pedagogic
knowledge and turn this into pedagogic content knowledge.
6.4 Recommendations to take forward
Initial teacher education
Enhancing CPD programs may not be enough as they can rarely reach the critical mass needed for
profound and lasting change – which will be expensive. The simpler but more effective alternative
would be to alter the structure of the initial training, and specifically to:
1. Lengthen the teaching practice in schools to ensure at least three months
2. Ensure that trainees observe and then teach lower grades in at least one of the BTP
3. Ensure tutors are involved in BPT by placing this before the end of the academic year so
trainees have to return to the TTC to reflect and discuss their experience with their tutors
4. Ensure that tutors go out to supervise at least twice so that they gain recent and relevant
experience
74
5. Make more use of demonstration schools and other nearby schools for single and double
lesson teaching and observation throughout the academic year
6. Draw on experienced teachers in local schools to be used as expert teachers for students and
tutors to observe
7. Ensure tutors have CPD to update their knowledge of reading, theory and practice with a model
of reading from the primary curriculum that embeds decoding within comprehension.
8. Develop case studies on formative evaluation based on real classroom situations and common
pupils‟ mistakes for both maths and reading and distribute them in the TTCs for tutors to use in
their teaching.
TTC curriculum
1. Include a full model of reading that includes integration of word level and comprehension with a
focus on oral reading fluency and a rationale for this so that teachers are adequately prepared
to teach the primary curriculum.
2. Include some notions about bilingual classroom management and how to deal with local
languages when teaching early reading and maths.
3. Take into account the importance of pre-reading and pre-numeric skills and increase the focus
on early grades.
Primary curriculum
1. Reading to be taught from the beginning simultaneously with oral skills and reading
2. The place and content of pre-reading skills and phonological awareness should be clear and
taught or recapped in Standard 1
3. The primary curriculum is overloaded and should be reduced to four or five subjects for lower
primary
4. The model of reading in the primary curriculum may be appropriate for Kiswahili but it needs to
include strategies for large classes; pre-reading skills; more focus on comprehension with
coherent teaching of vocabulary through texts; strategies for managing bilingual classrooms
and code switching. It also needs to be taught to trainees by tutors who understand the model
and know some of the underlying theory to explain.
5. A mechanism should be put in place to insure that TTCs are systematically and rapidly
informed of any change in the primary curriculum.
6. A review of the different text books used in primary should take place in order to make sure that
they are still aligned with the curriculum. New text books should follow strict guidelines in terms
of content, methods and organization in order to reduce the risk of confusion for trainees and
teachers.
Schools
1. Systematize and strengthen the induction process – focusing on the continuing development of
teachers‟ curricular and pedagogical content knowledge – through structured opportunities for
coaching and collaborative work with experienced teachers.
75
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Appendix 1: Summary of key quantitative data
Appendix 1.3 - Tables for chapter 3
1.3.1 Selected tables from the trainees’ questionnaire data
Table 1.3.1A For which language/s has your training prepared you to teach reading?
Languages
English
Swahili
Swahili and English
Freq.
11
280
557
%
1.30
33.02
65.68
Table 1.3.1B The language which I expect to teach reading in is?
Languages
English
Swahili
Swahili and English
Freq.
53
772
23
%
6.25
91.04
2.71
1.3.2 Selected tables from the teachers’ questionnaire data
Table 1.3.2A Teachers‟ qualification
Qualification
Diploma
III
III A
III B
III C
III A/C
Total
Freq.
1
2
215
13
21
1
253
Percent
0.40
0.79
84.98
5.14
8.30
0.40
100.00
Table 1.3.2B Gender of teachers
Male
Female
Total
Freq.
43
211
254
Percent
16.93
83.07
100.00
Table 1.3.2C Current teaching class
|
Freq. Percent
------------+----------------------------------I
|
31 12.20
I & II
|
3
1.18
II
|
23
9.06
III
|
66 25.98
III - V
|
2
0.79
III A
|
3
1.18
IV
|
48 18.90
IV - VI
|
1
0.39
79
IV - VII
|
2
0.79
NURSERY
|
1
0.39
V
|
25
9.84
V - VII
|
1
0.39
V-VI
|
1
0.39
VI
|
29 11.42
VII
|
18
7.09
------------+----------------------------------Total
|
254 100.00
1.3.2D Range of time teaching that class
Range of time
teaching that class
1 year or less
2 years
3 years
4 or 5 years
More than 5 years
Total
Frequency
Percent
74
52
38
30
58
252
29.37
20.63
15.08
11.90
23.02
100.00
Appendix 1.4
1.4.1 Selected tables from the trainees’ questionnaire data
Table 1.4.1A
Percentage
The best way to help children in early grades school to read is to
(a) Look at pictures and read whole words or sentences
(b) Repeat words after the teacher has said them out loud
(c) Teach them to sound out sounds or syllables in the words.
(d) Guide pupils to recognize words and sentences in songs,
poems or stories
Strongly
Agree
60.61
75.71
68.75
53.54
Agree
Disagree
33.02
22.88
28.89
4.60
1.30
2.24
Strongly
disagree
1.77
0.12
0.12
31.37
10.26
4.83
Table 1.4.1B
Which of the following reading skills would you find difficult or easy to teach in the first three years of primary school?
Very
Difficult
Difficult
Easy
Very
Easy
(a) Finding meaning from a word‟s place in the sentence
15.33
39.62
30.54
6.01
Not
suitable
for grade
8.49
(b) Joining sounds together to make syllables
6.84
23.58
49.88
16.27
3.42
(c) Linking stories, actions and pictures with writing.
4.36
18.40
49.88
24.53
2.83
(d) Punctuation and capital letters
3.54
12.62
52.48
29.72
1.65
(e) Reading aloud at sufficient speed to make sense of the writing.
8.61
28.89
37.97
17.22
7.31
(f) Recognizing different parts of a word
11.32
31.37
33.02
11.44
12.85
(g) Teaching letter sounds
7.78
23.82
43.75
17.81
6.84
(h) The way a story is put together
14.74
33.25
27.83
8.96
15.21
Skills
80
(i) Understanding the overall meaning of a story, poem or other
piece of writing.
16.65
33.18
19.36
5.90
24.79
Difficulty of teaching reading skills in first 3 years of primary
Q20A
Q20B
Q20C
Q20D
Q20E
Q20F
Q20G
Q20H
Q20I
0
20
40
60
80
100
percent
Very Difficult
Easy
Not suitable for this grade
Difficult
Very easy
Table 1.4.1C
The best way to help children in early grades school to read is to
(a) Look at pictures and read whole words or sentences
(b) Repeat words after the teacher has said them out loud
(c) Teach them to sound out sounds or syllables in the words.
(d) Guide pupils to recognize words and sentences in songs, poems or stories
Percentage
Agree
Disagree
93.63
98.59
97.64
84.91
6.37
1.42
2.36
15.09
Table 1.4.1D
You plan to teach children to read with understanding stories of five to six lines from the board. Which two
strategies seem best?
Strategy 1
Freq.
%
(a) Explain to the class what is happening as you teach
127
460
354
7.49
27.12
20.87
452
303
1696
26.65
17.87
100
(b) Ask the whole class to recite the story and ask one or two to tell you what happens in the story
(c) Draw pictures in a story sequence to show what is happening
(d) The children read the story to themselves and then ask each other questions and give answers on the
story
(e) The children read the story to themselves and answer questions written on the board
Total
81
0
.2
Mean
.4
.6
Strategies to teach reading stories
EBONITE T.T.C. KABANGA T.T.C MPUGUSO T.T.C VIKINDU T.T.C
Explain what happens as you teach
The whole class recite the story &1 or 2 say what happens
Show pictures in a story sequence
Children read themselves and ask each others questions
Read to themselves and answer written questions
Table 1.4.1E
The most important quality of a primary
school teacher is
a) Being caring to children
b) Being knowledgeable in the subject you
teach
c) Keeping good class discipline
d) Using play and games activities in teaching
Percentage
Strongly
agree &
Disagree
Agreed
combined
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Disagree
89.15
10.61
99.76
0.24
0.00
83.25
16.51
99.76
0,12
0.12
78.07
34.20
20.75
49.88
98.82
84.08
0,94
13,09
0.24
2.83
Trainees‟ perceived capability and confidence in teaching maths and reading.
Capability to teach
lower primary maths
Confidence to
teach lower
primary maths
Ability to teach
reading at lower
primary
Confidence to
teach reading at
lower primary
Freq.
289
%
34.08
Freq.
%
Freq.
%
Freq.
%
398
46.93
301
35.5
349
41.6
High
526
62.03
425
50.12
524
61.79
479
56.49
Low
28
3.3
23
2.71
18
2.12
18
2.12
Very Low
5
0.59
2
0.24
5
0.59
2
0.24
848
100
848
100
848
100
848
100
Very High
Total
82
Perceived ability to teach reading in lower primary
teacher
trainee
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Mean
Very High
Low
High
Very Low
Confidence to teach reading in lower primary
teacher
trainee
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Mean
Very High
Low
High
Very Low
1.4.2 Selected tables and graphics from the teacher’s data
Table 1.4.2A
What makes a good teacher of early reading?
Percentage
(NQT & CPD teachers)
Agree
Disagree
(a) Being a good reader themselves in the language.
(b) Telling lots of stories and linking them to text.
(c) Getting children to memorize words and sentences.
(d) Giving a range of strategies to make sense of words.
(e) Reading aloud in the classroom.
94.89
92.13
92.52
97.64
90.55
5.11
7.87
7.48
2.36
9.45
83
Table 1.4.2B
Which of the following reading skills do you find difficult or easy
to teach in the first three years of primary school
(a) Finding meaning from a word‟s place in the sentence
(b) Joining sounds together to make syllables
(c) Linking stories, actions and pictures with writing.
(d) Punctuation and capital letters
(e) Reading aloud at sufficient speed to make sense of the writing.
(f) Recognizing different parts of a word
(g) Teaching letter sounds
(h) The way a story is put together
(i) Understanding the overall meaning of a story, poem or other piece of
writing.
Percentage (NQT &CPD teachers)
Not
Difficult
Easy
suitable
for grade
61.02
38.58
23.23
29.92
57.08
50.00
35.43
73.62
37.4
61.03
75.59
68.9
40.15
44.88
61.81
22.44
1.57
0.39
1.18
1.18
2.76
5.12
2.76
3.94
60.63
27.56
11.81
Difficulty of teaching reading skills in first 3 years of primary
Q23A
Q23B
Q23C
Q23D
Q23E
Q23F
Q23G
Q23H
Q23I
0
20
40
60
80
100
percent
Very Difficult
Easy
Not suitable for this grade
Difficult
Very easy
Table 1.4.2C
Percentage
You are planning how to teach your class early
reading. Which one approach would you use?
(a) Write whole familiar words on the board next to pictures
and ask children to repeat many times after you
(b) Read short stories and ask the children to read short
sentences back to you
(c) Show examples of the different sounds that letters make
at the beginning, middle and end of words
(d) Combine letters to make syllables that can make up
simple words
Newly
Qualified
Teachers
(N=166)
Experienced
Teachers
(N=88)
All
42.77
28.41
37.80
14.46
12.50
13.78
7.23
6.82
7.09
35.54
52.27
41.34
84
Table 1.4.2D
Here are some activities that you might use in the
early stages of teaching reading. For each item tick
one of the boxes to show when you think it best to
introduce the activity.
Percentage
Right at the
start
A little later
Much later
Never - not a
useful activity
50.00
50.39
17.32
38.19
42.52
73.23
45.67
32.28
35.04
45.67
43.31
40.55
11.81
32.28
15.74
11.02
35.43
17.32
16.53
14.57
19.29
1.96
3.55
1.57
1.18
0.39
0.39
2.75
11.81
48.43
38.19
1.57
15.02
55.73
26.48
2.77
(a) Look at and talk about pictures of familiar objects
(b) Name objects in the classroom
(c) Read and recite whole words from the board
(d) Recite letter sounds
(e) Recite the letters of the alphabet
(f) Teach greetings and classroom routines
(g) Teach simple rhymes and songs
(h) You tell stories with actions about familiar
situations
(i) You read stories with pictures to the children
You want to increase learners' reading vocabulary. You choose to focus on parts of the body. Put
these activities into an order which best develops their reading in a lesson or series of lessons.
First
(a) Draw a diagram of a person, label the parts of the body and ask the
children to write their own sentences.
(b) Give groups of 6 children cards with words such as „arm‟ or „ear‟,
ask them to draw the parts of the body and to put them into sentences
(c) Point to the parts of the body on a real child and write the words on
the board in a sentence such as 'I have two hands'
(d) Write a list of words on the board next to a picture you draw of them
and ask the child to read the words aloud together and individually
Percent
Second
Third
Fourth
36.61
24.41
24.41
14.57
16.14
31.50
26.77
25.59
36.22
27.17
21.65
14.96
11.02
18.50
26.77
43.70
Table 1.4.2E Ability and confidence to teach reading
Teachers
Ability to teach
Confidence to teach
reading at lower
reading at lower
primary
primary
Freq.
%
Freq.
%
Trainees
Ability to teach
Confidence to teach
reading at lower
reading at lower
primary
primary
Freq.
%
Freq.
%
Very
High
High
51
20.08
69
27.17
301
35.5
349
41.6
190
74.8
171
67.32
524
61.79
479
56.49
Low
10
3.94
11
4.33
18
2.12
18
2.12
Very Low
3
1.18
3
1.18
5
0.59
2
0.24
254
100
254
100
848
100
848
100
Total
Table 1.4.2F
Percentage (NQT &CPD
teachers)
The best way to help children in early grades school to read is to
(a) Look at pictures and read whole words or sentences
(b) Repeat words after the teacher has said them out loud
(c) Teach them to sound out sounds or syllables in the words.
(d) Guide pupils to recognize words and sentences in songs, poems or stories
Agree
Disagree
96.85
96.85
96.06
89.33
3.15
3.15
3.94
10.68
85
Appendix 2: Profile of experienced reading teachers
Teacher
Region
CPD
teacher 10
Kigoma
Rural
Year of
training
1993
Training
CPD attended
Lenth of CPD
Grade C studying to O level to
upgrade to Grade B through
evening classes
General methods at
Kasulu TTC 2009
2 weeks
1996
Upgrade B to A Kabanga TTC
2003
CPD
teacher 18
Tanga
Urban/periurban
1980
Tabora TTC straight from
KKK (3 R‟s)
primary school a „UPE‟ teacher Chang‟ombe 1986
2006 Upgrade to Grade A
Korogwe 2006
CPD
teacher 13
Tanga
Urban/periurban
1976
Korogwe TTC
1980s
CPD
teacher 9
Kigoma,
rural
1978
Marangu TTC „for more
advancement‟ Grade A?
TTC training for 3 years after
primary school
1983 KKK
2007
3 months
MUKA
(training while
teaching)
9 months
Distance
Learning
MUKA
Now Grade A after upgrading
through MUKA.
CPD
teacher 5
Coast,
peri-rural
1970
Trained at Kigurunyembe TTC
2 years training Grade C
MUKA at Teacher Resource
Centre but as the training for
the second year of training
taking place in school
None
Appendix 3: CPD programs mentioned by teachers in the
questionnaire
Type of CPD
Participatory methods
KKK or 3 Rs (this varied in length from one year to 3 weeks
Upgrading
MUKA (Length varied from 1 to 3 years)
Reading and maths short courses
Maths courses
Teacher training course outside of the college
MTUU UNICEF/UNESCO Primary Education Reform Project
CBP
Number of
respondents
4
17
2
11
2
5
2
2
3
53
86