Teacher Preparation and Continuing
Professional Development in Africa (TPA)
LEARNING TO TEACH READING AND MATHEMATICS
AND ITS INFLUENCE ON PRACTICE IN
GHANA
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Background and Context
The Teacher Preparation and Continuing Professional Development Project („TPA Project‟), funded by the William and Flora
Hewlett Foundation, was set up to fill the gap in knowledge about how the initial and continuing education of teachers impacts
on the practice of teachers through studies in six African countries. This paper reports on the research that has been carried
out in Ghana. Because of the extreme importance of early reading and mathematics for future progress, it focuses on the
preparation that teachers who teach in the lower primary grades receive and what support is available through CPD and other
routes to teach these subjects. A central issue is whether the process of learning to teach reading and mathematics at lower
primary level draws attention to, and emphasizes the kind of teaching competencies known to be important for developing
lower primary school children‟s abilities to read and understand basic mathematical concepts. The research built up a
comprehensive picture of initial training and CPD related to reading and mathematics in the early years of primary school. The
findings are used to suggest feasible ways in which teacher preparation in Ghana might be improved.
What the literature says:
Learning to teach reading: what is essential?
Reading has been defined to include the expression of several behaviours such as reading real words in isolation or in
context, reading pseudo words that can be pronounced but have no meaning, reading text aloud or silently, and
demonstrating comprehension of text that is read silently or orally (National Reading Panel (NRP), 2000). Reading is done
with the aim of generating meaning from a text. To achieve this, readers have to decode graphemes (lines and shapes which
represent spoken sounds) into words, sentences and then continuous text and attach meaning to them. The cognitive work
involved in the decoding exercise becomes worthwhile (Meek, 1994; Ehri, 2002) when the reader achieves this aim. Decoding
and reading for meaning are two psycholinguistic processes that develop from separate roots but are intertwined (Gough &
Tunmer, 1986; Oakhill et al., 2003). This integration occurs as the child begins learning to read through a teacher or parent,
connecting oral language with phonological awareness. Learning to read is therefore said to be embedded within the social
and cultural context in which children learn to speak (Brice Heath, 1983; Stanovich, 1986; Street, 1999; Barton et al., 2000).
Learning to teach Basic Mathematics – what is essential?
The international research on mathematics teacher preparation for lower/elementary teaching suggests that, teache rs‟
knowledge of mathematics, how it should be represented in teaching, and their knowledge of pedagogical procedures, are
important in influencing how their students learn mathematics (Fennema & Franke 1998). Besides, the extent of teacher
trainees‟ exposure to and understanding of curricular materials, including textbooks shapes their level of effectiveness in
teaching school mathematics (Ma 1999). But teacher trainees come into training with some idea of what learning and doing
mathematics is from their experience of schooling. Many teacher education programmes make the assumption that a strong
subject knowledge base is essential in learning to teach primary or secondary mathematics (Ball, 1990, 2000). Research on
teaching shows that teachers‟ ability to represent and formulate mathematical concepts and processes in ways that help
learners understand mathematics is of greater importance. Simply calling for more investment in teacher education without
understanding clearly the specific nature of the problem that investment is to fix, is unlikely to produce the impact expected.
What research in teaching and teacher education suggests is that teachers‟ knowledge of mathematics and the training they
receive plays a big part in how they perceive and rationalise their competence in teaching (Ball, 1990; Hill & Ball, 2004). If we
are to understand why many African children in lower primary fail to grasp basic knowledge of mathematics, then it is
important to investigate what happens in learning to teach the subject, and how that learning shapes what prospective
teachers know and do when they start teaching. Beginning to understand this is a necessary precursor to improving primary
teachers‟ effectiveness in teaching mathematics for understanding.
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Initial Teacher Education in Ghana
The key institutions that train teachers for basic schools are the training colleges now designated Colleges of Education
(CoEs). The pattern of their development has been in response to national demands in general and changes at the basic
school level in particular. Currently, there are 40 colleges of education - 38 publicly-funded and two privately-run, with at least
one located in each administrative/educational region of the country. Seven of the 38 public CoEs train female teachers only,
one is an all-male technical-oriented college, and the remaining 30 are co-educational. All the 40 colleges are residential and
prepare teachers for both primary and junior high levels, though some have additional mandate to prepare teachers for the
pre-school level and for science and mathematics. All CoEs offer a three-year residential programme for trainees who have
secondary education but have no previous teaching experience. The programme structure is commonly termed „IN -IN-OUT‟,
which means trainees spend the first two years in college to study subject matter and methods courses, and go out to schools
to have a year-long teaching practice.
All teacher trainees take courses in:
1. Foundation Studies - comprising subjects taught in basic schools. The subjects are English, Mathematics, Ghanaian
Language and Culture, Integrated Science, Environmental and Social Studies, Technical Skills, Pre -vocational Skills,
French, and Religious and Moral Education, The emphasis is on the content of these subjects rather than methodology.
2. Educational and Professional Studies – comprising curriculum and methods courses in the foundation subjects and in
subjects of students‟ specialisation; and other professional education courses such as Principles and Practi ce of
Education, Child and Adolescent Development and Learning, Assessment and Research in Basic Schools, History and
Management of Education, etc.
3. General studies – comprising Communication and Study Skills, Information and Communication Technology, and
HIV/AIDS Education. These are geared towards the student‟s personal development.
The TTC programme as the components suggest is overloaded and it is in this context that trainees also have to learn to
teach reading and basic mathematics at the lower level.
The Research Design and Methodology
The research hinges on establishing the different knowledge, understanding and practices that are expected of teachers
during their preparation and then comparing them with those that they actually exhibit at different points in their training and
career.
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An initial line of enquiry was to establish what competences relevant to the teaching of reading and mathematics that
the program of initial teacher education seeks to instill in trainee teachers. This was accomplished through an
analysis of teacher education documents including programme aims/objectives, expected standards and from
interviews with the providers.
We then sought to build a picture of the knowledge, understanding and practice of actual trainee teachers at the end
of their training. Both quantitative and qualitative data were used to develop this. Qualitative data derived from focus
groups and interviews following observation of teaching on the ITE program.
We used observed sessions of mathematics and reading training as preliminary data for focus group discussions
with a sample of trainees (8 for each of the subjects) in each of the four colleges that were selected for the study.
Moderation of the discussion was designed to consider the extent to which what was observed reflected the training
as a whole, using the video and shared experience of the session to probe pedagogic content knowledge and
understandings of teaching practice.
A similar approach was followed in interviews with the trainers whose sessions had been observed. Sixteen teacher
educators (8 each in mathematics and reading) from four Colleges of Education (CoEs) in the Central and Ashanti
regions of Ghana participated in the study. Their teaching experiences ranged from 3 to 20 years. Snapshots of their
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lessons to teacher trainees (8 each in mathematics and reading) were taken and used to examine their knowledge
and understanding of how to teach reading to lower primary pupils.
A survey was administered to both teacher trainees towards the end of their „IN‟ programme (that is year 2 before
the one year „OUT‟) and NQT‟s1 . The questionnaire included a series of scenarios that were likely to be encountered
in teaching in early grades. Respondents were then required to select responses to the scenarios which describe the
most appropriate approach to teaching a particular concept or skill in reading and mathematics. These responses
then gave access to trainees‟ pedagogical content knowledge and likely pedagogical practice in reading and
mathematics.
Video recordings of observed lessons in reading and mathematics by the NQTs were followed by forensic interviews
asking questions around details of practice, sequencing of tasks, and use of resources, progression within the lesson
and onwards towards the next, and use of language of instruction as against mother tongue or local lingua franca.
The research design called for a similar approach to Continuing Professional Development (CPD) programmes.
Subsequently, the National Literacy Accelerated Programme (NALAP) was selected for investigation. This
programme was chosen because it is the most recent nationwide CPD based on a national bilingual bi -literacy
programme, and had trained all lower primary teachers to implement it. As a point of comparison the project
collected data on the knowledge, understandings and practice of teachers who had recently followed this CPD
programme. This followed exactly the same procedure of observation, interview and questionnaire as for the NQTs.
Finally, a cost and efficiency analysis was carried out to determine the extent to which colleges were handling their
teaching load, teaching groups, and tutor-trainee ratio and the costs associated with the different choices that each
college made. This analysis is mainly to offer teacher education reformers some indication of the cost and efficiency
issues that are important in how programmes are restructured to optimize learning opportunities for trainees.
Findings
A. The ITE curriculum for learning to teach reading and basic mathematics
The primary curriculum in Ghana makes three assumptions about teachers:
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first, that they possess pedagogical knowledge and skills about visual and auditory discrimination and
comprehension skills to be used in pre-reading activities;
second, that they are skilled in using and combining both phonics and „look-and-say‟ methods;
and third that they are able to design and use appropriate teaching and learning materials (TLMs) which actively
engage all children, whilst paying attention to those with reading difficulties.
The college courses appear to address these expectations as all of these form part of the ITE curriculum. However, the
problem is once again that although colleges in Ghana allocate 30 hours of learning how to teach reading, which compared to
elsewhere is a relatively long time; this does not really allow the depth of engagement that would be necessary, especially
since they have to cover reading up to junior high school level.
There are a number of important conclusions that we draw from the analysis of the curriculum (including NALAP) in relation to
learning to teach reading and mathematics, and what the school curriculum expects teachers to be able to do.
1) The organisation of learning to teach reading and mathematics for lower primary is based on acquiring in-depth
knowledge of language (reading) and mathematics as the foundation for learning to teach these subjects. Both
We used trainees in the OUT year to approximate NQTs. This was done for two reasons: since these teachers were supposed to be in
school learning to teach, this would be ideal to understand how they were making the immediate adjustment to teaching. Second , given
the limited timeframe for the research, it was much easier to focus on these trainees than it was to identify them throughout the country
where NQT would be posted after their three year course.
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English and Mathematics TT curriculum devote a disproportionate amount of time on subject conten t knowledge
compared to PCK.
2) The two approaches to teaching reading, phonics and „look and say‟ are given prominence in both the TTC and
school curriculum, as well as in the NALAP. The NALAP approach introduces a notion of learning to read which is
absent in the TTC – the importance of local language as a bridge to learning to read English. Also, the kind of
learning environment conducive for learning to read is emphasised in NALAP but completely missing in the TTC
curriculum
3) There is clearly an emphasis on acquiring a set of knowledge on how to teach reading, but which does not draw
attention sufficiently enough on learning from practice. What trainees need to know in order to teach reading is all
situated in the environment of the college classroom without reflection on the kinds of adaptations and improvisations
that might be required in actual classroom contexts with children from literate and illiterate backgrounds
4) It is evident from the TTC mathematics course structure that trainees are expected to acquire knowledge and
understanding of the primary mathematics curriculum, in terms of its general aims, objectives, scope of content,
structure and organisation of the syllabus. It is expected that trainees will acquire these from studying primary
curriculum materials, including textbooks. The programme allots only one week out of 16 weeks for developing
competence in this area, which makes it unlikely that the study of the materials would be thorough, critical and
reflective.
5) The focus on learning about how children learn mathematics in the primary mathematics curriculum is an
acknowledgement of the fact that teachers need to know about how young learners acquire mathematical
knowledge, and use this knowledge in planning their lessons. However, knowledge of how Ghanaian children, often
in mixed-ability and mix age classrooms would respond to instructional practices based on theories of how children
learn mathematics is not raised in the TTC curriculum. Studies have established that the age and abili ty range of
children in Ghanaian primary schools is very wide, especially in primary 1 to 3 (see, Akyeampong 2009), which
makes this issue particularly important in terms of adapting instructions in response to such differences.
B. Learning to teach Reading
Teacher educators
1. Ghanaian teacher educators‟ knowledge and understanding of reading were demonstrated in their explanation of
what constitutes reading. Their explanations reflected three (alphabetic, phonics and vocabulary) elements of
reading but not the five (fluency and text comprehension in addition) as the literature recommends for a reading
programme. In their description of activities for the reading lesson however, fluency and text comprehension were
implied though they exhibited knowledge of only two of the seven comprehension strategies that are known to be
effective tools for helping readers to interact with text (Center for Education, 2010).
2. While the teacher educators expressed their understanding of reading in terms of alphabetic, phonics and
vocabulary, they taught and described the reading lesson in relation to vocabulary, fluency and comprehension.
Although they recognise the importance of phonics and phoneme instruction as a strategy of helping beginning
readers to read independently as is also highlighted in the literature (Slavin et al., 2009), they did not use it in their
lessons. These understandings and practices have implications for how trainees have developed their own
knowledge and understanding of teaching reading
Trainees
1. In learning to teach reading, trainees have been exposed to more subject content, less practical activities and less
critical engagement with the school reading curriculum as well as reflective approaches. The pedagogical knowledge
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they have acquired is mainly in two methods for teaching reading (i.e. phonic and „look-and-say‟), a set of procedures
and preparation of appropriate TLMs. They did not demonstrate knowledge of any theories relevant to teaching a
second language or reading for that matter, apart from those that relate to children‟s developmental stages and the
need for concrete materials that would engage them in activities. Therefore, their vision of a reading lesson is fairly
simple and quite mechanistic. They lacked a deep sense of what challenges these approaches presented in real
teaching contexts and how they might provide alternative approaches to use in circumstances where some children
struggled with learning to read.
Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs)
1. NQTs attach much importance to the use of pictures to help word/letter identification, generally possess knowledge
and understanding of the right strategy to use to address pupils‟ unique problems related to sound-identification, and
have knowledge of how to help children make meaning from texts. However, much of this knowledge is not seen in
practice, and in particular asking their pupils what they liked about a text (g) (comprehension) was not observed in
use at all. What this shows is that, that although the NQTs have knowledge and understa nding of how to teach
various aspects of a reading lesson, they only practise a narrow selection.
2. Although NQTs and NALAP teachers have both learnt to teach reading and share similar understandings and
practices, their practices follow different models of how to teach reading. In NALAP, reading is taught within a
composite bilingual bi-literacy (English and Ghanaian language) in a single lesson, seeking to develop explicit, laid
down competences modeled after the pattern of what has been found in the international literature (NRP, 2000;
Center for Education, 2010) whereas in the other, English reading is taught to develop implied competences.
3. In many ways, the NALAP teachers went about their reading lessons and expressed their understandings about
them in much the same way as the NQTs did. That notwithstanding, there were notable differences in four main
areas that might be attributed to the unique approach of the NALAP methodology, namely:
i)
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iv)
Bilingual bi-literacy teaching, with emphasis on Ghanaian language
Emphasis on oral activities and little time allotted to English reading
Conscious effort to develop identification and use of vocabulary
Combination of the „look-and-say‟ and the phonic methods in one lesson.
4. These differences have come about because of the recognition of their importance to foreign language learning in a
multilingual classroom like Ghana, and their obvious absence in the Ghanaian classrooms.
C. Learning to teach Basic Mathematics
Teacher Educators
1. Teacher educators recognised the need for trainees to have good knowledge of primary school syllabus, knowledge of
mathematics subject-content knowledge, knowledge and use of appropriate teaching techniques, and insights into the
psychology of learning.
2. Some teacher educators espoused a constructive approach to teaching and learning mathematics as a way of developing
effective capacity to teach primary mathematics, although their own lessons did not exemplify the approach as they
described. A constructivist approach would mean tutors setting up classroom environmental conditions and instructional
materials that would focus attention trainee attention on exploring mathematics concepts using the materials. Where
tutors demonstrated the use of TLMs, it was without critical inquiry into how pupils in Ghanaian classrooms might respond
to their use to develop conceptual understanding especially in large classroom settings.
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3. The challenge for ITE is to help trainees develop a better understanding of the conceptual structures of basic
mathematics through activities which would help them develop a firm grasp of its underlyin g concepts. But although
teacher educators espoused these ideas, not much of this was evident in their own teaching. For example, none set up
instructional activities that focused on teacher trainees working with TLMs in ways that could enrich how they might
structure primary mathematics learning activities to promote deep conceptual learning. The (over)emphasis on
acquisition of prescribed methods without investigating the interconnections with the structure of basic concepts, means
that learning to teach primary mathematics was not sufficiently problematised.
Trainees
1. There was a clear sense that what they were learning in college might not be adequate preparation for actual classroom
teaching because of the inadequate exposure to school curriculum materials.
2. Trainees speak with a lot of confidence about their ability to teach lower primary mathematics and do not appear to be
fully aware of the complexities and challenges of teaching in large poorly resourced classroom contexts, and the
constraints on practice.
3. For trainees in Ghana, their first and real encounter with school curriculum materials occurs during teaching practice, and
even then for lower primary the exposure can be very short.
Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs)
1. NQTs in Ghana see ITE as having the greatest influence on their practice. Only a few (about 8%) think working in schools
has influenced their teaching of basic mathematics. In other words, most NQTs have not experienced teaching in schools
as particularly influential in the way they approach the teaching of the subject.
2. We identified a predominant model of teaching among NQTs which fits Kuhs and Ball‟s (1986) „classroom-focused view
of teaching‟. This is a view of teachers as those who “skilfully explain, assign tasks, monitor student work … manage the
classroom environment, preventing, or eliminating, disruptions that might interfere with the flow of planned activity” (Kuhs
& Ball 1986, p. 26). “Accordingly, the students‟ role is to listen attentively to the teacher and cooperate by following
directions, answer questions, and completing tasks assigned by the teacher” (p. 137). This model of teaching
characterised NQTs‟ teaching of primary mathematics, which in effect shifts teaching from an emphasis on developing
deep conceptual understanding through pupils‟ personal construction of mathematical knowledge. We also see that this
approach to teaching is strongly influenced by what teachers learn in the colleges.
D. Costs and Efficiency
The purpose of exploring costs in a study of teacher preparation is to address two main issues, one of which relates to tutortrainee ratios and its relationship to costs per trainee, and second the implications for improving effectiveness – that is to
address the question: what teaching group sizes would optimise efficiency in the preparation of a lower primary mathematics
or reading teacher. Group size is important for reasons that have to do with opportunities for engaging trainees in practical
learning in colleges and the resources associated with it. If small group work activity and tutorial support is to be promoted to
enhance the professional learning experience of trainees, then ensuring relatively small class sizes under conditions of
improved instructional resources is important. The costs and efficiency analysis looks at the relationship between class size s,
tutor-trainee ratio, teaching periods per week and the cost per trainee.
1. The recurrent teaching costs per trainee based on the calculation between average teaching salary and TTR
show interesting differences. The data from the four colleges indicate that the number of tutor teaching
periods per week is quite low which has efficiency implications.
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2. Average class contact time of 10 hours per week (2 hours per day) is not excessive. Group sizes could be smaller with
larger numbers of contact hours. College 4 has the highest costs because it has a smaller TTR in relation to the average
tutor salary. Employing fewer tutors would mean the costs per trainee will drop, however this has to be balanced against
the cost to efficiency.
3. The analysis shows that if more tutors teach on the methods programme (i.e. mathematics and English), this will increase
considerably the cost per trainee because of the fact that the tutor-trainee ratios will reduce considerably at current salary
levels. Only half the English tutors in College 3 and College 4 teach methods. In Colleges 1 and 2 this is a fifth and a third
respectively. Thus, if all tutors taught the methods courses the TTRs would be much lower and potentially improve the
trainee learning experience by reducing the average teaching group size, but this will come at a higher cost per trainee.
4. Generally, for ITE, high ratios should be thought of as unsuited for delivering an ITE curriculum that requires trainees to
engage in learning activities with extensive exploratory or reflective work, which is what potentially will improve the
training experience. In all the college classroom observations, teaching was organised in large groups where the lecture
method was common. Although this ensures low costs per trainee, it is unlikely to produce rich and diverse instructional
practices where group work and activity learning is the focus. Policy makers and curriculum reformers in reaching any
decision about how to improve learning experiences in the colleges, teaching group size and teaching load should be the
main target of reform. Although reducing tutor-trainee ratios can increase costs per trainee, this has to be looked at also
in terms of the potential for improving the quality and efficiency of learning to teach
E. Targeting Teacher Training for reform: key recommendations
With regard to ITE strategies for teaching trainees, we did not observe or hear about the use of the student-centred,
problem-solving, decision making, critical and reflective thinking strategies the TT syllabus recommends. Both the
trainees and the teacher educators also revealed that due to the examination-oriented focus of the training programme,
lectures are rushed in order to finish with the course content before the examinations, thereby employing transmission
modes of instruction.
The reading curriculum
1. What reading is and how it is conceptualised is fragmented among tutors, trainees and NQTs. Reading extends beyond
simply teaching pupils to recognise letters and read simple words. The use of storytelling and other approaches that
arouse the interest of children to read is as important as teaching them the fundamental skills. Reading for understanding
should be emphasised especially at primary 3.
2. The benefits and variety of strategies that are associated with the five foundational elements of reading should be
introduced as a topic in the methodology component of the reading curriculum, and taught comprehensively.
3. The reading curriculum in the Colleges of Education should introduce different teaching strategies such as problemsolving, decision making, critical and reflective thinking as topics in the methodology component.
4. The reading teacher education programme should incorporate examples of NQTs‟ lessons as exemplars/case studies for
analysis in problem-solving sessions.
The Mathematics curriculum
1. There is clearly an emphasis in the COE curriculum on mathematics content knowledge which takes up a considerable
time in the programme. Reformers need to review how some of this content can be developed and taught in ways which
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enables trainees to understand deeply how the concepts might be taught using strategies and resources that convey
deep meaning. Introducing mathematical investigations might be one way of shifting this focus
Teacher educators and reading education
2. Teacher educators should be given retraining in practical knowledge in language learning theories and their relevance for
teaching English reading in Ghana.
3. Knowledge of phonics instruction and other word attack strategies should be taught to teacher educators and
emphasised in the reading programme.
4. Teacher educators should be equipped with practical examples of how to develop problem -solving, decision making,
critical and reflective thinking in trainees. It is important that they develop skills in engaging trainees actively in order to
arrive at practicable pedagogies for envisaged challenges in the reading lesson.
5. The strategies for developing word recognition and text comprehension in the course of the reading should be given more
attention.
6. Teacher educators should provide training in monitoring children‟s reading to find out about their fluency in reading,
identifying those who need assistance and using a variety of strategies or differentiated tasks to suit different learners.
7. The school reading programme should focus on the introduction of new methodologies that move away from rote
learning/reading and teacher-centred procedures to activity, discovery and child-centred procedures.
Teacher educators and mathematics education
8. Learning to teach mathematics departs significantly from approaches which require a thoughtfu l way of exploring the
basic structures of the subject using concrete materials. One way to correct this is to spend time in college studying
mathematics school curriculum materials.
9. The way in which TLMs are used fails to engage with why and how they work to produce understanding. What may be
needed are new resources which call for more critical engagement with teaching and learning resources for learning
basic mathematics.
10. College training does not engage at all with real misconceptions and challenges that Ghanaian pupils might have in
learning mathematics in the early grades. Teacher educators need to bring some of what happens in the real classroom
into the college classroom for interrogation and reflection.
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