Simple, Surprising, Useful?
Three Questions for Judging Teaching Methods
th
The 16 International Conference on The First-Year Experience
Vancouver, British Columbia
10 July 2003
Dr. William Palmer
English Department
Alma College
Alma, Michigan, USA 48801
email: [email protected] ; phone: 989-463-7171
Some Quotes on Discovery Learning
“The road is better than the inn.”
Jerome Bruner, On Knowing (110)
“Whatever you really learn, you teach yourself. If you only learn what you are told, then you are
only keeping in mind [. . .] what was put there by somebody else. What you really learn is what you
discover.”
Ann Berthoff, Forming/Thinking/Writing (9)
“To understand something well is to sense wherein it is simple.”
Jerome Bruner, On Knowing (105)
“Any idea or problem or body of knowledge can be presented in a form simple enough so that any
particular learner can understand it.”
Jerome Bruner, Theory of Instruction (44)
“An ounce of experience is better than a ton of theory.” Successful teaching methods “give the
pupils something to do, not something to learn; and the doing is of such a nature as to demand
thinking, or the intentional noting of connections; learning naturally results.”
John Dewey, Democracy and Education (169, 181)
“There is no royal road to learning through an airy path of brilliant generalizations.”
Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education and Other Essays (10)
Students cannot always “do”: “If each human being had to learn everything by doing it, civilization
would still be in the Stone Age.” Wilbert McKeachie, Teaching Tips (229)
“Losing balance, regaining it, and going on, is the substance of learning.”
Donald Graves, Writing: Teachers & Children at Work (231)
““An important ingredient is a sense of excitement about discovery.”
Jerome Bruner, The Process of Education (20)
“It is the unexpected that strikes one with wonder or astonishment.”
Jerome Bruner, On Knowing (18)
“Somewhere between apathy and wild excitement, there is an optimum level of aroused attention that
is ideal for classroom activity.”
Jerome Bruner, The Process of Education (72)
“Students teaching other students must actively organize and reorganize their own learning in order to
explain it. Thus they themselves learn from teaching.”
Wilbert McKeachie, Teaching Tips (100)
“We believe that classroom teachers can, through close observation, the collection of feedback on
student learning, and the design of experiments, learn more about how students learn, and more
specifically, how students respond to particular teaching approaches. We call this process of
involving teachers in the formal study of teaching and learning Classroom Research.”
K. Patricia Cross and Thomas A. Angelo,
Classroom Assessment Techniques (1)
“The first object of any act of learning, over and beyond the pleasure it may give, is that it should
serve us in the future. Learning should not only take us somewhere; it should allow us later to go
further more easily.”
Jerome Bruner, The Process of Education (17)
“We may well ask of any item of information that is taught or that we lead a child to discover for
himself whether it is worth knowing. I can think of only two good criteria [. . .] for deciding such an
issue: whether the knowledge gives a sense of delight and whether it bestows the gift of intellectual
travel beyond the information given, in the sense of containing within it the basis of generalization.”
Jerome Bruner, On Knowing (108-109)
“Mastery of the fundamental ideas of a field involves not only the grasping of general principles, but
also the development of an attitude toward learning and inquiry.”
Jerome Bruner, The Process of Education (20)
“Great teachers [. . .] stimulate active, not passive, learning and encourage students to be critical,
creative thinkers, with the capacity to go on learning after their college days are over.”
Ernest Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered (24)
From the Classroom
Simple, Surprising, Useful?
Three Questions for Judging Teaching Methods
William Palmer
All teachers share in common at least one teaching practice: we do not teach pure content.
to learn our content and how to develop positive attitudes toward it.
But how?
We teach students how
What methods do we use, and how can we
judge them?
Jerome S. Bruner, a developmental psychologist and author of The Process of Education (1960), Toward a Theory of
Instruction (1966), and On Knowing (1971), among other scholarly works, presents a constructivist theory of learning in which
students discover and actively construct their own formulations of concepts.
By applying Bruner’s principles of discovery
learning, I have formulated three short questions for judging the value of any teaching method I use:
presented so students can readily understand it)?
students)?
Is it simple (can it be
Is it surprising (does it contain anything unexpected to stir wonder in
Is it useful (will they be able to apply it in the future)?
Applying this rubric to an activity designed to teach
stylistic maturity through the use of colons furnishes an apt illustration.
I begin by asking students to write a sentence with a colon.
write a sentence with a colon followed by a list.
legal pads, and LifeSavers."
For example:
From experience, I know that almost all students will
"At the bookstore, I bought the following items: textbooks,
This sentence is fine, but I want my students to learn a new pattern, so I continue the activity by
dictating sentences using colons in another way:
Writing is important: it helps you think.
One thing is clear: I am not the only watcher in the woods. (Erdrich 1995: 61)
Sometimes an outline serves best as a cage to break out of: it makes you think of ideas that won’t fit inside but which
otherwise wouldn’t occur to you.
(Elbow 1981: 49)
My students transcribe these sentences and discover for themselves that they illustrate a new way to use colons: to introduce
an explanation.
With some prompting (I ask what precedes each colon, and they recognize that a complete thought does),
they learn the main rule for using
colons: a complete thought must come before it.
This rule also applies for any sentence containing a colon followed by a list.
To reinforce the lesson, I ask students to write sentences illustrating the new colon structure, and then we share them
aloud in a circle.
The students may pass, but most are happy to read their work.
I don’t like ice cream: it hurts the cavity in my back tooth.
It’s too hot in the classroom: people are starting to sweat.
Carnival people have small hands: they use them to make cabbage stew and to tinker with buttons.
As these examples show, students tend to use the colon pattern to elaborate on an opinion.
the process of writing and sharing is fun.
Regardless of the topic, however,
It appeals to hams and quiet students alike, and when a student’s sentence is
humorous, like the last one, the class enjoys a moment of language play.
To complete the lesson, I ask the students to revise a brief passage from a recent draft of their writing by using a colon
to introduce an explanation.
Most students readily do this:
I was raised in an interfaith household.
My mother is Jewish and my father is Christian.
I was raised in an interfaith household: my mother is Jewish and my father is Christian.
A third cause of our stereotype is derived from our music.
We like it loud and obnoxious.
A third cause of our stereotype is derived from our music: we like it loud and obnoxious.
My mother already had a gloomy look on her face; she had been dreading my first day of college for the past three
months.
My mother already had a gloomy look on her face: she had been dreading my first day of college for the past three
months.
In the first two examples the colon signals a closer causal relationship between the two thoughts than a period does.
The last
example is more complicated because the original version of the sentence contains a semicolon (I had taught the students to
use semicolons the week before).
The student writer realized that a colon introduced his second thought more precisely,
since a semicolon merely joins two related thoughts.
But does this colon activity satisfy the questions in my test?
Yes.
1. Simple: Students transcribe dictated sentences, practice writing the new colon
structure, share it orally, and apply it immediately to a draft of their writing. The
activity takes about fifteen minutes.
2. Surprising: Students discover the difference and similarity between using the colon to
introduce a list and using it to introduce an explanation. They are surprised by the
ease of using both structures and by their confidence in doing so.
3. Useful: Students learn to apply the new colon structure to their own writing—and I
expect them to apply it regularly as the semester continues.
Parker Palmer (1998: 149) claims that “good teaching cannot be reduced to technique:
good teaching comes from the identity and integrity of the teacher.” I agree. After all, teaching
is like composing: it involves style, and so how we teach is part of what we teach. The methods
we use to help students learn are part of what they learn. I strive to find simple, surprising, and
useful methods because after years of experimenting, I know that they help me teach and help my
students learn.
Works Cited
Bruner, Jerome. 1971. On Knowing: Essays for the Left Hand. New York: Atheneum.
Bruner, Jerome. 1960. The Process of Education. Cambridge: Harvard UP.
Bruner, Jerome. 1966. Toward a Theory of Education. Cambridge: Harvard UP.
Elbow, Peter. 1981. Writing with Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing Process.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Erdrich, Louise. 1995. The Blue Jay’s Dance. New York: HarperCollins.
Palmer, Parker. 1998.The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s
Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
__________________
This essay was published in Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language,
Composition, and Culture.
Spring 2003. Volume 3, Issue 2. Duke University Press.
Using Discovery Learning to Teach Semicolons and Dashes
William Palmer, Alma College, 10 July 2003
Semicolons
1. To help students discover how to use a semicolon, first simply ask them to write a sentence
with a semicolon. Tell them just to try and if they have no idea to take a guess. By doing this
you do not pre-teach students; you help them lose a little balance.
2. Dictate three sentences that demonstrate using a semicolon:
I’m confused; I don’t understand.
Critical thinking is important; creative thinking is important too.
My sister watched the film Titanic five times; she also bought the soundtrack.
3. Ask students what pattern they see in the three examples. Let students say their
discovery–each sentence contains two complete thoughts that relate to each other. A semicolon
joins thoughts more closely; a period separates thoughts.
4. Ask students to write a new sentence of their own that uses a semicolon.
5. Share the sentences. A circle works well. Go around and ask students to read their
sentence. Students are free to pass, but most will readily share. When students read their
sentence aloud, ask them to say the word “semicolon” where this mark occurs. This reinforces
the concept. It’s good if you share an example sentence of your own as well. I have found it’s
rare for students to share a sentence misusing a semicolon–but if a student’s semicolon doesn’t
work, don't criticize–suggest a way to repair the sentence and go on. Within this in-class sharing
there may be some surprises causing students to laugh and enjoy themselves.
6. Last, ask students to apply this new sentence tool to a draft of their recent writing. Spend
three to five minutes in class having students do this. You might ask students if they have any
questions at this point. Tell students that the semicolon is a tool of style you expect them to use
regularly through the term.
7. If you would like, you could also teach students to avoid two common sentence errors-run-on sentences and comma splices--by using semicolons. (See Discovering Arguments,
73-74)
Dashes
1. To help students discover how to use a dash, first simply ask students to write a sentence
with a dash. Tell them just to try and if they have no idea to take a guess.
2. Dictate three sentences that demonstrate using a dash:
“I do not shrink from responsibility--I welcome it.”
(J.F.K, Inaugural Address)
The prisoner walked toward the electric chair--grinning.
“Whatever you really learn is what you discover--and you learn to discover by
questioning.”
(Anne Berthoff, Forming/Thinking/Writing)
3. Ask students what pattern they see in the three examples. Let students say their
discovery--dashes emphasize a point like a zap of energy. More informal than semicolons and
colons, dashes are quick connectors. Also, point out that a dash is typed with two hyphens with
no space before, between, or after.
4. Ask students to write a new sentence of their own that uses a dash.
5. Share the sentences. Go around and ask students to read their sentence. Students are free to
pass, but most will readily share. When students read their sentence aloud, ask them to say the
word “dash” where this mark occurs. It’s good if you share an example sentence of your own as
well. I have found it’s rare for students to share a sentence misusing a dash--but if a student’s
dash doesn’t work, don't criticize: suggest a way to repair the sentence and go on. Within this
in-class sharing there may be some surprises causing students to laugh and enjoy themselves.
6. Last, ask students to apply this new sentence tool to a draft of their recent writing. Spend
three to five minutes in class having students do this. You might ask students if they have any
questions at this point. Tell students that the dash is a tool of style you expect them to use
regularly through the term. But warn that some students become dash happy after learning to
use this tool. Dashes lose their power if used too often.
The Double Dash
During the next class, you can help students discover how to use a double dash.
1. Ask students to write a sentence with a double dash. Tell them just to try and if they have no
idea to take a guess.
2. Dictate three sentences that demonstrate using a double dash:
“One measure--and perhaps the best measure--of a person’s greatness is
the capacity for suffering.”
(M. Scott Peck, People of the Lie)
“My father--a man with a great sense of humor and no sense of direction-constantly led us on what he referred to as ‘scenic routes.’”
(Ellen Goodman, “In the Male Direction”)
Look at most anything you read--newspapers, magazines, books--and see how writers
use dashes.
3. Ask students what pattern they see in the three examples. The double dashes enclose
information--like an interruption in thought. Point out that if you take off the dashes and the
words they enclose, what remains is still a complete thought:
One measure of a person’s greatness is the capacity for suffering.
My father constantly led us on what he referred to as “scenic routes.”
Look at most anything you read and see how writers use dashes.
But the original sentences carry more emphasis with the double dashes. They are more
interesting and express more meaning.
4. Ask students to write a new sentence of their own that uses a double dash.
5. Share the sentences. Go around and ask students to read their sentence. Students are free to
pass, but most will readily share. When students read their sentence aloud, ask them to say the
word “dash” where this mark occurs. This reinforces the concept. It’s good if you share an
example sentence of your own as well. If a student’s use of a double dash doesn’t work, don't
criticize: suggest a way to repair the sentence and go on. Within this in-class sharing there may
be some surprises causing students to laugh and enjoy themselves.
6. Last, ask students to apply this new sentence tool to a draft of their recent writing. Spend
three to five minutes in class having students do this. You might ask students if they have any
questions at this point. Tell students that the double dash is a tool of style you expect them to
use regularly through the term.
For information on helping students discover more tools of style, see the style
interchapters in Discovering Arguments: An Introduction to Critical Thinking and
Writing with Readings by Dean Memering and William Palmer. Prentice Hall, 2002.
Using Discovery Learning to Teach Narration
William Palmer, Alma College, 10 July 2003
“One sacred memory from childhood is perhaps the best education.” --Dostoevski
Rather than assign a chapter on narration for students to read, teachers can do the following
activity in class to help students discover the power of telling a brief story to express an idea.
1.
Grouping into a large circle works best for this activity.
some of your earliest memories?
Start by asking students, "What are
Crossing a street by yourself?
Being trapped in an elevator?
Racing with your brother?”
2.
Invite students to make a quick list of whatever early memories come to their mind–from their
earliest memory to age 10 or so.
Encourage students to generate as many as they can in three
minutes.
3.
Ask students, “Which of these memories fit into a pattern of your life?”
You will need to
supply some examples to show what you mean:
If your memory is crossing a street by yourself and getting scolded for it, is there a parallel in
your being a traveler, a rebel, an adventurer?
If you were trapped in an elevator and the doors shut before your mother got on, maybe you
still hate the feeling of being alone and trapped.
If you and your brother were running and he smashed through the kitchen door and cut
himself badly, perhaps you have been fascinated with injuries and medical care ever
since.
Ask students to put a check by any memory that fits into a pattern of their life.
4.
Ask students to write an answer to this question: “How does the early memory fit into a pattern
of your life?”
5.
This will take a few minutes.
Ask students, “Please briefly share
Now shift the activity from writing to talking and sharing.
your early memory and how it fits into a pattern of your life.”
first-year students, we go around the room and students share.
When I do this activity with
(I let students pass if they want to,
and some do, perhaps because they’ve found a connection so personal they’re reluctant to share it).
Many students speak with surprise about the connection they’ve realized.
I share a memory as well:
the time I quietly walked up to my grandfather who was sleeping and touched his nose, which was
large and bulbous from years of alcohol abuse.
or unusual tends to capture my attention.
As a writer I try to notice things–anything different
I trace this habit of mine to when I noticed my
grandfather’s nose.
I use this activity the first day of class in my writing course.
It is a way for students to get to know
each other better and for the class to experience together the process of discovery.
value students’ personal experience and the process of discovering connections.
can replace the traditional narrative essay for first-year students.
write a second draft which they type for the next class.
It shows that I
Also, the activity
Students prewrite in class and then
In English 101, a course emphasizing critical
writing and reading, I no longer need to spend a week on narrative writing.
With the early memory
activity, students see that they can tell focused stories about themselves to help support ideas.
___________
I adapted this activity from Barbara Drake’s book Writing Poetry, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983,
p. 15.
Using Discovery Learning to Teach the Paradigm Shift
William Palmer, Alma College, 10 July 2003
At the beginning of a first-year writing course, before students write complex argument papers, I
try to help students use their own experience as an illustration to support a point. With this
activity I also try to help students discover something essential about the process of thinking: the
paradigm shift. Rather than present a lecture on how people think, I simply share a brief text
that students and I read together round robin in class. A carefully chosen text can help students
discover what you want them to learn. What follows is a handout I give students.
******
English 101: The Paradigm Shift
Often writers use an extended illustration--a longer and more complex example--to show
and defend a point. Consider the following illustration from Stephen Covey’s book The Seven
Habits of Highly Effective People. Early in the book Covey discusses the importance of
“paradigm shifts” in our thinking. He defines “paradigm” as “a theory, an explanation, or model
of something else” (23). His definition here is general and abstract--not very clear. Later
Covey cites some familiar examples of paradigm shifts in science: when Copernicus placed the
sun at the center of the universe--not the earth as Ptolemy had argued, and when Einstein’s
relativity theory replaced Newton’s theory of physics. Then Covey uses an illustration--an
extended example, personal in this case--to show what he means:
I remember a paradigm shift I experienced one Sunday morning on a
subway in New York. People were sitting quietly--some reading newspapers,
some lost in thought, some resting with their eyes closed. It was a calm, peaceful
scene.
Then suddenly, a man and his children entered the subway car. The
children were so loud and rambunctious that instantly the whole climate changed.
The man sat down next to me and closed his eyes, apparently oblivious to
the situation. The children were yelling back and forth, throwing things, even
grabbing people’s papers. It was very disturbing. And yet, the man sitting next
to me did nothing.
It was difficult not to feel irritated. I could not believe that he could be so
insensitive as to let his children run wild like that and do nothing about it, taking
no responsibility at all. It was easy to see that everyone else on the subway felt
irritated, too. So finally, with what I felt was unusual patience and restraint, I
turned to him and said, “Sir, your children are really disturbing a lot of people. I
wonder if you couldn’t control them a little more?”
The man lifted his gaze as if to come to a consciousness of the situation
for the first time and said softly, “Oh, you’re right. I guess I should do something
about it. We just came from the hospital where their mother died about an hour
ago. I don’t know what to think, and I guess they don't know how to handle it
either.”
Can you imagine how I felt at that moment? My paradigm shifted.
Suddenly I saw things differently, and because I saw differently, I thought
differently, I felt differently, I behaved differently. My irritation vanished. I
didn’t have to worry about controlling my attitude or my behavior; my heart was
filled with the man’s pain. Feelings of sympathy and compassion flowed freely.
“Your wife just died? Oh, I'm so sorry! Can you tell me about it? What can I
do to help?” Everything changed in an instant. (30-31)
Covey’s illustration succeeds because it clarifies what he means by “paradigm shift.” His
example also appeals to reason–it helps us think. It appeals to emotion–it helps us feel the
irritation caused by the unruly kids and feel a surprising sorrow for the family’s situation.
It appeals to ethos–Covey’s story shows his own character as naturally frustrated, patient, and
empathic.
Directions: Write about a paradigm shift you have experienced--a shift of understanding that
made you more aware of something. First, describe what happened to cause the shift; then
explain the significance of the shift to you. Try to communicate clearly. Use a title, and try to
use at least one semicolon. Proofread at least three times.
******
I want students to experience many paradigm shifts during their first-year writing course. I want
them to notice any eureka–large or small. Noticing that the word “separate” contains “a rat” can
help us spell the word; noticing that the word “connecticut” contains the opposites “connect” and
“cut” can stir surprise.
When students come to the next class with their paradigm shift papers, I have them form small
groups and share. After that, I ask each group to volunteer someone from the group to share
their paper with the whole class.
This activity works because it is simple, surprising, and useful. It is simple to read a small text
round robin in class: around the circle students and I read one sentence at a time. When students
read the part where Covey discovers the man’s wife and the children’s mother has died, the shift
in emotion surprises them. The feeling in the classroom deepens. When we finish, we discuss
paradigm shifts. During the course I repeat the terms “paradigm shift” and “eureka” when
appropriate, and most students use these terms themselves–indeed, they become part of the
students’ vocabulary. The more paradigm shifts and eurekas students discover for themselves,
the more they will enjoy their first-year writing course.
Using Discovery Learning to Help Students Teach
William Palmer, Alma College, 10 July 2003
Aristotle wrote, “Teaching is the highest form of understanding.” Thus, to help students learn
actively and to provide more variety in class, I ask students to teach a book. Usually students work
in groups of four or five. What follows is a handout I give students for teaching Tuesdays with
Morrie.
******
English 101
Guidelines for Group Presentations: Tuesdays with Morrie
With members of your group, you will lead an activity and discussion about a section
of Tuesdays with Morrie by Mitch Albom. Your job will be to help your fellow students
1) understand and appreciate key ideas in the book
2) understand and appreciate key examples of clear and effective writing in the book
As you read, read with a pencil and look for these:
insights--ideas that seem wise and worth remembering
contradictions or paradoxes
appeals to reason (logos), to emotion (pathos), to character (ethos)
any overgeneralizations or statements you disagree with
specific, concrete details–description that helps you see
similes, metaphors, or analogies
repetition of certain words
patterns you notice about Mitch Albom’s or Morrie’s words
short sentences for emphasis
anaphora
use of parallel structure
use of threes
use of semicolons, colons, dashes, italics, or parentheses
patterns you notice about Mitch Albom’s or Morrie’s sentences
how Mitch Albom uses paragraphs–short, long, medium?
how Mitch Albom uses titles, chapters, and divisions within chapters
how Mitch Albom begins or ends his chapters or book
patterns you notice about Mitch Albom’s organization
As your group prepares what to do, please consider these suggestions:
--Be creative:
Design some activity (or two) that your classmates can do that will help them understand
and appreciate your section of the book more. You could perform a skit, bring in
something concrete that symbolizes an important idea, bring in some food, play a song,
show an excerpt from a video that somehow relates, do a short writing exercise to get us
thinking about some question or topic in your section. What else? It's up to you.
You can divide the class into small groups to examine some idea or pattern you see in
your pages from the book.. But try to surprise us; take some risks. You must do more
than ask questions and hope students will discuss them.
--Put effort into your presentation:
Read your section of the book carefully. Meet with members of your group to
brainstorm ideas and to develop a plan. Rehearse. Take your task seriously but have
fun with it too. Make the session worthwhile for you, your group, and the class. Your
presentation should be 15-20 minutes long.
Schedule:
Monday, Nov 10:
Group 1: pp.1-38
Group 2: pp. 39-78
Wednesday, Nov 13: Group 3: pp. 79-113
Group 4: pp. 114-151
Friday, Nov 14:
Group 5: pp. 152-192
Note: After you participate in your group presentation, write one page reflecting on the
experience: pleasures and problems of working with your group and doing your presentation,
what you learned from the experience, what you would do differently if you could do it again.
This is due the following class.
******
Having students teach a book like this is worthwhile. The process is simple: forming
collaborative groups and dividing a book into sections is easy. The teacher takes a break:
students do the real work in teaching for a change. The guidelines give students enough
direction but not too much–each group needs to discover how to make their presentation work
well. The process is surprising. When students do skits, act out scenes, take their job seriously
yet have fun, they find such work challenging and satisfying. The class as a whole enjoys the
variety–when a book is as moving emotionally as Tuesdays with Morrie, it’s hard for most
students not to tune in and care. The process is useful: students see that they can work together
to devise a plan to teach the class; teaching forces students to read more carefully than they might
otherwise. Also, unlike a textbook, the book contains no questions at the end of chapters:
students need to raise their own questions, discover their own answers, make their own
connections. After teaching this book, students are very prepared to write an essay about it.