Ensuring Academically Successful African American Males:
A Working Paper
by
Edward J. Schauer, Ph.D and Ila J. Schauer, M.Ed.
Prairie View A&M University
For presentation at the 26th Annual Conference of
The First-Year Experience
Addison, Texas
February 16 - 20, 2007
Copyright © Edward J. Schauer
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ABSTRACT
African American males are among those most at risk for failure to succeed in
college. Important quality of life indicators suggest that on the average, Black males in
America are in deep trouble: For example, many more college aged Black men are in
prison than are enrolled in higher education. This article is an overview of eight variables
identified in the scientific literature as correlates of Black male college success
William Sedlacek's Non-Cognitive Questionnaire (NCQ) has been used as one of
the entry requirements for a summer academic enrichment program at a public
Historically Black University from 1996 to date. The eight predictors of the NCQ, the
particular focus of this study, are considered for their efficacy in predicting retention,
GPAs, and persistence to graduation.
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INTRODUCTION
African American Men and Higher Education
While all males in the United States appear to be faltering in their academic
attainment (Tyre, 2006), African American males continue to fall behind other males and
females on a variety of success measures including those academic. On the one hand,
small percentages of Black men enter college; while on the other hand, those who enter
college suffer high attrition rates (Hood, 1992, 21). They are far behind Black females in
high school graduation rates; college admission, retention, and graduation; earning of
graduate degrees; and in movement up the career ladder (Davis, 2003). In the year 2000,
the Justice Policy study (Associated Press, March 28, 2006) reported that fewer African
American men were in higher education (603,000) than were in prison and jail (791,600);
and the rate continues to diverge.
Two of every three baccalaureate degrees earned by African Americans go to
women, while one of three are awarded to men. In one study, 71 percent of the Black
females graduated from college in four years, while only 46 percent of Black males
completed in four years (Davis, 2003).
The purpose of the present study is to take one small step toward reversing this
trend: By attempting to discover some of the correlates of Black male success, it is
hoped that more can be aided toward attaining college degrees and career mobility
through interventions more precisely focused upon meeting the needs of African
American men.
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Academy for Collegiate Excellence and Student Success (ACCESS)
In Texas, as well as across the United States, colleges and universities are finding
that entering freshmen are under-prepared for the rigors of academic life. In 1991, as
many as forty percent of Texas students arrived at our institutions of higher education
with an education deficit requiring remediation (National Center for Educational
Statistics, 1991; THECB, 1986). Most students who leave college drop out before the
start of their sophomore year (Tinto, 1996,1) making the freshman year critical to
success. In spite of spending millions of state dollars yearly for post-secondary
remediation, retention to the second year was continuing to drop. Murdock (1995)
revealed that college graduation rates per capita in Texas were trailing the nation by
twenty-three percent.
These were the challenges faced by Prairie View A&M University (PV), a
historically Black university in Texas, in 1995. To help meet the challenge of this underprepared population, the Academy for Collegiate Excellence and Student Success
(ACCESS) was established as a summer enrichment program for graduating high school
students desiring to go to college. The stated goal of ACCESS is to seek to improve the
performance, retention, and graduation rates of Texas students. Additionally, in order to
be true to the mission of PV, ACCESS took the challenge of offering their services to
culturally diverse, economically challenged and historically bypassed students.
The Academy for Collegiate Excellence and Student Success has adopted three
strategies that are key to its success: Academic enhancement; effective/holistic
advisement augmented by centralized support services; and a residential environment
which is academically focused and conscientiously structured. ACCESS itself
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encompasses two components: An intensive summer pre-college component; and a
holistic advisement component during the freshmen year. The key strategies are used
during both components with different emphasis and priority. In the summer program,
the primary emphasis is academic enhancement; while holistic advisement is stressed
during the freshman year.
The ACCESS summer bridging program is seven weeks long. It has been called
an “academic boot camp” due to its intense, highly structured program. For example,
prior to entry in the program, participants must sign a contract agreeing to abide by the
program rules (which include a curfew and prohibition of personal phones and
televisions). Study and discipline are stressed and enforced. ACCESS students are in
class daily from 8:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. participating in nontraditional classes in math,
English composition, reading comprehension, critical thinking, and problem
solving/research methods. Mandatory attendance in structured workshops and study halls
is monitored five nights a week. These groups include individual tutoring, assisted small
group study, and workshops in study skills, articulation, and math enhancement (Schauer,
Schauer, & Raab, 2006).
Components of the state mandated Texas Academic Skills Program (TASP)
examination were studied as part of the research for developing the ACCESS curricula
(Raab & Adam, 2005). This test measures student abilities in three areas related to
potential success in college: Math, writing, and reading comprehension. Data pertaining
to the performance of PV students on the basic tests was analyzed along with the subskills which make up each of the three primary tests. PV students’ scores were compared
with identical statistical data for the whole State of Texas. Findings of this analysis
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showed that PV mirrors the State of Texas in the areas of problem solving and critical
thinking.
Noncognitive Questionnaire (NCQ)
The selection process for ACCESS includes high school GPA and especially
targets those students who might be academically weak but who have the desire and the
motivation to succeed. Of course, finding students who fit this description is challenging
due to the fact that desire and motivation are difficult to define and measure. Enter
William Sedlacek who has devoted over thirty years to the study of the noncognitive
indicators of academic success. His research has produced a survey form which is ideally
suited to aid the selection process of a program such as ACCESS.
Thus, besides high school GPA, ACCESS students are selected by means of
Sedlacek’s (2004) Noncongitive Questionnaire (NCQ), face-to-face or telephone
interviews, and three letters of recommendation. Now in its eleventh year, ACCESS has
continuously used the NCQ as an admissions aid, thus supplying the data for research on
the predictive validity and accuracy of the NCQ. In addition, the ACCESS students who
attend PV are matched to a cohort on a one-to-one basis in five areas: Ethnicity, gender,
SAT or ACT scores, high school grade point averages, and whether they are from urban
or rural schools. Each ACCESS class is also compared against the assigned cohort for
the next six years in terms of first year academic progress (GPA and hours earned),
retention to the sophomore year, and graduation rate at year six. Each ACCESS class is
then compared on these items to the overall freshman class which entered PV with them.
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NON-COGNITIVE VARIABLES
Sedlacek (2004) argues that the Big Tests (BT) like the ACT and SAT are
inadequate for predicting which students should be admitted to our colleges and
universities. They bring information which is useful for some students but they are not as
accurate at predicting academic success for women, minorities, “or anyone who has not
had a White, middle-class, Euro-centric, heterosexual, male experience” (Sedlacek, 2004,
6) in the American educational system. While poorly predicting the academic successes
of African American females, Stretch (2005) states that the BT is even “less useful in
predicting performance for African-American males” (Sample & Seymour, 1971; Arbona
& Novy, 1990).
Sedlacek and Brooks (1976) offered eight noncognitive (NC) variables that
enhance predictions of success and failure for minorities and non-traditional students.
The degree to which students adjust to these areas and the degree to which the institutions
foster this adjustment will determine academic success. These noncognitive variables are
useful as entrance standards by admissions personnel; as evaluation instruments for
anticipating successful GPA, persistence, and graduation; and as advising intervention
tools. The eight variables are: Positive self-concept, realistic self-appraisal, successful
handling of the system (formerly, "racism"), preference for long-range over short-term
goals, availability of a strong support person, successful leadership experience,
demonstrated community involvement, and knowledge acquired in a field.
Many factors make the prediction of college success difficult for Black male as
well as for other minority, female, non-traditional, and first generation students. Among
the issues which confound predictions of success are the type of college attended –
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whether Historically Black College or University (HBCU) or predominantly White
institution (PWI), the amount of student involvement in campus activities, services to
students, and living situations while attending college (Stretch, 2005, 2-3). For example,
Dawkins and Braddock in their study of national longitudinal data (1982) found that
college degree plans were better predictors of grades for Black males at PWIs than at
HBCUs, suggesting the interaction between type of college attended and services
provided. While on the other hand, the same authors found that at HBCUs, high school
rankings and mother’s education were better predictors of college grades than they were
at PWIs (High school ranking is usually thought of as a cognitive variable while mother’s
education is a NC predictor.).
Another factor which stymies the discovery and isolation of predictors is the
limited data made available to researchers, especially at HBCUs (Washington, 1996).
Stretch (2005) explains that the universities she studied were extremely reluctant to share
statistics, other than in the aggregate, even though they had agreed to do so at the
beginning of her study. “(I)dentifying the specific predictors of academic success and
persistence for African-American students is formidable” (Stretch, 3-4). The authors of
the present study have found that in the university setting, first, those giving permission
for the researchers to access data and those responsible for the security of that data are
not necessarily in agreement as to the researcher’s access to official university statistics.
Secondly, the latter can fail to produce the data the researcher needs simply through
practicing inertia – being too busy to make the data available.
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POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPT OR CONFIDENCE
Embracing a positive self-concept means that a person has strength of character;
he/she can speak, write, and think positively about him/herself. He/she expects to
graduate, expects to do well in the academic setting, and is not afraid to face new
challenges. A student who enters college feeling confident that (s)he can make it through
school is more likely to survive and thrive on campus. Rosenberg’s “adolescent selfimage (1965) and Bandura’s “self-efficacy” (1997), both of which are related to success
both in academic success and in success in life, are constructs which fit closely with the
positive self-concept variable (Wood & Locke, 1987; and Okech & Harrington, 2002).
In a PWI setting, Hood (1992) found certain NCs to be more powerful predictors
of Black male than of Black female success. The NCs uniquely predicting Black male
success were leadership, academic organization, long-range goals, and racial
homogeneity; whereas, social integration and social control were more predictive for
Black females (Stretch). Academic organization, which displayed the second most
predictive strength of academic success for Black men in Hood’s study, is part of the
concept of positive self-concept of the NCQ.
REALISTIC SELF-APPRAISAL
A student who can accept praise and awards for academic excellence, as well as
constructive criticism and the consequences that follow poor performance, is making a
realistic self-appraisal. (S)he sees the need for self-development and has in mind the goal
to broaden himself/herself individually during his/her academic career. This student
practices assessing personal strengths and weaknesses, seeks help for perceived deficits,
9
and wants to know how (s)he is doing in class before grades come out in order to correct
any problems.
Another aspect of this realistic self-appraisal is adaptability (Shivpuri, Schmitt,
Oswald, and Kim, 2006). The student who is equipped with sufficient coping
mechanisms, will deal successfully with change, new situations and the multiple demands
of college, especially during the crucial first year. Rogers’ study (1984) showed that
resistance to becoming easily discouraged and expecting to have a difficult time in
college were strong predictors of Black male success (Stretch).
Rowser (1997) found that the African American students in her study felt prepared
for college, that a great majority (more than 90%) of them believed that their high school
preparation was adequate, and that more than one third expected to finish their first year
with at least a 3.0, and in fact 20% of males expected to receive at least 3.5. But the
reality turned out to be that many began their college career with less than a 3.0 from
high school. Clearly, there is a disconnect between their self-appraisal and reality.
SUCCESSFULLY NEGOTIATING THE SYSTEM
(Formerly: "Understands and Deals with Racism")
One of Sedlacek’s original variables was labeled dealing with racism; but in
recent years, he has revised it to successfully handling or negotiating the system (2004).
This seems evident when we think that for women, and students with disabilities, racism
may or may not come into play. The successful student has experienced and coped with
discrimination and is committed to being a catalyst for change in the system; (s)he has
learned to realistically handle situations without blaming his/her problems on someone or
10
something else. This is variable is especially important for minority students because
their treatment by the system may well be because of their ethnicity (Sedlacek, 1987).
Milliones' Black consciousness measure (1890) refers to an individual’s beliefs or
attitudes about his or her self, own race. He identified 4 stages of Black consciousness:
preconscious or antagonistic, confrontation or emotional, internalization or incorporation,
and integration or tolerance. Sedlacek (2004) suggests that a successful black student is a
realist who has experienced discrimination and is dedicated to improving the system in
which (s)he finds herself/himself . Learning to handle the circumstances and situations in
a rational and tolerant manner leads to developing new abilities.
Shivpuri, et.al., (2006) explain that the student who is continuously learning,
actively seeking new information and skills, and open to new experiences will be more
successful academically. This is another way of negotiating the system.
Hood (1992) found “racial homogeneity” to be the fourth strongest NC predictor
of Black male academic success in a PWI setting. Racial homogeneity, as Hood uses the
term, is synonymous with Sedlacek’s variable of negotiating the system and dealing with
racism.
Some of the most successful efforts to retain Black students according to
Sherman, Giles, and William-Green (1994) are tutorial and study skills programs, peer
counseling and mentoring, close monitoring of academic progress and financial aid
counseling. The successful student will seek out and utilize programs that have been
established on campus.
In Rowser's study (1997) the students were asked to identify areas where they
were weak and may need help. Less than half checked study skills (females 46%/males
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45%), less than half checked math skills (females 48%/males 44%), and only 16% of
males would admit to needing tutoring; the point being that if they do not acknowledge
their need for these things, will they seek out available assistance in order to succeed in
college?
PREFERS LONG-RANGE GOALS TO SHORT-TERM OR IMMEDIATE NEEDS
Learning to set goals is a “must” for college students, but top students know how
to state specific, concrete goals which are oriented in the future. Understanding the
relationship between present education and future goals; being willing to defer
gratification; and being ready to work hard for the grades are representative of students
who hold to the variable of preferring long-term over short-term goals.
Heckman and Rubinstein (2001) begin their research paper by citing the
importance conventional wisdom places on motivation and persistence in relation to
success in life. Their study of NC skills and GED recipients seems to indicate that these
students may be smarter but less persistent than their High School graduate counterparts.
Long-range goals were shown, on the other hand, by Hood’s study (1992), to be the third
strongest predictor of Black male academic success in a PWI setting.
Perseverance attaches to the preference of long-range goals, and indicates a
commitment to one's goals despite obstacles. Perseverance includes motivation to finish
projects and meet deadlines. Shivpuri, et.al. (2006) concluded that perseverance is
especially related to higher GPA in the first year of college.
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AVAILABILITY OF STRONG SUPPORT PERSON
A recurring theme in the retention literature is the successful student’s obvious
need for mentors (Schauer, Schauer & Raab, 2006). Some studies include the presence of
a strong support person under the theme of social capital (Schauer, 2005). The minority
student who has even one strong support person behind him/her is far more likely to
make a quick and appropriate adjustment to college (Sedlacek, 1989).
In Hood's (1992) study, Black male students who were interviewed concerning
their support groups cited other Black male students as their primary social network.
None of those interviewed had established a mentoring relationship with any faculty
member but admitted that they had not made any overtures toward faculty to this end
either.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP EXPERIENCE
“Success breeds success” could be the subtitle for the next variable. The student
who has had successful experiences in leadership roles is more likely to excel in college.
Along with leadership opportunities comes organizational ability, influencing and
directing others, and mediation training. This student is comfortable taking action when
called upon to do so.
Hood (1992) found that leadership was the strongest NC predictor of Black male
academic success in a PWI setting. For leadership experience for Black males, Hood
included participation and employment in sports teams and clubs. Rogers’ study (1984)
suggests that pride in the accomplishments of leadership was the strongest NC predictor
for Black males.
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DEMONSTRATED COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Community service or community involvement is necessary for navigating the
college campus. Living in a residence hall, participating in class, and forming study
groups are all the outgrowth of past experience in community. The student who has
contributed to his/her community has shown an interest in and understanding of the
community (s)he just left. Understanding and accepting one’s background and being
willing to work toward the benefit of the community evidences a level of maturity that is
necessary for one who is leaving home and striking out on his/her own.
Shivpuri, et.al. (2006) also list good interpersonal skills as a factor leading to
academic success. Conforming to new social dynamics, having good communication
skills, and satisfying peer relations are all important to any college student.
Being part of an athletic team may be an important aspect of the Black students
community experience (Sedlacek, 1987). Feeling connected to the campus is necessary
for success in college.
KNOWLEDGE ACQUIRED IN A FIELD
Nontraditional knowledge acquired in a field is defined as unusual or culturally
based methods of obtaining information and displaying knowledge. One example in
some minority cultures is the opportunity for public debate. This out of classroom
experience could easily translate to better class participation and discussion.
Persons of color are more apt to learn and develop by way of methods that
are less traditional and outside the education system. The methods may be
related to culture or gender, and the field itself may be nontraditional
(Sedlacek, 2004, 48).
14
Sherman, et.al., (1994) point out that students of all ethnic backgrounds who have
solid records of prior achievement are likely to continue that achievement in college and
that the key factor is the extent to which skills acquired in high school can be transferred
to college studies. They suggest that this is especially important for black students.
SUMMARY
In order to reverse a trend (solve a problem), the researcher must first identify the
problem, second suggest solutions or resolutions for the problem, and third offer hope for
the future. From all indications, African American Males are lagging behind in college
education. Of those who do come to college, a troubling percentage do not persevere to
graduation.
One possible solution would be to look at factors other than High School GPAs
and standardized test scores when considering college applications. Another would be to
make interventions standard procedure. The use of non-cognitive factors in predicting
academic success has been suggested by William Sedlacek and others. Sedlacek's NCQ
has been used, tested, validated, examined, argued, and used again by many institutions
of higher education, both HBCU’s and PWI’s.
The continuous use of the NCQ by Prairie View A&M University’s ACCESS
program for 10 years would make a research study worthwhile in (1) validating
Sedlacek's prediction instrument, in (2) calculating the predictive accuracy of the NCQ
for Black men, and in (3) isolating the strongest predictors of the success of African
American males. This, combined with an extensive literature review on noncognitive
factors, should prove a valuable endeavor. Ours is a work in progress. Much more
research is needed in this area.
15
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