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Experiments on Gaussian beams and vortices in
optically induced photonic lattices
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Zhigang Chen, Hector Martin, and Anna Bezryadina
Department of Physics and Astronomy, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California 94132
Dragomir Neshev and Yuri S. Kivshar
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Nonlinear Physics Centre and Centre for Ultrahigh-Bandwidth Devices form Optical Systems, Research School of
Physical Sciences and Engineering, Australian National University, Canberra 0200, Australia
Demetrios N. Christodoulides
School of Optics/CREOL, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816
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Received October 28, 2004; accepted January 3, 2005
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We investigate experimentally the propagation of fundamental Gaussian beams and vortices in a twodimensional photonic lattice optically induced with partially coherent light. We focus on soliton–lattice interactions and vortex–lattice interactions when the lattice is operated in a nonlinear regime. In this case a host of
novel phenomena is demonstrated including soliton-induced lattice dislocation–deformation, soliton hopping
and slow-down, and creation of structures akin to optical polarons. In addition, we observe that the nonlinear
interaction between a vortex beam and a solitonic lattice leads to lattice twisting due to a transfer of the angular momentum carried by the vortex beam to the lattice. Results demonstrating a clear transition from discrete diffraction to the formation of two-dimensional, discrete fundamental and vortex solitons in a linear lattice are also included. © 2005 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: 190.5940, 270.5530, 190.4420.
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1. INTRODUCTION
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trinsic localized modes and discretizing light behavior in
linear and nonlinear waveguide lattices.1,2 Closely spaced
waveguide arrays represent a typical example of optical
periodic structures that have a strong link with the
emerging science and technology of nonlinear photonic
crystals. In such array structures the collective behavior
of wave propagation exhibits many fascinating phenomena that are also encountered in other discrete nonlinear
systems. For example, optical structures with a periodic
change in the material refractive index can profoundly affect the diffraction properties of light. Even in a linear
waveguide array, due to evanescent coupling between
nearby waveguide sites, a light beam experiences discrete
diffraction. If the waveguide array is embedded in a nonlinear medium, more interesting wave behavior is expected to occur. A typical example is the balance between
discrete diffraction and nonlinear self-focusing that leads
to optical self-trapped states better known as discrete
solitons.3 In nonlinear optics, discrete solitons were first
demonstrated in one-dimensional (1D) AlGaAs semiconductor waveguide arrays in 1998,4,5 and they have since
attracted considerable research interest. In part, this is
because such discrete solitons are expected to exist also in
a variety of other discrete nonlinear systems, including
those in biology, solid-state physics, and Bose–Einstein
condensates.6,7 Apart from fundamental interest, these
discrete solitons have been also proposed as good candidates for all-optical blocking and switching of signals in
two-dimensional (2D) waveguide networks.8
Yet in spite of the exciting prospects for applications,
the design and manufacture of such 2D waveguide arrays
(with bandgaps in k space) is a difficult, expensive, and
time-consuming task. Additionally the materials used for
implementing such periodic systems normally do not possess strong properties for nonlinear self-action of light.
Therefore a new approach is needed to realize strongly
nonlinear periodic structures in higher dimensions. Recently a theoretical study suggested that it was possible
to create reconfigurable periodic structures by use of optical induction in photorefractive crystals with strong anisotropic nonlinearity.9 This soon led to the experimental
observation of 1D and 2D discrete solitons in such optically induced waveguide lattices, as first reported in Refs.
10,11 and then in Refs. 12,13. Unlike AlGaAs waveguide
arrays, the optically induced lattices can be readily made
in two or even three dimensions. This allows the study of
lattice solitons in higher dimensions.
Meanwhile photonic lattices optically induced by pixellike spatial solitons have been created with amplitude
modulation of partially spatially incoherent light14,15 as
well as with phase engineering of coherent light,16,17 leading to study of optical control and manipulation of individual channels in a large array of solitonic lattices. By
exploiting the anisotropic photorefractive nonlinearity,
the lattices could be conveniently operated in either the
13
Recently there has blossomed an interest in the study
APC:
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of light propagation in periodic structures including in-
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linear or the nonlinear regime. If the probe beam and the
lattice beam are extraordinarily polarized (e polarized),
they both experience high nonlinearity as they propagate
together and thus interact strongly. In this configuration
the lattice beam itself tends to form arrays of spatial solitons, so the soliton-induced waveguide lattice is said to be
in the “nonlinear” regime, which becomes considerably
more susceptible to soliton-induced deformation.15 This in
turn brings about the interesting possibility of studying
optical soliton-lattice interactions that might exhibit
many of the basic characteristic features of other physical
processes such as those encountered in polaron
excitation–formation in solid-state physics. In particular,
soliton-induced lattice dislocation–deformation,13 lattice
compression waves,18 and a novel type of composite bandgap solitons19 are expected to occur in such nonlinear lattices.
On the other hand if the lattice beam is ordinarily polarized (o polarized) while the probe beam is e polarized,
the probe would experience strong nonlinearity but the
induced lattice would remain nearly invariant during
propagation due to the anisotropic property of the nonlinear crystal. In this case the waveguide lattice is said to be
in the “linear” regime. This latter configuration can be
used as a test bench for demonstration of many nonlinear
wave propagation phenomena in periodic systems, including discrete solitons. When the lattice beam is created
with amplitude modulation and partial coherence13
rather than by coherent multibeam interference,10–12 an
enhanced stability of the lattice structure can be achieved
in both the linear and nonlinear regimes as a result of
suppression of incoherent modulation instabilities, as
well as reduced sensitivity to ambient fluctuations. In fact
it is in such optically-induced, partially coherent photonic
lattices that a clear transition from 2D discrete diffraction
to formation of 2D discrete solitons has been successfully
demonstrated.13
This convenient way of creating reconfigurable photonic structures and of successfully demonstrating discrete
self-trapping of light has opened the door for the observation of many distinctive phenomena in 2D periodic media
that have no counterpart in the bulk. These include, for
example, discrete vortex solitons,20,21 discrete soliton
trains,22 and discrete dipole and vector solitons in 2D
lattices.23,24 In addition, other interesting phenomena
that have been predicted or observed in 1D waveguide lattices, such as discrete random-phase solitons, discrete
modulation instability, grating-mediated waveguiding,
discrete soliton interaction, and generation and control of
spatial gap solitons,25–30 are expected to occur in 2D lattices as well, with even much richer dynamics yet to be
explored.
In this paper we present our experimental work on the
study of 2D fundamental Gaussian beams and vortices
propagating in optically induced linear and nonlinear
photonic lattices induced by partially coherent light. We
shall focus mainly on the nonlinear interaction between a
Gaussian–vortex beam and a 2D solitonic lattice. When
the lattice is operated in the nonlinear regime, the simultaneous propagation and interaction between the
Gaussian–vortex beam and the lattice leads to the observation of new phenomena. This includes, for example,
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soliton-induced lattice dislocation–deformation, vortexinduced lattice twisting, and the creation of optical structures that are somewhat analogous to polaron states in
solid-state physics. The Gaussian beam itself tends to
form a soliton in the self-focusing nonlinear medium, but
its propagation is strongly affected by the interaction
with the nonlinear lattice, leading to its transverse velocity slowdown in the lattice. The vortex beam with unit topological charge tends to break up into four filaments
when launched appropriately into the nonlinear lattice,
but the filaments are somewhat confined by the lattice potential so they cannot rotate freely. Vortices with higherorder charges are less confined by the nonlinear lattice,
and instead they often cause stronger deformation of the
lattice. For completeness, we will also include our recent
experimental results for Gaussian–vortex beams propagating as probes in linear waveguide lattices.
Conversely when the lattice is operated in the linear regime so that it does not itself experience strong nonlinearity during propagation, we observe that the probe beam
evolves from discrete diffraction to 2D fundamental and
vortex discrete solitons as the level of nonlinearity for the
probe is increased. Our experimental results for discrete
solitons are in good agreement with the theoretical analysis of these effects.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND CREATION
OF 2D LATTICES
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The experimental setup for our study is illustrated in Fig.
1. A partially spatially incoherent light beam 共␭
= 488 nm兲 is generated by converting an argon-ion laser
beam into a quasi-monochromatic light source with a rotating diffuser. Such a diffused laser source has the advantage of providing an incoherent beam with a controllable degree of spatial coherence and intensity suitable
for experiments with partially coherent light.31,32 A biased
photorefractive crystal (SBN:60, 5 ⫻ 5 ⫻ 8 mm3, r33
= 280 pm/ V and r13 = 24 pm/ V) is employed to provide a
saturable, self-focusing noninstantaneous nonlinearity. To
generate a 2D waveguide lattice we use an amplitude
mask to spatially modulate the otherwise uniform incoherent beam after the diffuser. The mask is then imaged
onto the input face of the crystal, thus creating a pixellike
input intensity pattern.15 This lattice beam can be turned
into either extraordinarily or ordinarily polarized light
with a half-wave plate as necessary. A Gaussian beam
split from the same laser but without passing through the
Fig. 1. Experimental setup. PBS, polarizing beam splitter;
SBN, strontium barium niobate. The vortex mask is used only for
experiments with a vortex beam.
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Fig. 2. Output intensity patterns of a 2D square lattice as created by optical induction. (a) Stable o-polarized linear lattice at 20 ␮m
spacing, (b) its corresponding output when the lattice beam is turned to e polarized. (c) Stable e-polarized nonlinear lattice at 37 ␮m
spacing, (d) its corresponding output when the nonlinearity is too high.
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diffuser is used as the probe beam propagating along with
the lattice. For the vortex experiment the probe beam is
sent through a transmission vortex mask (bottom path)
and then focused onto the crystal input face, propagating
collinearly with the lattice. In addition a uniform ordinarily polarized background beam (top path) as created
with another rotating diffuser is used as incoherent background illumination for fine-tuning the nonlinearity. The
input and output faces of the crystal are imaged onto a
CCD camera. The beam separation in a coupled or interacting state is achieved by blocking one of the components
and quickly recording the other one, taking advantage of
the noninstantaneous response of the crystal.
In our experiment the probe beam is e polarized and
“fully” coherent, while the lattice beam is partially coherent with either extraordinary or ordinary polarization as
needed. In general, in an anisotropic photorefractive crystal, the nonlinear index change experienced by an optical
beam depends on its polarization as well as its intensity.
Under appreciable bias conditions, i.e., when the photorefractive screening nonlinearity is dominant,9 this index
change is given approximately by ⌬ne = 关n3e r33E0 / 2兴共1
+ I兲−1 and ⌬no = 关n3o r13E0 / 2兴共1 + I兲−1 for e polarized and o
polarized beams, respectively. Here E0 is the applied electric field along the crystalline c axis (x direction), and I is
the intensity of the beam normalized to the background
illumination. As a result of the difference between the
nonlinear electro-optic coefficients r33 and r13 in the
SBN:60 crystal we used, ⌬ne is more than 10 times larger
than ⌬no under the same experimental conditions. Thus
when it is e polarized, the lattice beam experiences a nonlinear index change comparable to that of the probe beam,
whereas it evolves almost linearly when it is o polarized.
In this way by exploiting the anisotropic photorefractive
nonlinearity, the lattices can be conveniently operated in
either the linear or nonlinear regime.
Typical examples of 2D square lattices created by optical induction in our crystal with both o polarized and e polarized beams are shown in Fig. 2. Our experiment shows
that the linear square lattices generated with an o polarized partially coherent beam are stable and robust, even
at a small lattice spacing of 20 ␮m or less. However, to
create a nonlinear (solitonic) square lattice with the e polarized beam, it is a challenge to obtain a stable lattice
without distortion at such small lattice spacing. In addi-
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tion because of the anisotropic self-focusing nonlinearity,
the pixels (or waveguides) tend to merge in the y direction
if the square lattice is oriented in horizontal–vertical directions. The diagonal orientation of the square lattice
(i.e., its principal axes oriented in the 45° directions relative to the x and y axes) favors stable lattice formation as
a result of the enlarged y separation between pixels, especially when the lattice spacing is small. Figure 2(a)
shows a stable 2D linear lattice with 20 ␮m spacing created with an o polarized beam, whereas Fig. 2(b) shows
the corresponding pattern when the same lattice beam
was changed to e polarized with all other conditions unchanged. Clearly, the lattice is strongly distorted at this
spacing in the nonlinear regime. The reason for this is
quite intuitive. The e polarized lattice experiences a
strong nonlinear self-focusing effect, thus each lattice site
tends to form a pixel-like soliton itself. When the lattice
spacing is small, the size of each soliton pixel is also
small. With the photorefractive screening nonlinearity,
the formation of solitons must satisfy certain conditions
better described by the soliton-existence curve.33 In essence, forming a smaller soliton requires a stronger non- APC:
linearity, which is usually achieved by increasing the bias #2
field across the nonlinear crystal. However, with a stronger nonlinearity, an e polarized lattice beam tends to suffer from stronger modulation instability as driven by
noise such as defects and striations in the crystal, which
afflicts the formation of a stable solitonic lattice. This is
why we introduce partial coherence in the lattice beam.
As has been previously predicted34 and experimentally
demonstrated,14,35,36 partial coherence can result in suppression of modulation instabilities. Therefore, to create a
nonlinear lattice with enhanced stability often requires
fine-tuning of such experimental parameters as the bias
field, lattice spacing, lattice beam intensity, and spatial
coherence. If the spacing of a nonlinear lattice is too small
(20 ␮m or less), it is difficult to obtain a stable, densely
packed solitonic lattice in our photorefractive crystal even
with a partially coherent beam. In fact the lattice beam
would go haywire [as shown in Fig. 2(b)] because of strong
modulation instability and interaction between neighboring lattice sites. At larger lattice spacings, nonlinear lattices of pixel-like spatial solitons can indeed be established by fine-tuning the nonlinearity. Figure 2(c) shows a
typical example of a stable nonlinear lattice (at 37 ␮m
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spacing) obtained in our experiment, and Fig 2(d) shows
the corresponding lattice when the background illumination and–or the partial coherence of the beam is removed
so that the nonlinearity becomes too strong
In the following the square lattice will be oriented diagonally for the experiments on discrete solitons and
vortex–lattice interaction, while it will remain in a
horizontal–vertical orientation for the experiments on
soliton-lattice interaction.
3. GAUSSIAN BEAMS IN LINEAR AND
NONLINEAR PHOTONIC LATTICES
OF
A. Formation of Discrete Solitons in Linear Lattices
First we present our experimental results of a 2D Gaussian beam used as a probe in a 2D linear waveguide lattice. In this case the lattice beam is o polarized while the
Gaussian beam is e polarized. As discussed earlier, the
lattice in this configuration “sees” only a weak nonlinearity as compared with that experienced by the e polarized
probe beam and therefore remains nearly invariant as the
bias field increases. At the same time, the partially coherent lattice provides linear waveguiding for the probe
beam. Typical experimental results are presented in Fig.
3, for which a lattice with a small spacing of 20 ␮m [as
shown in Fig. 2(a)] is first generated. The probe beam
(whose intensity is 4 times weaker than that of the lattice) is launched into one of the lattice sites, propagating
collinearly with the lattice. As a result of weak coupling
between closely spaced waveguides, the probe beam undergoes discrete diffraction when the nonlinearity is low
[Fig. 3(c)], which clearly shows that most of the energy
flows from the center toward the diagonal directions of
the lattice. However, the probe beam forms a 2D discrete
soliton at an appropriate (high) level of nonlinearity [Fig.
3(d)], so that most of its energy is concentrated in the center and the four neighboring sites along the principal axes
of the lattice. These experimental results are in good
agreement with expected behavior from the theory of 2D
discrete systems.12,13 We note that in this case the lattice
itself behaves just like a fabricated linear waveguide array, and it is not considerably affected by the weak probe
or the increased bias field.
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B. Interaction of a Soliton with a Nonlinear Lattice
Next we present the results of interaction of a Gaussian
beam (as a control–probe beam) with a nonlinear lattice
induced by 2D pixel-like spatial solitons. In this case both
the Gaussian beam and the lattice beam are e polarized.
Under appropriate conditions a stable soliton lattice is established, and then the control–probe beam that tends to
form a soliton itself is launched into the lattice. If the intensity of the Gaussian beam is much weaker than that of
the lattice, the Gaussian beam behaves more as a probe
and is simply guided by the soliton channel into which it
is targeted without much influence on the propagation of
the solitonic lattice. However, once the intensity of the
Gaussian beam becomes comparable with that of the lattice, it behaves more like a control beam and thus plays a
role in the interaction process. For such a configuration,
optical control and manipulation of individual soliton
channels by off-site interaction at relatively large lattice
spacing (70 ␮m or more) have been established previously
either by use of a partially coherent lattice15 or by phase
engineering of a coherent lattice.16,17 Here we focus on
novel aspects of behavior concerning soliton-lattice interactions when the input soliton is aimed at one of the soliton pixels (on-site interaction) and when the lattice spacing is relatively small (less than 70 ␮m). Of special
interest is the interaction resulting from a probe–control
soliton that carries an initial transverse momentum.
Typically when the Gaussian beam is launched at one
of the lattice sites with a small tilt angle relative to the
propagation direction of the lattice, we observe lattice dislocation due to soliton dragging. Figure 4 shows an example of such an interaction. For this experiment the coherence length of the partially coherent lattice is 40 ␮m,
and its intensity is about 3 times higher than that of the
background illumination. The lattice spacing is 65 ␮m,
and the intensity FWHM of each pixel is 17 ␮m. The 2D
solitonic nonlinear lattice was created at a bias field of
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Fig. 3. Gaussian beam propagating in optically-induced linear lattices, showing formation of a 2D discrete soliton. Top, 3D intensity
plots, bottom, 2D transverse patterns of (a) the probe beam at crystal input, (b) output of normal diffraction without the lattice, (c) output
of discrete diffraction at low nonlinearity (bias field, 900 V / cm), (d) output of discrete soliton at high nonlinearity (bias field, 3000 V / cm).
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Fig. 4. Top, soliton-induced lattice dislocation when a probe soliton was launched into a nonlinear lattice toward the (a) right, (b) left,
(c) up, (d) down directions. The launching angle relative to the direction of lattice propagation is 0.5° for (a), (b) and 0.8° for (c), (d).
Bottom, superimposed images of the probe beam taken with (denoted by “A”) and without (denoted by “B”) the lattice. (a), (b) show a
slowdown in the transverse velocity of the probe soliton, (c), (d) show soliton hopping from site to site under the influence of the lattice.
The lattice spacing is 65 ␮m in all cases.
vertical (up and down) directions at a 0.8° launching
angle, the slowdown of its transverse velocity was less
significant. However, in this case, soliton hopping might
have occurred since the probe soliton jumped from the
“target” lattice site to the next closest lattice site. In the
bottom panels of Figs. 4(c) and 4(d) it can be seen that the
control soliton (denoted A) ended up at the output location
one site above the “target” lattice site. By comparing with
Figs. 4(a) and 4(b) where no hopping has occurred at a
0.5° launching angle, we expect that this kind of soliton
hopping might be more evident at larger launching angles
as the control–probe soliton jostles its way through the
nonlinear lattice.
The above-mentioned soliton-induced lattice dislocation became even more pronounced when the lattice spacing was decreased further and–or the probe intensity was
increased. In addition other interesting phenomena were
observed as the initial conditions for soliton-lattice interaction were varied, including generation of lattice defects,
lattice deformation, and lattice compression. Figure 5
shows an example of how the intensity of the probe soliton plays its role in the dynamics of interaction. For these
experiments the spacing of the lattice was kept at
⬇50 ␮m, and the intensity of the probe was increased
gradually with all other experimental conditions unchanged. The results in Fig. 5 were obtained when the
probe beam was aimed into one of the lattice sites but
with a tilt angle of 0.8° toward the right (+x direction). In
the top panels of Fig. 5 it can be seen clearly that the lattice dislocation caused by the control soliton became
stronger as the intensity of the soliton was increased. In
fact, besides the pixel initially targeted by the control soliton (the central one as referenced by the cross-hair), other
pixels in close proximity (the right one and bottom one)
were also dislocated from their initial positions. Pixels
farther away in the direction of the initial transverse momentum of the control soliton have also been affected [see
Fig. 5(c)] as if the lattice were compressed slightly by the
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2400 V / cm. At this bias field, the Gaussian beam with an
intensity approximately equal to that of the lattice formed
a soliton itself. When this control soliton was aimed into
one of the lattice sites at a shallow angle in four different
directions, the lattice overall remained uniform except for
a dislocation created by the soliton (Fig. 4, top panels). In
all cases the nonlinear lattice and the Gaussian beam
have interacted for a long period of time and the crystal
has reached a steady state. By capitalizing on the noninstantaneous response of the crystal, the control beam and
the lattice were monitored separately.
The photographs in the top panel of Fig. 4 were taken
immediately after the Gaussian beam was blocked in an
interacting state. The crosshair marker serves as a point
of reference to indicate how much the “target” pixel has
shifted from its original location at the output of the crystal as a result of soliton dragging. This soliton-induced
dislocation in the lattice disappeared after the Gaussian
beam was blocked for more than 5 min and the crystal
had reached a new steady state; so the lattice was restored in the absence of the control beam. Clearly, the
control beam had the tendency to drag the interacting
soliton pixel to any direction at will. Meanwhile the control beam itself retained its soliton identity, but its lateral
shift (at the crystal output) was reduced significantly because of the interaction with the lattice, indicating a slowdown in its transverse velocity (Fig. 4, bottom panels). In
the bottom panel of Figs. 4(a) and 4(b), the control beam
traveled 68 ␮m in the horizontal (left and right) directions without the lattice (the spot far away from the center denoted B), but it traveled only about 26 ␮m when interacting with the lattice (the spot close to the center
denoted A). These two photographs were taken separately
(in two separate experiments with and without lattice
while keeping all other conditions unchanged) and then
superimposed in the same figure. Slowdown of the soliton
transverse velocity as caused by the lattice is evident. Interestingly enough, when the control beam was aimed in
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control soliton. This kind of lattice compression (or
excitation-lattice compression waves) has been observed
also during a process of interaction between a stripe soliton and a 2D nonlinear lattice.18 For comparison the lattice restored to steady state after removing the control
beam is shown in Fig. 5(d). Clearly, the increased lattice
distortion shown in Figs. 5(a)–5(c) results from the interaction with the control soliton. In the bottom panels of
Fig. 5, the location of the control soliton at crystal output
is shown. When the lattice was absent [bottom panels of
Figs. 5(a)–5(c)] the control soliton experienced an increasing self-bending toward the crystalline c axis (+x direction) as its intensity was gradually increased. However,
when interacting with the nonlinear lattice, such
diffusion-induced self-bending effect37 was strongly suppressed, and the soliton propagated through the lattice
with a much lower transverse velocity, as shown in the
bottom panel of Fig. 5(d).
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For comparison the experiments of Fig. 5 were repeated under the same conditions except that the control
beam was launched with a tilt angle of 0.8° toward the
left (−x direction). The corresponding results are presented in Fig. 6 where, from (a) to (c), the top panel shows
the lattice dislocation–distortion as the intensity of the
control soliton was increased gradually, and the bottom
panel shows the corresponding free propagation (no lattice present) of the control soliton. Clearly, the central
pixel that was targeted moved away, and other pixels
nearby (the left one and bottom one) were also dislocated
as compared with the unperturbed solitonic lattice [Fig. 6,
top]. When the intensity of the control soliton was strong,
pixel merging and pixel annihilation was achieved. A difference was observed between launching the control beam
with and against the crystalline c axis that may be attributed to the anisotropic soliton self-bending effect. We note
that the pixel annihilation was reproduced in several
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Fig. 5. Top, soliton-induced lattice dislocation when the intensity of a probe beam was increased gradually. The launching angle relative
to the direction of lattice propagation is ⬇0.8° toward the right. The intensity of a probe beam normalized to that of the lattice beam is
(a) 0.9, (b) 1.0, (c) 1.1; (d) shows the restored lattice after the probe beam is turned off. Bottom, the corresponding intensity patterns of
the probe soliton when the lattice beam is turned (a)–(c) off, (d) on. The lattice spacing is 50 ␮m in all cases.
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Fig. 6. Same as in Fig. 5, except that the launching angle relative to the direction of lattice propagation is ⬇0.8° toward the left, and
the intensity ratio between the probe soliton and the lattice is (a) 0.9, (b) 1.1, (c) 1.3.
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Fig. 7. Formation of soliton-induced polaronlike structures as the intensity of the control soliton was increased gradually. The intensity
ratio between the probe soliton and the lattice is (a) 0.1, (b) 0.6, (c) 1.0, (d) 1.5. The lattice spacing is about 55 ␮m for the top panels and
40 ␮m for the bottom panels. The images in the bottom panels have been enlarged for better visualization of the central part of the
lattice.
that caused by a polaron in solid-state physics in which
an electron drags and dislocates heavy ions as it propagates through an ionic crystal.38 Since our lattice itself is
partially coherent and its spacing is not smaller than the
coherence length, nearby pixels in the lattice have no, or
only weak, initial phase correlation. In addition the lattice is mutually incoherent with the probe. Thus one
would expect only attraction between nearby lattice sites
rather than repulsion from incoherent soliton interactions. Furthermore, since the closest four neighboring
solitons are initially equally spaced around the central
one at which the probe beam was aimed, the observed behavior cannot be attributed simply to the anomalous interaction between photorefractive solitons in which attraction or repulsion depends merely on soliton mutual
separation.39 Instead the observed polaronlike structure
suggests that the probe beam might have induced a certain degree of coherence in the neighboring lattice sites
with different phase correlation through interaction. This
issue certainly merits further investigation.
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4. OPTICAL VORTICES IN LINEAR AND
NONLINEAR PHOTONIC LATTICES
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other experiments when the control soliton had an initial
transverse momentum in the −x direction. While the output location of the control soliton was strongly dependent
on its intensity in the absence of the lattice [Figs.
6(a)–6(c), bottom], it stayed nearly the same when the
control soliton propagated through the nonlinear lattice
with three different intensities [Fig. 6, bottom]. As a result of interaction and energy exchange with more than
one soliton pixel in the lattice, the shape of the control
soliton was also slightly distorted.
We have also investigated the case when the control
soliton was launched into one of the lattice sites with no
initial transverse momentum, i.e., the soliton beam and
the lattice beam propagate along the same direction. In
this case, strong lattice deformation, including generation
of polaronlike structures, was also observed due to nonlinear soliton–lattice interaction. Typical examples are
shown in Fig. 7, where from (a) to (d) the intensity of the
probe soliton was increased gradually while keeping all
other conditions unchanged. The lattice spacing is
⬇55 ␮m for the top panels and ⬇40 ␮m for the bottom
panels. As the intensity of the probe soliton was increased
to a point comparable with that of the nonlinear lattice, a
polaronlike induced structure was observed in which the
probe soliton dragged toward it some of the neighboring
sites while pushing away the other [Fig. 7(c)]. When the
probe beam intensity was increased to be much higher
than that of the lattice, the lattice structure became
strongly deformed in such a way that the site dislocations
extended beyond the immediate neighborhood [Fig. 7(d)].
The polaronlike structure was reproduced with different
lattice spacing, and the effect became more pronounced
when the lattice spacing was reduced to ⬇40 ␮m (Fig. 7,
bottom panel). The observed process is quite similar to
A. Formation of Discrete Vortex Solitons in Linear
Lattices
An important nonlinear phenomenon in 2D lattices is
the propagation of optical beams with complex internal
structure on the lattice, e.g., the propagation of optical
vortices carrying orbital angular momentum. Here we
present our experimental results of a vortex beam as
probe propagating in a 2D linear waveguide lattice. In
this case, the lattice beam is o polarized while the vortex
beam is e polarized. Typical experimental results are
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shown in Fig. 8, for which a waveguide lattice with 28 ␮m
spacing is created. The vortex beam with unit topological
charge [normal diffraction shown in Fig. 8(a)] is then
launched straight into the middle of the four lattice sites,
so that the vortex center sits right in the middle of four
lattice sites (off-site excitation20,21). As a result of waveguide coupling, the vortex beam undergoes discrete diffraction when the nonlinearity is low [Fig. 8(b) and 8(c)],
but it evolves into a discrete vortex soliton at an appropriate level of high nonlinearity [Fig. 8(d)] with most of
the energy concentrated at the central four sites along the
principal axes of the lattice. To confirm the nontrivial
phase of the vortex soliton, a weak reference beam is introduced to interfere with the discrete vortex after it exits
the crystal. We use a piezotransducer mirror in the reference beam path to control its phase relative to the vortex
beam. As we move the piezotransducer mirror, a series of
interferograms is recorded to reconstruct the phase of the
vortex. Examples of the interferograms are presented in
Figs. 8(f)–8(h), which show that one of the four lobes increases its intensity, whereas the corresponding diagonal
lobe decreases its intensity. Furthermore, the lobe with
the strongest intensity is alternating among the four
spots. These interferograms confirm that the four lobes of
the output vortex have a nontrivial phase relation—a ␲ / 2
phase ramp—as expected for the discrete vortex soliton.
By removing the reference beam, the discrete vortex soliton is restored in steady state [Fig. 8(e)].
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B. Interaction of a Vortex with a Nonlinear Lattice
Finally, we present our experimental results on interaction of a vortex beam with a nonlinear lattice induced by
2D, pixel-like spatial solitons. In this case, both the probe
and the lattice beams are e polarized. When the lattice is
operated in the nonlinear regime, it can acquire linear or
angular momentum when interacting with other beams.
The deformation of the lattice caused by soliton-lattice interaction as shown in Figs. 4–6 can be considered examples of transferring linear transverse momentum from
a Gaussian beam to the lattice. Here we address the issue
of interaction between a solitonic lattice and beams carrying angular momentum. This is a nontrivial issue, as in
periodic structures or lattices the continuous rotational
symmetry of homogeneous media is broken, thus angular
momentum is not generally conserved. In the case of a
discrete vortex-ring soliton presented in Fig. 8, it is the
combination of “discrete” dynamics and nonlinearity that
allows the soliton to maintain its vortex phase.20,21,40,41
However, higher-order vortices may not conserve their topological charges even in the linear lattice.42 It is thus
natural to ask: Can the angular momentum carried by a
vortex beam be transferred to a nonlinear lattice?
To answer this question, we launched a vortex beam of
opposite topological charges into a nonlinear lattice. The
experimental results are summarized in Fig. 9, for which
a solitonic lattice of about 40 ␮m spacing was first created. The input size of the vortex ring was adjusted by
proper imaging to cover the central four lattice sites [see
Fig. 9(a)]. After linear propagation through the 8 mm-long
crystal the vortex ring expanded to about 2.5 times in its
diameter, while the propagation direction of the vortex
core was unchanged (collinear with the lattice propagation). After a bias field of 2.2 kV/ cm was applied to the
crystal, the vortex beam broke up into two major filaments as a result of azimuthal instability, each of which APC:
rotated slightly in direction corresponding to the sign of #3
topological charge. Such breakup can be seen clearly in
Fig. 9(b), where the two filaments rotated counterclockwise and clockwise for vortices of opposite topological
charge m = + 1 and m = −1, respectively. The simultaneous
propagation of the lattice and the vortex, however, drastically influenced the vortex dynamics. Because of the
modulation–interaction offered by the nonlinear lattice,
the vortex ring broke up into four filaments [Fig. 9(c)]
rather than two, similar to the vortex propagation in a
linear lattice [Fig. 8]. In contradistinction to that in a linear lattice, the four spots resulting from the vortex
breakup rotated from their initial orientation, which also
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Fig. 8. Vortex beam propagating in an optically-induced linear lattice showing formation of a 2D discrete vortex soliton. Top panels
show the 3D intensity plots of the vortex beam at crystal output of (a) normal diffraction without the lattice (b), (c) discrete diffraction
at low nonlinearity, (d) discrete soliton at high nonlinearity (bias field, 3000 V / cm). The lattice spacing is 28 ␮m. Bottom panels show (e)
discrete vortex soliton reproduced in a lattice of 20 ␮m spacing, (f)–(h) a series of interferograms between the vortex soliton and a plane
wave confirming the nontrivial spiral phase structure of the vortex.
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Fig. 9. Vortex beam of unit topological charge interacting with an optically-induced nonlinear lattice showing lattice twisting driven by
the angular momentum carried by the vortex beam. (a) Input intensity patterns of the lattice (top) and the vortex (bottom). Nonlinear
output of the vortex propagating (b) alone, (c) with the lattice. (d) Nonlinear output of the lattice corresponding to (c) when the vortex has
a positive (top) or a negative (bottom) charge. The lattice spacing is 40 ␮m in all cases.
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escape from the four lattice sites at which the vortex was
initially aimed. Figure 10 shows the preliminary results
obtained with a charge-2 vortex. Although vortex-induced
lattice twisting was clearly observed in a transient state,
the outcome of vortex-lattice nonlinear interaction in
steady state is very sensitive to the initial symmetry of
the vortex ring, the uniformity of the lattice, and the
alignment of the vortex–lattice beams.
We note that angular-momentum-carrying beams or
optical vortices are known to be useful for manipulation of
microparticles.44,45 Since a nonlinear lattice can be considered a lattice of solitonic particles, it is reasonable to
expect that the orbital angular momentum can be correspondingly transferred from a vortex beam to a solitonic
lattice. However, solitons as formed in a nonlinear lattice
are not free to move, and the lattice typically breaks the
rotational symmetry of homogeneous media. Thus angular momentum is not generally conserved in the process of
vortex–lattice interaction. We believe that the interaction
could lead to vortex-induced defect states in a nonlinear
lattice, and it might also be possible to form a mutually
trapped bound state between the high-order vortices and
14
caused lattice twisting in the area of interaction. As seen
in Fig. 9(d) the direction of twisting is opposite for vortices with opposite topological charges. Through these experiments we believe that the lattice acquired some angular momentum from the vortex beam, which was then
redistributed to all the lattice sites. This behavior was
more clearly visible in the transient dynamical evolution
by taking advantage of the slow response of the photorefractive nonlinearity. Right after launching the vortex
beam into the lattice, we observed that the corresponding
lattice sites were strongly twisted, but the twisting was
later reduced through interaction with the neighboring
lattice sites.
While it is possible to confine the high-order vortices in
a linear lattice to form localized states of
quasi-vortices,42,43 the nonlinear interaction between a
high-order vortex and a solitonic lattice often leads to disordered structures. Experiments were performed with a
charge-2 and a charge-4 vortex in a manner similar to
that with the charge-1 vortex. Vortex-induced twisting of
the interacting lattice sites was observed, but the highorder vortices broke up into more filaments that tended to
]0
Fig. 10. Doubly-charged vortex beam 共m = + 2兲 interacting with a nonlinear solitonic lattice. (a) Input intensity pattern of the vortex.
Nonlinear output of the vortex propagating (b) alone, (c) with the lattice. (d) Nonlinear output of the lattice propagating with the vortex;
the corresponding unperturbed lattice is shown in Fig. 2(c). The lattice spacing is 37 ␮m in all cases.
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the lattice. Further experimental and numerical studies
are currently under way to better understand the dynamics of vortex–lattice interaction.
10.
5. SUMMARY
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We have demonstrated experimentally a number of novel
phenomena associated with soliton–lattice and vortex–
lattice interactions in a 2D, optically-induced, nonlinear
photonic lattice, including lattice dislocation and creation
of structures akin to optical polarons. We have observed
soliton-induced lattice deformation–compression when
the interacting soliton has an initial linear transverse
momentum, as well as vortex-induced lattice twisting due
to the transfer of angular momentum carried by the vortex. In addition 2D fundamental discrete solitons or discrete vortex solitons have been successfully demonstrated
when a Gaussian beam or a vortex beam is launched appropriately into an optically induced linear lattice. Our
results may pave the way for observation of similar phenomena in other types of nonlinear periodic systems, such
as Bose–Einstein condensates loaded onto an optical lattice.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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Z. Chen is also with the Applied Physical School, Nankai
University, Tianjin, China. This work was supported by
APC: AFOSR, ARO , the Overseas Excellent Young Researcher
#4
Award from NSF of China (No. 60328406), the Pittsburgh
Supercomputing Center, and the Australian Research
Council. We thank J. Yang, E. D. Eugenieva, M. Segev,
P.G. Kevrekidis, T.J. Alexander, E. A. Ostrovskaya, I.
Makasyuk, J. Young, W. Krolikowski, and J. Xu for assistance and numerous discussions.
Corresponding author Z. Chen’s e-mail address is
[email protected].
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8.
9.
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APC:
#5
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AQ: Can’t figure this out. Please explain or
correct.
#2 AQ: As meant?
#3 AQ: As meant?
#4
#5
AQ: Please spell out AFOSR, ARO, and NSF.
AQ: Please provide page range for ALL refs.,
where applicable.
#6 AQ: Spelling correct.
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