CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTIIRIDGE
THE HOME LITERACY ENVIRONMENT AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF
A MIXTECO PRESCHOOL CHILD
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of Master of Arts in Special Education,
Early Childhood Special Education
By
Elsa V. Montoya
December 2011
The thesis of Elsa V. Montoya is approved:
Michele Haney, Ph.D.
---~-~
Date
..... .
Olga Quirart~, M.A.
Date
Deborah Chen, Ph.D., Chair
Date
California State University, Northridge
11
Dedication
I would like to thank my children and husband for their enduring support while I
attended graduate school. Their flexibility, patience and understanding made it possible
for me to take the journey from returning to school to completing my thesis. Joel,
Karina, Larissa, and Marcos: for your presence in my life I am eternally grateful, and I
share this special accomplishment with you.
To my mother, sisters and their families I'd like to say thank you for helping me
balance family and school by understanding my need to devote extra time to school
projects and assignments. Many thanks to close friends and co-workers who expressed
interest in my goals. Their belief in what I could accomplish gave me energy to continue
moving forward.
Thank you to my professors at CSUN for a graduate student experience that was
challenging and fulfilling. I'd especially like to thank Dr. Chen and Dr. Haney for their
guidance throughout the CULTURE in ECSE project, and for sharing their knowledge
and insights about culturally and linguistically diverse children and their families.
Special thanks to Olga, my mentor, for the positive feedback that assured me I was on the
right track.
Finally, to the family who so generously gave of themselves and their time to
participate in the case study on which this thesis is based: taxaviu, gracias, and thank you.
-EVM
ill
Table of Contents
Signature Page
n
Dedication
iii
Abstract
v1
Introduction
1
Indigenous Farmworkers
1
Mixteco Population in Ventura County
3
Literature Review
5
Home Literacy Environment and Language Skills
5
Aspects of the Home Literacy Environment and Measureable Outcomes
6
Literacy Development in Latino Families
8
Maternal Effects on Early Language and Literacy Development
11
Shared Book Reading
14
Storytelling and Conversation
15
Statement of the Problem
16
18
Methods
Participants
18
Procedures
23
Findings
29
Family Home Literacy Environment-Onset of Case Study
29
Family Home Literacy Environment-Change in Progress
31
Child's Language Assessment
34
IV
Discussion
36
Key Findings
36
Limitations
42
Implications for Practice
44
Conclusion
47
References
49
Appendix A: Turnbull & Turnbull Conversation Guide
54
Appendix B: Books Given to Case Study Family
63
Appendix C: Children's Songs
64
v
ABSTRACT
THE HOME LITERACY ENVIRONMENT AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF
A MIXTECO PRESCHOOL CHILD
By
Elsa V. Montoya
Master of Arts in Special Education,
Early Childhood Special Education
The purpose of this single family case study was to help a Mixteco family support their
preschool child's language development by enhancing the home literacy environment
(HLE) through Spanish emergent literacy activities. The case study parents were fluent
in Mixteco, with limited literacy skills in Spanish. They spoke to each other in Mixteco,
and to their children in Spanish. The focus child's pre and post language skills were
evaluated using the Preschool Language Scale Fourth Edition Spanish, while the family's
HLE was assessed through informal interviews and observation. Findings showed the
family's home literacy enviroiunent evolved throughout the case study in response to
internal and external family circumstances. Differences in the focus child's pre and post
test communication scores are discussed. Implications for practice apply to language and
literacy intervention work with a Mixteco family. Research based recommendations for
establishing a literacy program that serves culturally diverse families are also provided.
Key words: Mixteco language, Mixteco immigrant family, home literacy environment
VI
Introduction
Data from the 2010 Census highlight the growing ethnic diversity of the United States.
Figures from the 2010 Census indicate that on Apri11, 2010, there were 308.7 million
people living in the United States of which 50.5 million people reported their ethnicity as
Hispanic or Latino. The 2010 Census defines Hispanic or Latino origin to mean any
person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish
culture (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
In 2010, Hispanics made up 16 percent of the total U.S. population compared to 13
percent in 2000. The Mexican origin population has remained the largest Hispanic group
and increased from 20.6 million in 2000 to 31.8 million in 2010. According to the
census, 11.4 million of the Mexican origin population of the United States lives in
California (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
Indigenous Farmworkers
This case study will focus on a subgroup of the Mexican population in California:
indigenous farmworkers. A brief overview of their history, education, language, and
immigration fi·om Mexico will be given followed by a single-family case study
addressing literacy development.
The Indigenous Farmworker Study (IFS) conducted between 2007 and 2009 (Mines,
Nichols & Runsten, 2010) estimates there are 165,000 indigenous farmworkers and
family members in California. The actual number of Mexican indigenous in California is
higher as the IFS does not include those working in non-agdcultural jobs. Similar to the
trend of population growth for Hispanics and persons of Mexican origin indicated in the
2010 Census, the IFS estimates that the number of indigenous frumworkers in California
1
grew from 35,000 in the 1990's to 120,000 by 2008. Children add an additional45,000
to the total.
Indigenous people began migrating to California from small towns in Mexico in
response to declining ability to produce their own food and other consumer goods. As
food and other necessities available from neighboring cities became increasingly
unaffordable, people began leaving their towns in search of more profitable work in
northern Mexico and Baja California, eventually crossing the border into the United
States.
At the time of the Indigenous Farmworker Study, the majority of indigenous
farmworkers in California had emigrated from the Mexican states of Oaxaca and
GuelTero. The IFS found that they were mostly men, hoping to be joined by their spouse
and children once they settled into entry level work in the farm labor market. Nuclear
families able to immigrate as a unit generally included both parents and only the youngest
children; preteen age children continued to live in Mexico with grandparents. The plan
was that the older children would join their family later as they became age-eligible for
work.
The indigenous in California are distinguished not only by their place of origin but
also by the language they speak. Seven of the most commonly spoken indigenous
languages in Mexico can also be found among California fannworkers. The list includes
tzeltal, otomi, tzotzil, zapoteco, mixteco, maya and nahuatl. In California agriculture,
Mixteco and Zapoteco are the two largest language groups. Interestingly, when the IFS
asked respondents about language practices in the home, a large proportion indicated that
the indigenous language was spoken to parents, spouses and siblings, but not to children.
2
Although parents are most fluent in their native language, the study found that after the
third year in the United States, only two in five continue to speak their native language to
their children. Many parents decide to speak to their children only in Spanish. Children
born in the U.S., or who immigrated with their parents at a young age, also begin learning
English. In many cases, Spanish eventually becomes a second language to both parents
and children, creating a tri-lingual environment in the household. Balancing language,
culture of origin, and the new, unfamiliar U.S. culture becomes a consuming, ongoing
challenge for many indigenous families.
Mix:teco Population in Ventura County
In Ventura County, California, the Indigenous Farmworker Study identified a
settlement of indigenous farmworkers predominantly fi·om the Mixteco-speaking
community of San Martin Peras in west Oaxaca. The people of Peras speak one of
several Mixtec dialects, have limited Spanish language skills and have generally achieved
only very low levels of education.
Indigenous workers in the area struggle to find and maintain low paying jobs to
support their families while simultaneously attempting to integrate into the social,
religious, and educational aspects of the community. Limited understanding of the
culture and poor ability to speak, read or write, not only the majority language, but the
local minority language as well, present baniers to obtaining adequate housing, medical
care, and child care. For many families, strengthening literacy skills in Spanish is seen as
one way of improving the family's chances of success and survival. This research project
examines one Mixteco family's effort to support their youngest children's oral language
3
skills in Spanish, and the impact of incorporating Spanish emergent literacy activities into
the horne environment.
4
Literature Review
Research specifically related to the home literacy environment and language
development of Mixteco families and their children in California was found to be very
limited. In this case, it was helpful and appropriate to review the existing literature
surrounding the language and literacy development of young children in general, and in
non-indigenous Hispanic/Latina families.
Home Literacy Environment and Language Skills
The home literacy environment and its' impact on children's language and literacy
skills is well established and has been the subject of research for many years (Burgess,
Hecht & Lanigan, 2002; Foster, Lambert, Abbott-Shim, McCarty & Franze, 2005;
Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008; Roberts, Jurgens & Burchinal, 2006; Weigel, Martin &
Bennett, 2006). The manner in which the home literacy environment (HLE) is
conceptualized varies between studies, but researchers generally agree that it includes
characteristics of the home and family such as income; parent education, beliefs, and
attitudes toward education; parents' literacy level and literacy habits; parent-child
engagement in literacy activities; and print material in the home (Foster et al., 2005;
Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008; Weigel et al., 2006). These factors work together to form the
home learning and literacy environment that in tum shapes the language, cognitive, and
social/emotional development of a child (Burgess et al., 2002; Foster et al., 2005;
Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008; Roberts et al., 2006; Weigel et al., 2006). According to the
transactional model of child development, the child evolves in accordance with the
experiences provided by his family and social context. A transaction occurs as parents
interact with their child based on the child's actions. As the child modifies subsequent
5
behavior based on his parents' response, another transaction takes place (Wehman, 1998).
Based on this model, the development of language and literacy skills can be viewed as a
series of transactions between the child and the home literacy environment (HLE).
Parents provide and alter literacy-based activities based on personal resources and their
perceived needs of the child.
Aspects of the Home Literacy Environment and Measureable Outcomes
Differences and similarities in home literacy environments can be found across
families, communities and cultural groups, resulting in a continuum of positive to less
than optimal developmental experiences for children. A search for the type of early
childhood experiences that might provide optimal opportunities for the development of
foundational language and literacy skills has led researchers to further examine the
impact of underlying factors that commonly affect families. The influence of the HLE
has been examined by evaluating the relationship between selected HLE aspects and
specific measureable outcomes. Aspects of the HLE included for study have for the most
part been those a researcher can reliably observe, manipulate, and measure over time,
including availability of newspapers, magazines and books; shared reading, and the use
of reading strategies; maternal sensitivity and child interest during book reading;
engaging in games, nursery rhymes, songs and conversations, telling stories, library use,
and TV viewing (Burgess et al., 2002; Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008; Roberts et al., 2005;
Weigel et al., 2006). Researchers have sought to learn more about the importance of the
HLE by studying the effect of these aspects on measureable outcomes such as expressive
language, receptive language, vocabulary growth, emergent writing, print knowledge and
phonemic awareness (Burgess et al., 2002; Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008; Weigel et al.,
6
2006). Findings from these studies show that children's expressive and receptive
language skills tend to be higher when parents have higher levels of education, income,
literacy skills, and have themselves had positive school experiences.
Parents that believe it is their role to facilitate leaming at home are more likely to
actively engage their children in direct and indirect language activities that help them
develop oral language and literacy skills. Children whose parents read aloud to them,
provided picture books, engaged in telling stories, drawing pictures, reciting rhymes and
planning games, had greater print knowledge, emergent writing skills and receptive
language (Weigel et al., 2006).
Socioeconomic status has long been associated with the development of children's
early cognitive, language and emerging literacy skills (Gonzalez & Ubing, 2008; Foster
et al., 2005).
Historically, studies have suggested that the language development and
readiness skills of children from lower socioeconomic households are affected by their
experience with environments where they are read to less often, have fewer leaming
materials, and limited opportunities for meaningful, language-based interactions with
adults. Generally, these children score lower on language and reading assessments, and
demonstrate less interest in literacy (Burgess et al., 2002; Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008;
Roberts et. al., 2005; Weigel et al., 2006).
As researchers seek to identify and understand individual and group risk factors
associated with the home literacy environment, interventions have been designed in an
attempt to increase positive outcomes for children. Multiple studies (Bingham &
Pennington, 2007; Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008; Lawhon & Cobb, 2002) have examined the
possible benefits of introducing literacy activities at an early age, using specific strategies
7
during shared book reading at home and in preschool and incorporating literacy into child
and family routines. For the most part, studies have centered on English speaking,
European-American families. Research concerning the home literacy environment and
language interactions of Latino, Mexican-American and Mexican immigrant families,
though limited, gives a different perspective critical to the understanding of literacy
development in young, Latino children.
Literacy Development in Latino Families
Researchers in this area argue that there is a difference in the definition of literacy and
appropriate literacy development activities between mainstream society and families
from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Literacy development in Latino
families can be best understood from a sociocultural perspective and examined through
the lens of language; culture, and values (Arzubiaga, Rueda & Monzo, 2002; Billings,
2009; Ottiz & Ordofiez-Jasis, 2005).
Vygotsky believed that human development is based on the connectedness between
sociocultural processes in society and mental processes in the individual and that learning
occurs within the supportive interactions between a child, family and society (Gindis,
1990). From this perspective, the sociocultural process of literacy development for the
Latino child takes place as a result of the literacy activities shared with parents within the
context of the community in which they live. Literacy development is conceptualized to
include activities associated with daily life experiences and related to the family's
language, beliefs, and culture. Activities are based on goals different from those of the
literacy practices typically associated with schools (Arzubiaga et al., 2002; Saracho,
2007), such as learning the alphabet and developing phonological awareness.
8
Literacy Activities
Latino parents may share literacy activities with educational, recreational, political, or
economic goals in mind (01tiz & Ordofiez-Jasis, 2005). For example, a parent may not
only read a storybook to a child, but also read about the scores of favorite soccer teams,
elections taking place in their homeland, arid the current exchange rate of the dollar. A
parent might ask a child to find the ad for weekly specials at their neighborhood market,
write down the name of a doctor recommended by another family member, or the address
of a company currently taking job applications. Spontaneous literacy lessons also occur
as parents answer their children's questions about print found throughout their
· neighborhood (01tiz & Ordofiez-Jasis, 2005). All are examples of non-traditional, yet
valuable literacy activities meaningful to the child's life within the family and community
context (Saracho, 2007).
An additional strength in Latino families is involvement of the extended family.
Relationships within the extended family network are used to transmit knowledge, skills,
norms, and values from adult to child (Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008). Studies show that
grandparents, aunts, uncles and other family members take part in children's literacy
development through oral storytelling, a cultural tradition where stories are told about
one's life, used to teach a moral lesson, or simply to relay a traditional children's story
(Billings, 2009). In summary, a closer look at the literacy practices of Latino families
shows that literacy is valued, and when redefmed, can be seen in the daily lives of
children. Current studies confirm that Latino families and their children participate in
both traditional and nontraditional literacy activities that help develop the skills needed in
school, home and community settings (Ortiz & Ordofiez-Jasis, 2005). Researchers
9
recommend schools and community literacy programs identify and take advantage of
Latino family resources in order to provide continued support to parents in promoting
their children's literacy and language development (Saracho, 2007).
School-based Literacy and Latino Children
In spite of promising evidence of an existing home literacy environment where Latino
children begin building foundational literacy skills, the literature indicates that Latino
children enter formal schooling lacking the readiness skills needed for success in their
transition to depersonalized, increasingly academic, school-based literacy. Latino
children experience a trend of lower academic achievement when compared with their
mainstream peers and are often classified as academically at risk (Billings, 2009; Farver,
Yu, Eppe & Lanigan, 2006; Saracho, 2007). Further, Latino children, especially English
language learners, have difficulties reaching and maintaining age-level reading skills and
by age nine have fallen behind native English-speaking peers in reading and writing
English (Arzubiaga et al., 2002; Billings, 2009). Research devoted to explaining this
trend has focused on family factors such as parent education, low socioeconomic status,
parent's literacy habits, and types of literacy related materials in the home (Arzubiaga et
al., 2002; Billings, 2009; Farver et al., 2006; Ortiz & Ordofiez-Jasis, 2005; Saracho,
2007).
A summmy of findings shows that while Latino parents value literacy, interactions of
the family factors mentioned above mediate the richness and extent of the HLE parents
are able to create for their children. Secondary factors such as maternal stress, domestic
workload, crowded living conditions, and long work hours (Arzubiaga et al., 2002;
Saracho, 2007) also affect children's early development through their impact on time
10
spent reading to children, quality of conversations surrounding literacy materials and
parents' general involvement in meaningful activities that promote language, cognitive,
and social development (Farver et al., study 2006). Of special interest in many of the
studies regarding the HLE of Latino children is the role of the mother, and the effect she
may have on her children's language and literacy development.
Matemal Effects on Early Language and Literacy Development
The literature indicates that mothers have significant influence on their children's
global development and specific interactions with their children can have positive
influence on language and emergent literacy development during the years before the
start of formal schooling.
Socioeconomic Status
Researchers have examined matemal factors that appear related to children's language
and literacy development, including socioeconomic status, education level, and literacy
ability. Studies that examined language development indicate that low-income mothers
with lower education levels tend to talk less to their children, use fewer different words,
and more directives (Pan & Rowe, 2005; Rodriguez, Hines & Montiel, 2009). They have
less time and opportunity to read to their children and have fewer books available in the
home (Raikes et al., 2006; Ton, 2004). Mothers from higher socioeconomic
backgrounds start reading to their children at a younger age, use more elaborate language
and provide their children with more language focused experiences (Raikes et al, 2006).
Low socioeconomic status has been associated with differences in education level of the
mother which in tum affects beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes related to the makeup of
11
the horne learning environment and specifically to shared book reading (Green et al.,
2009; Raikes et al., 2006).
Level ofEducation
In exploring the literacy practices of families with lower socioeconomic status, studies
have linked level of education to literacy proficiency. When looked at separately,
mother's literacy level has been associated with teaching activities, verbal responsivity,
and availability of toys and learning materials in the horne (Green et al., 2009). Torr
(2004) suggested that lower education level of the mother is associated with a lower level
of literacy skills that in tum affects children's literacy-related language development. In
a study by Torr (2004) children of mothers with less than a high school education used
fewer learning strategies during picture book reading with their mothers and preschool
teacher when compared to children whose mothers held a college degree. On the other
hand, another line of research has looked at the impact on the horne learning environment
when mothers with the same level of education have different levels of literacy
proficiency. Green et al. (2009) found that maternal literacy level weakened the
association of educational level with the cognitive horne environment. Green et al.
suggested that understanding child development in at-risk, low-income families can be
enhanced through further exploration of the relationship between literacy level and
parents' behaviors related to desirable child outcomes.
Perceived Role ofLatina Mothers
In an effort to understand the effects of maternal behavior on the literacy outcomes of
Latino children, a growing body of research has looked at Latina mothers' perceived role
in teaching children early literacy skills and promoting school readiness. Previous
12
studies have conceptualized literacy skills within an academic framework based on
factors such as number of books in the horne, shared trips to the library, attention to print
during book reading, letter knowledge, and phonological sensitivity (Burgess et al., 2002;
Durand, 201 0; Gonzalez & Uhing, 2008). As mentioned earlier, a sociocultural
framework provides a better fit when considering the HLE of Latino families in that
literacy is viewed as embedded in informal, shared activities, routines, and interactions.
From this point of view, literacy activities include writing letters, reviewing religious
materials, reading maps or newspapers, sharing conversations about parents' work and
household activities (Durand, 2010).
For Latina immigrant mothers, a sociocultural perspective provides a more culturally
relevant way of looking at early literacy practices. In many Latino households, great
value is placed on raising socially competent children. Appropriate, interpersonal
relationships and proper behavior is included in the definition of a well-educated child.
Emphasis is placed on instilling moral values, good manners and respect for elders
(Durand, 2010; Farver et al., 2006). This conception of early education filters the kinds
of experiences that Latina mothers provide for their children at horne. Durand (20 10)
examined the relation between children's literacy skills, academic activities, and social
activities used by Latina mothers to prepare their children for school. The study found
that of the two variables, only social practices taught in the horne were significantly
related to children's classroom engagement and literacy skills at the end of kindergarten.
For the children in this study, social practices taught in the horne formed the basis of
successful classroom engagement which-then had a positive influence on later literacy
skills.
13
In sumniary, studies point to alternative definitions ofliteracy and school readiness
activities found within Latino families. Researchers agree that these differences can be
viewed as cultural strengths and used as resources to suppmt the academic achievement
oflow-income, non-English speaking immigrant children. To capitalize on the value
Latino parents place on literacy and education, additional strategies can be introduced to
promote Latino children's language and emergent literacy. One such strategy that has
been widely studied is shared book reading.
Shared Book Reading
Reading story books together has long been regarded as an effective strategy for
promoting oral language and emergent literacy for young children at risk (Burgess, 2002;
Reese, Sparks & Leyva, 2010). Its effectiveness stems from the interactions between
reader and child in a context the child finds interesting, meaningful, and authentic
(Justice & Pullen, 2003). For the parent, shared book reading provides a setting where
stories, infmmation and conversation can be freely exchanged limited only by the natural
boundaries inherent to the individual parent-child dyad.
Historically, studies on shared book reading have sought to determine which aspect of
this activity is most related to children's expressive/receptive language development.
Strategies used by the parent during reading, frequency of reading, and child interest are
some of the factors most often examined (Arzubiaga et al., 2002; Deckner, Adamson &
Bakeman, 2006; Roberts et al., 2005). A large body of research maintains the quality of
book reading may have greater impact on oral language skills than child interest and
:fi·equency of book reading (Bracken & Fishel, 2008; Reese et al., 2010; ValdezMenchaca & Whitehurst, 1992). The behaviors adults use when reading with children
14
can be altered to encourage active verbal pmticipation of the child. Through training in
dialogic reading, parents can help their child develop nalTative skills and learn new
vocabulary related to a story. Parents are trained to ask open-ended questions, evaluate
responses, expand while following the child's lead, and connect the story to real events in
the child's life (Reese et al., 2010). The benefit of shared book reading using these
explicit strategies has been confi1med through evidence-based studies documenting
positive colTelations between shared reading and variety of nouns and verbs used, mean
length of utterance, and the child's effmts to initiate and continue conversations (Justice
& Pullen, 2003; Valdez-Menchaca & Whitehurst, 1992).
Although the dialogic reading style has been successfully taught and used by
mainstream parents and educators, for Latino families and their children, it may not
readily fit within the cultural beliefs and values related to reading and conversation. For
example, traditional, less acculturated Latino families value quiet children, and believe
children learn through observation and repetition of appropriate behavior modeled by
parents. Step by step directions are uncommon as children are expected to observe and
repeat actions others have demonstrated (Rodriguez et al., 2009). Language socialization
practices of traditional Latino families discourage children from joining conversations
and giving their opinion; and more importantly, adults would rarely ask a question with a
known answer (Rodriguez et al., 2009). These differences in the way Latino children m·e
socialized affect the use and effectiveness of dialogic reading techniques.
Storytelling and Conversation
More resem-ch is needed in the area of shared reading and other strategies that take
into account the cultural practices of traditional Latino families. Promising strategies that
15
strengthen and build upon the existing home literacy practices of culturally diverse
families include storytelling and elaborative conversation. Current research confirms that
parents fi·om diverse cultures talk with their children about past events and personal
experiences in contexts other than shared book reading. Altering parents' style of talk
during parent-child conversation can have a positive influence on a child's language
skills (Reese et al., 2010).
In studies where parents were trained to talk with their children using more openended questions along with other techniques that support and encourage richer
conversation, children demonstrated an increase in narrative skills and vocabulary scores
at the end of the intervention. The training appeared to work equally well with parents of
different ethnic backgrounds, and varying levels of education and income (Reese et al.,
201 0). Though more research is needed, this preliminary work indicates that storytelling
and conversational interventions provide another avenue for enhancing the language
skills of culturally diverse children.
For some groups of immigrant families, efforts to enhance early language
development in young children can best begin by achieving an understanding of the
existing literacy practices within the family. One purpose of the following case study is
to add to the literature by examining the home literacy environment, parent involvement,
and oral language development of a child from an indigenous Mexican family living in
southem Califomia.
Statement of the Problem
Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the number of indigenous families
immigrating to Ventura County, Califomia, from areas of Mexico where Mixteco, a non-
16
written, tonal dialect, is the primary language (Indigenous Farmworker Study, 2010). In
many of these families, parents begin learning Spanish as a second language upon arrival
in the United States. It is generally their desire that their children also leam Spanish so
when the family retums to Mexico in the future, the children will have greater economic
opportunities. Therefore, as these parents are learning Spanish as a second language,
they are also attempting to teach it to their children as a primary language. For a Mixtec
preschool child being raised in this type of language environment, identification of a
language delay presents a unique set of circumstances. While a plan to support the
child's language needs may be developed for the preschool classroom, parents may
struggle to find ways they can provide ongoing language support in the home. Exploring
the connection between the home literacy environment of a Mixteco family and their
child's language development merits further study and leads to the overarching research
question: How can we enhance the home literacy environment to promote the language
development of a Mixtec preschool child in a home where parents have limited literacy
skills?
17
Methods
A single family case study was conducted as required by the Cultural Understanding
and Language Training: An Urban Residency Experience in Early Childhood Special
Education (CULTURE in ECSE) project at California State University, Northridge,
funded by an award from the U.S. Department of Education #H325K055139. The
CULTURE in ECSE project involved identifying a family from a different cultural
background having a young child with a developmental problem. The family selected by
this researcher emigrated from Mexico and is part of an indigenous population known as
Mixtecos. The parents expressed concern over the Spanish language skills of their
preschool-age daughter. The purpose of this case study was to help the parents support
their preschool child's language development by enhancing the home literacy
environment through Spanish emergent literacy activities.
Participants
The case study family consisted of two parents in their early thitiies with six children
under the age of twelve. Of the two parents, the mother provided the majority of the
family background information and was also the main participant in the intervention
activities. This was deemed appropriate since their family system indicated the care and
education of the children was primarily her responsibility. The father gave his consent
and was kept informed by his wife and this researcher.
Adela and Francisco (not their real names) were born and raised in a small village in
Oaxaca, Mexico. They first came to the United States as a couple in 2002. They were
manied, had a two year old daughter, and were expecting their second child when they
decided to leave their village for the United States. With a few extended family members
18
and others from their village already in place in California, there was the promise of
work, housing, and family support. The family successfully crossed the border from
Mexico into California with the help of a coyote (a highly paid guide that leads
undocumented people across the border). Adela recalls the trip across the border
involved walking over rough terrain for three days and four nights with little food and
water. She remembers taking turns with her husband to carry their daughter and three
gallons of water. It was their determination to find a better quality of life across the
border that inspired Adela and Francisco to make it through this ordeal. Adela recalls
that leaving behind the comfort and safety of family and culture was frightening, yet she
had faith this change would mean a steady job for her and her husband, and assure a
quality education for her children.
Adela and Francisco also realized that once they settled in the United States, trips back
to Mexico would be rare, if nonexistent, for several years. The cost and danger of
crossing the border with children would be far too great, and separating the family would
not be an option. At the time of this wliting, Adela and Francisco have lived in
California nine years; they have not visited Mexico again. As Adela reminisces about
leaving her parents, she seems saddened that she has not seen her mother in so many
years and that her five youngest children have not met their grandparents.
Language and education of the parents
While growing up, the primary language spoken in each parent's family was Mixteco
Alto, a non-written language, passed on verbally from generation to generation. There
was limited opportunity to consistently attend school located a far distance from their
small village, thus, neither parent leamed to speak, read or write Spanish fluently as a
19
child. Adela relays that it was not until she began helping her father sell wares in the
closest town outside her village that she began to learn Spanish. Today she and her
husband still speak to each other, their parents and siblings in Mixteco, but have elected
to speak to their children in Spanish. It is believed that fluency in Spanish will lead to
success in school and the larger community for the children. Adela is aware that without
grandparents nearby, the children will not participate in valuable interactions where
Mixteco would be the natural language of communication. Even so, Adela and Francisco
are willing to sacrifice their native language in support of their children's future. Both
parents would eventually like to attend adult school to improve their literacy skills in
Spanish and perhaps one day learn to speak English.
The children
Adela and Francisco's children include their eldest daughter, now 11 years old, two
sons, ages 9 and 6, and a set of triplet daughters now 4 years old. The language skills of
one of the triplets, 34 months old at the start of the case study, were used as a baseline for
the case study intervention.
The three older children attend the local elementary school where the primary
language of instruction is English. They speak to each other in English and to their
parents and other adults in Spanish. The triplets are in their second year of regular
preschool at a Head Start center within walking distance of their home. Lessons are
taught in both English and Spanish. The triplets speak to each other in a mix of jargon,
Spanish, and an occasional word in English. They address their siblings, parents, and
other adults in Spanish.
20
The triplets began participating in an early intervention program due to global
developmental delays at 12 months old. The team of service providers included a Mixtec
infant specialist fluent in Mixteco, Spanish, and English. The family was able to work
with this same infant specialist until the program ended when the girls turned three years
old. By then, the triplets appeared to be within normal age range for all areas of
development with the exception of language. As they transitioned from Early Start to
regular preschool, the triplets were identified as having a language delay and referred to
the local school district for speech therapy. They began receiving speech therapy at 3.2
years old, within the fiTst month of attending preschool. Speech therapy was provided by
an English speaking speech/language pathologist using a Spanish speaking interpreter.
By the start of their second year of preschool, speech therapy was provided by a Spanish
speaking speech/language pathologist.
Housing
At the start of the case study the family lived in a small, one bedroom apartment on a
frontage road parallel to the freeway. A long driveway of packed dirt cut right by theiT
front door and led to more two story buildings at the back of the lot. The children were
rarely allowed to play outside, and there was no park or school nearby. Upon entering
the front door, one could see a small living room with old carpeting, a couch, a bed, and a
t.v. sitting on a chest of drawers. A doorway to the right covered by a cloth curtain
revealed the kitchen area, while a doorway to the left led to the bedroom and bathroom.
Within a month of this initial meeting, the family moved to a three bedroom apartment
in a denser part of town where they continue to live. Here, a series of similar apartment
buildings line both sides of the street. The neighborhood is populated by many Mixteco
21
and Spanish speaking families with children, as well as family groups that include
unmarried, working-age young adults living with relatives or acquaintances. Adela,
Francisco and their children share this apartment with Adela's sister, her sister's husband,
and their toddler. The new apartment not only has increased living space, but also a
fenced yard off the kitchen. The sliding glass door leading to the yard remains open all
day, giving the children continuous access. Since Adela's husband is the only driver in
the family, it is important to note that schools and city bus stops are within walking
distance of their new home.
Employment
Francisco is employed by the strawberry industry. Generally he works locally
October through April then follows the crop a three hour drive north for the rest of the
season. The family does not travel with him, making it easier for him to fmd temporary,
affordable housing. Francisco carpools home on the weekends with other male relatives.
Adela and Francisco believe this arrangement provides needed stability for the children in
terms of housing, education and medical care.
Adela had not worked outside the home since the triplets were born. When the triplets
were 30 months old, she felt it was an appropriate time to look for work. The family
needed the extra income, and the girls were old enough to attend childcare at the home of
a friend. Although she could not be certain her job would pay enough to make leaving
her children in childcare worthwhile, Adela was willing to give it a try.
While Adela waited to hear back from a job application she submitted, she earned
extra money by providing childcare for two preschool-age boys. Like her husband,
Adela soon found work in the strawberry industry, though with a different company. Her
22
new job requires her to be available for work Monday through Friday and sometimes
Saturdays. The work day starts at dawn and often does not end until 5:00 p.m. Adela
carpools to work with her brother.
At the end of strawberry season, Adela looks for work picking raspberries. She is able
to transfer to the new work site along with her brother and other co-workers. Although
the hours are long and she is away from the responsibilities of her home and children, she
is grateful to be earning an income.
Procedures
The researcher gathered preliminary infmmation regarding the Mixteco culture and
language by attending two conferences held in Ventura, Califomia: the Special
Populations Interventions & Resources conference sponsored by the Ventura County
Office of Education; and the Mixteco-Speakers in California conference sponsored by
Ventura County Medical Center. An interview with a native Mixtec interpreter (also an
infant specialist) provided further insight into the family system, values, and cultural
traditions ofMixtecos living in Mexico.
The case study family was selected and initially interviewed with the help of the infant
specialist that worked with the family. The infant specialist was a highly qualified
interpreter in that she was also Mixteco and spoke Spanish and English as well. While
this researcher is bilingual/bicultural English/Spanish, it was felt that complete
comprehension of the CULTURE in ECSE project could be best achieved through the
use of a native Mixteco speaker. Additionally, the family was apt to feel more
comfortable with the Mixtec interpreter who shared the same cultural background.
Building a relationship with the family
23
Once the family agreed to participate in the case study, it was mutually decided that
home visits would take place 2-3 times a month, with each party at liberty to cancel or
reschedule. Visits generally consisted of light conversation with Adela and playful
interactions with any children present. Turnbull & Tmnbull's (1997) Conversation Guide
was used as a starting point for gathering family information (see Appendix A for a
complete copy of the guide). Adela felt she did not need the interpreter for everyday
conversation. The focus child was closely observed to learn about her language ability
and interest in pre-literacy activities. Home visit notes were written immediately after
each visit (away from the family) and used for futme planning. Phone calls were
documented as well.
Home visits with the family began in June, 2010 and continued until October, 2011.
Forming a relationship with the family involved developing trust, mutual respect, and
finding common ground. Cultural norms came into play in that unspoken boundaries
were established for the relationship. For example, this researcher would make an
appointment for each visit, mealtimes and mealtime preparation would not be interrupted,
and visits would last a socially accepted length of time. Adela and her family's unspoken
pru1 of the agreement was that they would be home for each appointment or cancel ahead
of time. The researcher could act as a resource for the family as appropriate. Working
within these guidelines made the case study relationship comfortable and productive.
Viewing the researcher as an outsider gradually decreased as background information
was shared regarding family history, religion, immigration, and learning a second
language. Similarities were acknowledged while differences were looked upon with
mutual interest. That someone would be so interested in the Mixteco culture and
24
language seemed a novel concept to Adela. In light of this, there were several
conversations that touched on university research into culture and language and their
impact on children in school. It was explained to Adela that her family's personal
journey was representative of many Mixteco families immigrating into California. She
was commended for her courage and the strength of character it took to leave her
homeland to live in a foreign country where neither she nor her husband spoke the
language or was familiar with the cultural, medical or legal systems. Raising children in
a trilingual environment and learning to navigate the special education system was indeed
worthy of study.
As Adela gained an understanding of the potential to reinforce her children's language
skills through home-based literacy strategies similar to those she observed at the
preschool, the intervention component was introduced. It is described below.
Intervention
The intervention component was designed keeping in mind Adela's level of literacy
and her family priorities. Intervention activities included reading books, singing songs
and fingerplays, creating a photo album with captions, and prewriting activities. To
maintain a sense of the family's usual home routine and natural family interactions, all
three of the triplet daughters were encouraged to participate. Data was formally gathered
on only one of the triplets to keep the documentation aspect of the study manageable for
the mother. The focus child was selected based on information from the mother
describing her as the "middle" child in bnth order, personality, and language
development. Materials for the intervention were donated to the family to enhance the
25
home literacy environment, and so that activities could be repeated at any point during
the daily routine. Activities were intended to be simple, fun and in the context of play.
Reading books together. At the beginning of the intervention period, Adela received
the following verbal instructions. Once a week, for eight weeks, she would be receiving
picture books in Spanish to share with the triplets (see Appendix B for list of books).
Books could be read directly from the page or paraphrased. She was encouraged to
answer and ask spontaneous questions during the story, and connect the story to other
events and/or experiences. Books could be read at any time during the day, as many
times as she and her daughters desired. All family members were welcome to share jn
reading the books. Each week the researcher was to read the book(s) to the children first,
and after briefly reviewing the story, invite Adela to reread the book.
Songs andjingerplays. Adela and the children were asked to name favorite songs and
fmgerplays they had learned at home, in early intervention, or preschool (see Appendix C
for a list of songs and fingerplays). Familiar songs were incorporated into each visit per
their request. The children were verbally prompted to follow any accompanying
gestures.
Prewriting activities. The triplets each received one regular pencil, three colored
pencils, five gel pens, three note pads, and two pencil pouches distributed across three
separate visits during the intervention period. They were told to play with these items,
but not given specific instructions about what to write. When appropriate, items were
labeled with each child's name.
Photo album with captions. Photos of the triplets and their mother were taken in their
home periodically during the study. These and other photos of street names and places
26
they frequented in the community were placed in a photo album with 4-5 word captions
and given to Adela to read with the triplets.
Data Collection
Home visit notes and phone call transcripts were evaluated throughout the length of
the case study for recurring themes, topics that might influence the direction of the study,
and issues that might affect the family's participation in the study. The Turnbull &
Turnbull (1997) Conversation Guide was used to smi and code the material by subjects.
Data were collected on the home literacy environment, book reading activities, and the
target child's language development.
Assessing the home literacy environment. The home literacy environment was
informally assessed through information garnished from discussions surrounding the
topics in the Turnbull & Turnbull Conversation Guide. Adela was asked additional
questions specifically about the availability and use of literacy-related materials (e.g.,
magazines, newspapers, children's books, and writing implements) available in the home.
Book reading. Adela was provided with stickers and two monthly calendar pages to
record the number of times books were read to the target child (alone or with siblings).
Her instluctions were to place a sticker on the calendar each time she or someone else in
the family read a book to the child. Multiple or no stickers could be used per day. Adela
was given a binder in which to keep the stickers and calendars. On the first day of the
intervention, this researcher modeled how to use the calendar and stickers.
Language assessment. The Preschool Language Scale Fourth Edition Spanish (PLS-4
Spanish) published by The Psychological Corporation, was used to assess the focus
27
child's expressive and receptive language skills prior to the start of the intervention
period, and again at the end of the case study.
The PLS-4 Spanish is administered individually and used to identify monolingual or
bilingual Spanish speaking children who have a language disorder or delay. It is intended
for use with children from birth through 6 years 11 months of age. According to the
manual for the PLS-4 Spanish, it can be administered, scored and interpreted by early
childhood specialists, bilingual educators and other professionals who have experience
and training in assessment.
28
Findings
The family's home literacy and language environment evolved throughout the case
study in response to internal and external family circumstances. Transfmmation of the
home literacy environment and the target child's language skills are described below.
Names of family members have been changed to protect their privacy.
Family Home Literacy Environment-Onset of Case Study
Family reading habits
Initial interviews indicated that the family did not receive newspapers or magazines at
home, nor did they buy single copies. The parents engaged in reading as needed for
communicating with the children's schools, therapy program and doctor. Paperwork
related to the triplets' participation in Early Start and their enrollment in preschool was
kept in a reusable shopping bag. Adela required assistance from this researcher to
distinguish between forms pertaining to early intervention and those related to preschool
for each child.
The family owned at least two children's books, but none that the parents read for
their own pleasure. The mother, Adela, stated that she was the family member that read
to the triplets and helped them with school-based subjects such as learning shapes, the
alphabet, and counting.
The target child was especially familiar with one of the children's books found in the
home. The book consisted of pictures of common items for each letter of the alphabet.
During one visit, she went through each page of the book, naming objects found in her
home or school. When Adela was shown the items the child could not identify, Adela
confirmed the children had not yet experienced the item in person. The target child was
29
also able to identify the page with the first letter of her name. Her interest in the book
was apparent when she h~ld up ten fmgers indicating how many more times she wanted
to look at the book together. The book held special value for the family since it had been
given to the triplets by their early intervention infant specialist.
The other book the family owned was in English and Spanish and had been given to
the triplets in preschool. It was about safety in the home, and talked about what children
should do in case of a fire. The target child was also familiar with this book as
demonstrated by her ability to repeat the safety mles related to the pictures. Besides
these two, the family did not own any other story or picture books.
Library use
Although the older siblings occasionally went to the local library with their father and
brought books home, they did not check out books specifically for the triplets, nor did the
older siblings read to them. Adela added that the triplets were not included in trips to the
library as she was afraid they would pull all the books off the shelves.
Writing
School-age siblings had access to writing implements and paper needed for homework
assignments. The triplets demonstrated high interest in handling and pretending to read
paperwork, but did not have a supply of paper on which to practice pre-writing skills.
Adela did not use writing on a daily basis; she did not write down appointments, make
grocery or errand lists, nor did she communicate with near or distant family in written
form. When asked to fill out the parents' section of a case study consent form, Adela had
trouble remembering how to spell her husband's name.
Singing
30
The triplets did not hesitate to ask for singing during home visits. Adela was asked if
she sang with the triplets, and if so, to share some of their favorite songs. Adela replied
that she did not know the words to any children's songs. She explained that she had not
learned the words to the songs the triplets heard during their time in Early Start. Though
later given a copy of the words to the favorite song "Pin Pon," Adela seemed shy about
singing it in the presence of this researcher and the children. The target child frequently
asked for Pin Pon during initial home visits. She was unable to sing the words, but could
imitate the accompanying gestures.
Community based literacy
Adela was not heard using names of streets and numbered addresses to describe places
the family frequented in the community. Other than when refening to her own address,
Adela typically described locations in the community by their proximity to another
familiar geographical marker, or in terms of the time it took to get there by car. For
example, she described the location of the doctor's office as down the street from WalMart; she worked on a ranch a 40 minute drive from her home; and the triplets attended
preschool a 15 minute walk from home after crossing the railroad tracks.
Family Home Literacy Environment-Change in Progress
Subtle changes appeared in the home literacy environment during the period of the
case study. The triplets began to look forward to the visits, and to the routine of singing
favorite songs and reading books together. They typically sat on the living room floor
facing this researcher and Adela sitting on the couch, or side by side with the adults.
Mother, researcher, and children reading together
31
While books were read during home visits, the triplets asked questions and made
comments about related experiences. Since the triplets' expressive language was
sometimes difficult for this researcher to understand, Adela would often clarity what was
said. The target child occasionally used a word in English to describe something she saw
in the book; the English word was then repeated by her siblings. Reading the book again
and repeating the same comments or questions became part of the routine. After a book
was read the target child was often heard saying "otra vez, cuatro cinco!" ("again, four
five!").
Adela remained shy about reading a storybook during the visit and always declined
when asked. She commented once that although she could read some Spanish, she felt
she read too slowly. Adela seemed more comfortable with picture books where she could
ask the triplets to name the object or color, or count how many. She shared this type of
book with the children in the presence of this researcher on three separate occasions.
Reading intervention. In total, the family received 20 books to keep. Eight books
were about letters of the alphabet conesponding to family members' names, one book
was about shapes found in the environment, and eleven were story books. Nine of the
books were bilingual Spanish and English, eight were in Spanish only, and three of the
books were in English only.
Adela showed she valued having the books by consistently instructing the focus child
to put the books where they belonged after reading them. At a home visit near the end of
the case study, some books visible in the living room on top of the television appeared
used and well worn around the edges, evidence that they were used often. On one
particular visit, Adela commented that books are expensive. This statement was followed
32
by a conversation regarding familiar places where books can be purchased at lower prices
(e.g., yard sales, thrift stores, and swap meet).
At the start of the case study, Adela reported that she was the family member that read
to the triplets. Early into the reading intervention period, Adela began providing
childcare for two young children and found she had less time available for reading. As
her daily routine became busier, Adela was no longer able to sit down and read to the
girls whenever they asked as she had done before. At this point, Adela asked her oldest
daughter, Belen (not her real name), to help her with the reading activities. Adela states
her daughter began reading books to the triplets not only when requested, but also on her
own as a way to help calm them when upset. Since she was a bilingual reader, Belen
could read to the girls in both English and Spanish. Adela added that Belen preferr-ed
reading in English, fmding it more difficult to read in Spanish. Storybooks in English
were given to the family at the next visit.
Number of books read. The calendars and stickers provided for data collection show a
record of books read was kept for five weeks; three weeks shmi of the intended time
frame. Adela later explained that once she stmied working outside the home, she was not
able to read or monitor books read to the children. During the five week period, the
target child was read to 45 times. Reading did not occur eve1y day, but did take place
multiple times on some days. The average number of times read to in a week was 10; the
highest number of times read to in a single day was 6.
Writing
The second time the triplets received a note pad, pencil and pencil pouch, Adela
expressed support for writing each child's name on their items. She confirmed this was a
33
good way to reduce fighting for items since they could identify whose was whose. She
instructed the triplets to practice writing their own name, giving verbal feedback to the
girls' attempts. Adela was also given her own set of pad and pencils and encouraged to
use them in front of the girls.
Singing
The children's interest in singing remained high throughout the case study. New
songs were added to the repertoire per their request and rehearsed 2-3 times each during
visits. The focus child eventually leamed key words to the songs and was able to follow
along using a mixture of words and jargon.
Photo album with captions
The photo album with captions was especially popular with Adela and the triplets. It
contained photographs of familiar places in the community, street signs near their horne
and school, and of mother and the triplets involved in activities. The children
immediately described what they saw in each photo; Adela easily read the simple
captions.
Child's Language Assessment
Pre-test
The target child's total language standard score on the PLS-4 Spanish was 93 before
the reading intervention began. Her auditory comprehension standard score was 93 and
her expressive communication standard score was 94. She was three years, five months
old when the pre-test was given.
Post-test
34
Eight months later, the target child's total language standard score on the PSL-4
Spanish was 80. Her auditory comprehension standard score was 92 and her expressive
communication standard score was 73. She was four years, one month old when the
post-test was given.
Analysis ofmissed test items. The target child missed all tasks related to spatial
concepts (i.e., use and understanding of up, down, in, on, under, behind, beside, in front)
on the expressive communication portion of the pre-test and post-test. She also missed
all morphology tasks (i.e., use of possessive pronouns, past tense forms and plurals) on
the expressive communication portion of the pre-test and post-test. Test scores will be
frniher discussed in the next section.
35
Discussion
This case study examined the language development and home literacy environment
of a Mixteco preschool child from an immigrant family. Similar to families described in
the Indigenous Farmworker Study (2010), this child's parents are native Mixteco
speakers who have immigrated to California in search of greater economic and
educational opportunities. They continue to improve their Spanish literacy skills as they
establish themselves within the local Spanish-speaking community while simultaneously
leaming to navigate the particulars of American society. Like many of their native
Mixteco counterparts, the parents in this case study family chose to speak Spanish to their
children in an effort to increase the children's opportunity for success whether living in
California or Mexico. In this family, a unique scenario developed as the three youngest
children, a set of triplets, were identified as having a (Spanish) language delay. One
purpose of this case study was to add to the literature by examining the home literacy
environment, parent involvement, and oral language development of one of the children.
The second purpose of this case study was to determine whether in this individual family,
using emergent literacy activities to enhance the home literacy environment would have
an impact on the child's language development.
Key Findings
Key findings are discussed beginning with differences and similarities in the literacy
development of the case study family compared to other Latino, Spanish-speaking
families described in the review of the literature.
Mixteco and the home literacy environment
36
The most salient difference between the case study family and those described in the
literature review is that Adela and Francisco come from an indigenous culture where the
language, Mixteco, is not used in written form. In their experience, Mixteco was not
represented in traditional literacy mediums such as books, newspapers, and magazines,
nor did it exist in common, everyday use on food and medicine labels, or on written signs
in the community. In the traditional, Mixteco-speaking home, the home literacy
environment primarily consisted of conversation, music, and oral storytelling. Once they
had their own family, Adela and Francisco attempted to replicate the home literacy
environment with which they were familiar, but their limited command of spoken
Spanish influenced their ability to converse, tell stories and expand on teachable
moments with their children. Moreover, although highly motivated to create a setting
where the children's Spanish skills could flourish, Adela and Francisco's lack of
experience with formal, written, and academic Spanish made it difficult to promote
Spanish literacy. Not only did Adela and Francisco need to improve their literacy skills
in Spanish, they also had to learn how to incorporate literacy into their day to day lives.
Absence of extendedfamily network
Another difference between the case study family and traditional Latino families
described in the literature review is that Adela and Francisco were unable to fall back on
a multigenerational extended family to supplement their children's literacy development.
Perhaps due to a combination of Mixteco-speaking elders, and physical distance, they
were without a network of grandparents, aunts and uncles that could engage the children
in additional storytelling and conversations meant to teach moral lessons, relay
information about the elder's childhood, or simply pass on traditional children's songs
37
and stories. The few family members they had in California, with whom they spoke in
Mixteco, were also recent arrivals trying to learn Spanish.
Raising socially competent children
Similarities to families studied in the literature also appeared. As many Latina
mothers do, Adela connected the children's social skills with readiness for school and
outings in the community. Ongoing self-assessment of her children's social competence
was a serious matter that influenced her perception of their potential success in school
and the community. The following observations made during the course of the case
study point to Adela's belief in the value of nurturing her children's social skills. When
talking about the results of a second parent-teacher conference at her daughters'
preschool, Adela highlighted the teacher's comment that the girls' had improved in their
willingness to help clean up and were considered well-behaved in school. During time
spent with this researcher, Adela was consistent in reminding the girls that it was
important to be still and listen when the "rnaestra" (teacher) was in their horne. The girls'
ability to walk to school safely, take public transportation, and conduct themselves in
medical clinic waiting rooms demonstrated Adela's success in teaching her daughters
appropriate social skills related to public settings. Although she realized it was
important, Adela acknowledged she did not venture to the library with the girls because
they were not prepared for that environment; she feared they would misbehave and pull
all the books off the shelves. Adela decided the library could wait until she knew the
girls were ready.
Overall, these examples show that Adela valued social competence as a foundational
component of personal development that supports academic achievement and positive
38
experiences in the community. Thus, raising socially competent children was a natural
responsibility she embraced to the best of her ability.
Socioeconomic status
Like other families, the home literacy environment of the case study family was
greatly influenced by the parents' level of education, socioeconomic status, and parentchild engagement in literacy activities. Adela came into the case study with a good
foundation in place for building the family's home literacy environment. She was
motivated to improve her Spanish literacy skills and knew how to access classes; she
understood the children's literacy development required follow-through in the home; she
reminded their elementary school age children to complete homework, and made sure the
youngest children attended preschool. As Adela learned more Spanish, the potential for
the home learning and literacy environment to evolve increased.
While Adela was a stay-at-home parent, a degree of :flexibility in her home routine
gave her the opportunity to practice her reading skills through the triplets' high interest in
sharing books. Unfortunately, Adela needed to find a job to help meet living expenses.
Returning to work made fmding time for this kind of parent-child interaction challenging.
As a result, after she returned to work, reading to the focus child dropped off completely
as shown on the data collection calendar. Adela's long work hours and pre-existing
household responsibilities meant she was no longer able to make reading books or
attending literacy classes a priority. Similar to other low SES parents, Adela valued
literacy and language development, but family circumstances negatively impacted the
time and effort she was able to invest.
Language assessment results
39
Another key finding surrounds the focus child's pre and post language assessment
scores. Results of the pre and post tests indicated measureable growth in overall
language skills did not take place after enhancing the home literacy environment with
children's books, writing activities and singing. To review, the target child's auditory
comprehension standard score differed by one point between tests, indicating the level of
these skills was maintained over the eight month period between tests. On the other
hand, the child's expressive communication standard score decreased as she got older.
In an attempt to address why this happened, it is important to note that the same
expressive communication tasks were missed on both tests, indicating a possible ongoing
struggle with morphology and spatial concepts. Whether this difficulty was inherent to
the child's language delay, family language dynamic, or testing procedure, is not clear.
Yet, side by side with the child's struggle to advance expressive language skills was
Adela's self-perceived need to improve her own overall language skills in Spanish.
Adela's conversational Spanish at the beginning of the case study, informally observed
by this researcher, included limited vocabulary and contained errors in grammar that did
not appear to have changed by the time of the post-test. The mother's expressive
language seemed to lack some of the same morphological components missed by the
child as listed under analysis of missed test items in the fmdings section.
Although it is not known if or how the mother's Spanish skills affected the target
child's language development during the case study period, this relationship is worthy of
consideration for further study. Of particular interest would be to examine how adult
Mixteco speakers integrate Spanish-as-a-second-language onto the existing
grammatical/morphological framework of their native language; how this process affects
40
the way they speak Spanish to their young children, and in turn, the influence on the
children's Spanish language skills.
Positive outcome ofreading intervention, singing, and writing activities
For Adela and her daughter, reading a variety of books together did not immediately
translate into an increase in the child's overall language scores, but even so, it was an
important activity for two important reasons. First, reading books together increased
instances of positive parent-child interactions that have been found to influence early
literacy skills and later academic success (Dodici et al. 2003). Second, increasing the
number of books the family owned not only led to an increased oppmtunity for reading
that matched the target child's high level of interest, but also for teachable moments, and
talking about a variety of topics; activities found to support language development
(Deckner et al. 2006; Farver et al. 2006).
For the family, a positive outcome of simply owning typical preschool stmybooks was
that it helped create a bridge between school and home literacy. Books found in both
locations meant Adela and the children could continue reading, discussing and enjoying
the stories. Another positive outcome was the opportunity for involvement of the older
siblings. As previously noted, oldest daughter Belen participated in reading to the focus
child when her mother became too busy. The potential for the other two older siblings to
read (to the triplets or for their own pleasure) also increased with the availability of
additional books.
Altogether, the books, engaging the children in singing, plus providing for writing
activities have added to the richness of the family's home learning environment, which in
41
turn, has been shown to enhance the language and literacy competence of children (Foster
et al. 2005).
Summary ofkey findings
Adela and her family share similarities with other Mexican and Latino families, yet
have unique language and literacy needs that should not be overlooked. Replacing their
original home language with a new language, the absence of an extended family network,
and low socioeconomic status, mediate the richness and extent of the home literacy
environment they are able to create. Conversely, the high value placed on education,
second-language learning, and raising socially competent children are family strengths
that will carry them forward.
Limitations
The purpose of this case study was twofold. First, it was designed to examine the
home literacy environment, parent involvement, and oral language development of a
child from an indigenous Mexican family. Underlying this purpose, the case study also
attempted to identifY initial strategies for enhancing the home literacy environment to
promote the language skills of a Mixtec preschool child in a home where the parents have
limited literacy skills. The case study resulted in valuable information gained in light of
limitations that were inherent to the study or became apparent as the study went on.
Study limitations are discussed below.
While the language and cultural differences between the case study family and this
researcher made up some of the most appealing aspects of the study, it also set the stage
for mutual misinterpretation and misperception. The use of a cultural interpreter
alleviated this issue by increasing language comprehension and cultural understanding,
42
yet the underlying divide caused by perceived differences in level of acculturation into
the English speaking culture could not be discounted.
Another limitation was also present at the onset of the study. Even though it was
explained to the family that this researcher was a university student completing a
Master's degree, the nature of the study and home visits led the family to perceive this
researcher as a teacher. In the Mexican culture, the traditional relationship between
parent, child/student and teacher carries embedded standards that predetermine behavior,
compliance and acceptable topics of conversation. This perception may have restrained
the parents' willingness to ask questions, provide additional feedback, and contribute
suggestions.
The study was also limited in that the focus was not extended to include the children's
preschool setting. The influence of curriculum, teachers and peers entered the case study
via anecdotal references but was not formally observed and documented.
The fmallimitations to be discussed came to light during the course of the case study.
After the first couple of months working with the family, it became apparent to this
researcher that the focus child might be using a mix of Mixteco and Spanish words in
conversation. Therefore, what sounded like jargon could actually have contained whole
or partial words in Mixteco indistinguishable to this researcher.
The assessment test selected for this study was designed for use with preschool
children to assess overall language skills. Unfmtunately, the test did not specifically
target the vocabulary or concepts introduced via the books given to the family. Using a
measure more closely related to the content of the books read may have provided a more
accurate picture of advances in language made by the child. The final constraint to affect
43
the study happened unexpectedly: Adela, the mother, began working outside the home.
This event not only cut short her participation in the reading intervention, it also shaped
the subsequent growth of the family's home literacy environment.
Altogether, the limitations found in tllis case study bring up significant points to be
considered in future research. Limitations notwithstanding, the cunent case study
identifies valuable underlying themes applicable to language and literacy intervention
work with Mixteco families and their children.
Implications for Practice
Language and literacy intervention work with a Mixteco family that proves successful
to the professional and meaningful to the family is supported by three preliminary steps:
(a) identifying a cultural mediator, (b) gathering information about the culture from a
variety of sources, and (c) allowing ample time to build a relationship with the family.
Next steps involve first learning about the existing home literacy environment, then
identifying family literacy needs and goals, and finally, explaining the professional's role,
and providing details about the intervention plan and its implementation. The existing
home literacy environment includes the individual literacy level of fanlily members along
with the interactions that take place between them. Since the literacy needs of Mixteco
parents exist in tandem with the literacy needs of their children, they are to be considered
together when deterlllining family needs and goals. To ensure the intervention runs as
smoothly as possible, the professional may assist the parents in identifying obstacles to
achieving stated goals and how to work around them. Prefened activities and materials
need to be culturally relevant, fit comfortably within cultural norms and traditions, and
are easily incorporated into the family's daily routine.
44
As a final point, a professional seeking to advance the language and literacy skills of a
Mixteco child and her family must keep in mind that literacy learning is an ongoing,
complex process. Success may take different shapes along the way, as viewed from the
perspective of the parents, children, and professional. Continuous evaluation of the
family's needs, goals, and appropriate interventions is essential.
Recommendations
Resources in the community that effectively meet the literacy needs of Mixteco parents
are greatly needed. While this case study focused on the language and literacy
development of one family, the recommendations listed here are geared toward
supporting the larger Mixteco community in which the family lives.
1. The following principles as stated in a recent article by Anderson, Anderson, Friedrich
___ and Kim (2010) provide a guide for establishing a well-rounded family literacy program
in the community:
•
Conduct a local needs assessment that includes families, a cultural mediator, early
childhood educators, administrators, and supporting agencies.
•
Design a culturally relevant program where families help identify topics, and
children's as well as adult's literacy needs are addressed.
•
Reach out to fathers keeping in mind they may have a perspective on literacy that
differs from that of mothers.
•
Create a bridge between home and school-based literacy that will preserve and
promote the home language and home literacy practices.
•
Use evaluation tools that result in the kind of evidence needed by funders,
schools, literacy program coordinators and families.
45
2. Community leaders can partner with the local library to increase its use by Mixteco
families. Gonzalez and Uhing (2008) summarize how libraries can provide effective
services to Spanish-speaking families:
•
Become knowledgeable about the characteristics, values, and cultural needs of the
immigrant population.
11
Recruit bicultural volunteers.
•
Network with churches and community centers.
•
Use bilingual signage wherever possible.
•
Promote library availability to Hispanic groups.
•
Provide materials the Hispanic community wants, not just what staff thinks they
want.
•
Provide culturally competent diversity training to staff.
•
Provide programming (e.g., poetry readings, dance, and music) that appeals to
Spanish-language populations.
3. Alternatives to dialogic reading can be considered for literacy and language
interventions with Mixteco parent-child dyads. Reese, Sparks and Leyva (2010) describe
one promising option:
• Elaborative-conversation techniques take place in the context of storytelling and
reminiscing about personally experienced events. The intervention consists of
training parents to extend the topic of conversation by repeating all or part of
what the child says, and using open-ended, "where," and "when" questions.
Initial research has shown promising results. Reese et al. point out that features
of this technique also work well with children that have language delays.
46
Conclusion
Adela and Francisco began their journey to California in hopes offmding a better life
for themselves and their children. This couple's determination to give their children
opportunities they never experienced continues to sustain their motivation to succeed.
With their children, Adela and Francisco are learning not only how to survive, but also
prosper in a land where culturally and linguistically diverse families have historically
struggled.
Adela and Francisco's home has evolved into a linguistically-rich environment where
conversations amongst the children and adults can take place in Mixteco, Spanish, and
English. Literacy learning takes different forms as the parents strive to learn Spanish,
the school-age children attempt to learn English, and the youngest children work to
overcome a language delay. The ensuing mixture of ability levels and language needs
presents a challenge Adela and Francisco seek to resolve. Taking Spanish literacy
classes, emolling the triplets in speech therapy, and supporting their older children's
education are steps in the right direction.
The scenario described above is not completely unique to this family. There are
many Mixteco families in California with similar aspimtions that face the same kinds of
issues. To the extent that a united effort would benefit everyone involved, it becomes
incumbent upon the community (e.g., schools, libraries, churches, medical clinics) to
acknowledge and respond to the language and literacy needs of the Mixteco community.
In closing, it is this researcher's hope that as the case study family finds their place
within the Spanish-speaking community on their way to establishing themselves in
47
English-speaking society, they hold fast to the rich tradition of their indigenous language
and culture.
48
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53
Appendix A
Turnbull & Turnbull Conversation Guide
Family Characteristics
Characteristics of the Family
•
Who are the members of your family? Which ones live together in your home?
Which ones are interested in supporting _____ 's education?
•
We all have certain cultural characteristics that especially influence our families.
These might be related to the part of the country where we grew up, our jobs,
religion, race, or the financial resources that we have. For me, I've always
considered one of the major cultural influences on my family to be _ _ _ __
How do you characterize your family's culture?
•
What are the most important things that parents should teach their children?
What are the most important things that schools should teach children?
•
Has there been any particular type of advice handed down through the generations
of your family about how people ought to live their life? What is it and do you
think it has implications for _____ 's educational program?
•
What particular concerns do you have about financial resources that are important
for the school to take into account?
•
What is one of the major strengths of your family?
•
Is there a particular challenge or struggle that your family is having now that
might influence _____ 's educational program?
54
Personal Characteristics
•
I'm eager to get to know _____. Tell me about _____ 's typical day
and especially about the things that he or she most likes and dislikes about the
day.
•
What are things that seem to be going especially well for
?
•
What are some of the particular challenges that
•
So much of _____ 's day is spent in school. What's your view of how
is facing now?
things are going at school?
•
How does _____ 's exceptionality influence schoolwork as well as
relationships with classmates?
•
How would you characterize the nature of _____ ' s exceptionality? What
have others told you about it that you especially agree or disagree with?
•
What do you most enjoy about _____?
•
How does _____ contribute to the family in a positive way?
•
What are the issues that seem to pose the greatest family challenges?
•
We all have different ways of dealing with problems when they arise. As you
think back over the last 6 to 12 months and the problems that various members of
your family have faced, what are some of the things that you and other family
members do that particularly help you not only to survive but prevail?
•
What are some of the less effective ways that you have tried to solve problems?
•
Are there any particular health concerns of family members that influence your
daily and weekly routines?
55
•
Who are the people most available to participate in school activities and help
_____ at home in his or her educational goals?
Special Challenges
• All families face times when things seem to be a bit easier and other times when
things seem to be more difficult. Are there any pmiicular challenges that your
family is now facing that impact the time, energy, and resources that you can
invest in _____ 's educational program?
• On a long-term basis, are there family issues or circumstances that make life more
challenging? Do you feel comfmiable sharing these with me?
Family Interaction
Marital Interactions
• What is your current marital status?
• How would you describe _____ 's impact on your marriage?
• Has there been a time in the past when _____ 's educational program
somehow created marital strain? How could we work together to make sure to
avoid such situations in the future?
• What are the strengths or interest of each person who will be involved that we
should take into account in communicating with you?
• Are there any custody issues associated with your separation or divorce about
which the school needs to be aware?
• If there is joint custody, what are your preferences about who should receive
communication from the school and participate in conferences?
56
Parental Interactions
• How do you and your spouse share parental roles? Given this pattern, what are
your preferences for how you pmiicipate tllis year in _____ ' s educational
program?
• Sometimes in families there are adults who take on some parental responsibilities
even though they are not an actual parent. Are there people like that involved
with _____ ? How might we best involve them in his or her educational
program?
• What do you fmd to be the most and least enjoyable aspects of interacting with
? Given those aspects, how can we best ensure that we respect your
-----
preferences as we offer a menu of educational activities for the home?
• Over time, has there been a fairly consistent pattern for your parental
responsibilities or has this changed because of some kind of special
circumstances?
• Are there any basic parental needs that you have that staff could support you in
addressing?
Sibling Interactions
• What are the most and least enjoyable ways that your other children interact with
- - - - -?
• In what ways might _____ ' s brothers or sisters provide educational
support?
• What challenges m·e your other children experiencing that are taking a large
amount of time, energy, and resources right now?
57
•
What approach is right in te1ms of spreading your time and attention across all
your children's interests? Do you think any of your children feel that
- - - - -'s
exceptionality has taken undue time and attention from them?
Which ones think that? Why?
• What do you think about the idea of having _____ ' s brothers and sisters
attend conferences to plan his or her educational program?
Extended Family Interactions
• Who is in your extended family? How often do you see them?
• In what ways have extended family members provided you with suppmt and
assistance in raising _____?
• Do you think your extended family members would be interested in having
additional infmmation about how they might best support
? What
information would be helpful and what would be the best way to share it with
them?
• Would you like us to extend an invitation to your extended family to participate in
educational conferences or school events?
Family Functions
Affection
• In what ways does _____ particularly like to have affection expressed by
family members toward him or her?
• How important do you think it is to express affection to _____ and your
other children?
58
• Are there other people outside of the family on whom _____ depends for
affection?
Self-Esteem
•
Standing in ---~-'s shoes, how do you think _____ sees himself in
terms of personal strengths and weaknesses?
• What are your family beliefs about how best to help your family members feel
good about themselves?
• What have been some school experiences in the past that have helped
_____ feel good about himself or herself?
• What have been some school experiences in the past that have had a negative
impact on _____ 's self-esteem?
• What do you think are the most significant ways that we can work together to
support _____ to develop a stronger self-esteem?
Economics
• To what extent do family economics influence the kind of support that you can
provide to _____?
• Has _____ required more or fewer economic resources than other family
members?
• Are you interested in _____ 's learning job skills so that he or she might get
a pmi-time job after school or during the summer to contribute to family income?
• Because of _____ 's exceptionality, have there been special family
responsibilities for dealing with insurance or other reimbursement programs?
59
Daily Care
• What is a typical day like in your family?
• What are the most challenging aspects of the day?
• Do you have time built in throughout the day for relaxation and rest?
• As a family, how do you divide the daily tasks related to meeting each
individual's needs?
• What kinds of chores does - - - - - assume and in what ways might we work
together to teach him or her skills that make the family's daily routine easier?
Recreation
• As a family, what do you do for fun?
• In what way does _____ ' s exceptionality influence family recreations and
leisure?
• What recreation or leisure skills might _____ learn at school that would
make family recreation and leisure more enjoyable?
Socialization
• Who are the people that _____ hangs out with when he or she is not at
school?
• What are your perspectives on _____ 's friendship network? What do you
think would be an ideal friendship network for _____?
• In what way do you think _____ 's exceptionality has influenced his or her
opportunities for friends?
• How would you characterize the extent to which your family friends support
?
-----
60
Education!Vocation
• Of all the educators who have worked with _____ in the past, could you tell
me about an individual who had an especially good relationship with him or her
and you? What can we learn from that situation that we can incorporate into the
school year?
• Now, don't give me a name but just describe a situation in the past that was really
difficult when an educator was not especially helpful at all to _____ and
your family. What can we learn from that situation that we can incorporate into
the school year?
• What do you see _____ doing after graduating from high school in terms of
where he or she works and lives? Does - - - - - have the same vision for
him or herself?
• In what ways do you most enjoy participating with _____ in his or her
educational program?
• There are many different ways that we could communicate throughout the school
year, such as through home visits, school conferences, telephone calls, notes, or
exchanging emails back and forth. What are your preferences for
communications? What do you think will work best for you and your family?
• In terms of _ _----,----__ 's vocational development, are there family members or
friends who might be especially good resources in helping to create job training
situations? How might we best capitalize upon their contributions?
61
Family Life Cycle
Early Childhood
• Tell me about _____ 's early years. What stands out in terms of some of
your happiest memories? What about your most troublesome memories?
• Did you find out during the early years that
has exceptionality? If
so, how did you fmd out? Looking back, in what ways would you like to have
improved the manner in which it was communicated to you?
• Did _____ participate in an early childhood program? What did you think
of the program?
Source: Turnbull, A. P., & Turnbull, H. R. (1977). Families, proftssionals, and
exceptionality: A special partnership (3rd edition), Columbia, OH: Merril Publishing Co.
62
AppendixB
Books Given to Case Study Family
La Oruga Hambrienta
Eric Carle
Oso Pardo, Oso Pardo
Eric Carle
Have You Seen My Cat?
Eric Carle
Five Monkeys Jumping on the Bed
Eileen Christelow
z,Eres Mi Mama?
P. D. Eastman
Perro Grande, Perro Pequeno
P. D. Eastman
My Very First Look at Shapes
Christiane Gunzi
Letter Books A, B, E, F, J, M, R, & V
Kaplan Early Learning Co.
Si Le Das Una Galleta a Un Raton
Laura Numeroff
Que Mont6n de Tamales
Gary Soto
Amalia y Sus Primeras Tortillas
Jerry Tello
Abuelo y Los Tres Osos
Jen·y Tello
Un Cuento De Un Pez Grande
Joanne & David Wylie
63
AppendixC
Children's Songs
PinPon
Pin Pon es un mufieco
muy guapo de carton,
se lava su carita
con agua y con jab6n
Se desenreda el pelo
con peine de marfil,
y aunque se da estirones
no llora ni hace asf.
Cuando le dan la sopa
no ensucia el delantal
pues come con cuidado
parece un colegial
Apenas las estrellas
comienzan a salir
Pin Pon se va ala cama
y se acuesta a dormir
Pin Pon dame la mano
con un fuerte apret6n,
pues quiero ser tu amigo
Pin Pon Pin Pon Pin Pon
PIN-PON
La Arafia Pequefiita
La arafia pequefiita subi6 a su telarafia
Vino la lluvia, y se la llev6
Sali6 el sol y todo lo sec6
Y la arafia pequefiita subi6 y subi6 y subi6
64