3593
REVIEW
Development 138, 3593-3612 (2011) doi:10.1242/dev.063610
© 2011. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd
Notch signaling: simplicity in design, versatility in function
Emma R. Andersson1, Rickard Sandberg2 and Urban Lendahl1,*
Notch signaling is evolutionarily conserved and operates in
many cell types and at various stages during development.
Notch signaling must therefore be able to generate
appropriate signaling outputs in a variety of cellular contexts.
This need for versatility in Notch signaling is in apparent
contrast to the simple molecular design of the core pathway.
Here, we review recent studies in nematodes, Drosophila and
vertebrate systems that begin to shed light on how versatility
in Notch signaling output is generated, how signal strength is
modulated, and how cross-talk between the Notch pathway
and other intracellular signaling systems, such as the Wnt,
hypoxia and BMP pathways, contributes to signaling diversity.
Key words: Cis-inhibition, Delta-like, Signaling diversity, Jagged,
Notch, Notch intracellular domain
Introduction
Cells need to sense cues from their extracellular environment and
integrate this information into appropriate developmental or
physiological responses. Although there are a number of
mechanisms that relay information from the exterior of the cell to
the interior, a relatively small set of highly evolutionarily conserved
signaling pathways stand out as playing particularly crucial roles in
this transmission of information. In this roster of ‘elite’ intracellular
signaling mechanisms are the Wnt pathway, the sonic hedgehog
(Shh) pathway, the bone morphogenetic protein/transforming
growth factor  (BMP/TGF) pathway, phosphatidylinositol 3kinase/thymoma viral proto-oncogene (PI3K/AKT) and Janus
kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT)
signaling, and, the subject of this review, the Notch signaling
pathway. Each of these pathways converts information about the
concentration of extracellular ligands into specific transcriptional
responses in the nucleus. In most cases, the signaling mechanism
consists of the ‘core’ signaling pathway, i.e. the minimal set of
protein components required for transducing the signal, and a more
elaborate set of ‘auxiliary’ proteins, which, in various ways,
impinge upon the core pathway and modify the signal but are not
intrinsically necessary for relaying the signal.
Among these highly conserved pathways (Gazave et al., 2009;
Richards and Degnan, 2009), the Notch signaling pathway scores
highly with regard to simplicity in molecular design, as it contains
only a small number of core signaling components (Fig. 1). Despite
this, Notch signaling affects cell differentiation decisions not only
across a wide spectrum of metazoan species, but also across a broad
range of cell types in a single organism and at different steps during
cell lineage progression. The pleiotropic actions of Notch in
1
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, SE-171 77
Stockholm, Sweden. 2Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Karolinska Institute,
SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
*Author for correspondence ([email protected])
different cell types and organs have recently been reviewed (Liu et
al., 2010) and are summarized in Table 1. In keeping with its
important role in many cell types, the mutation of Notch genes
leads to diseases in various organs and tissues (Table 2). These
studies highlight the fact that the Notch pathway must be able to
elicit appropriate responses in many spatially and temporally
distinct cell contexts.
In this review, we address the conundrum of how this functional
diversity is compatible with the simplistic molecular design of the
Notch signaling pathway. In particular, we focus on recent
observations, in both vertebrate and invertebrate systems, that
begin to shed light on how diversity is generated at different steps
in the signal transduction pathway and how signal strength itself is
modulated in Notch signaling output.
The core Notch pathway
The core Notch pathway has a simple molecular architecture (Fig.
1). The most extensively characterized signaling pathway initiated
in response to Notch ligands is known as the canonical Notch
signaling pathway. In canonical Notch signaling, a Notch
transmembrane receptor interacts extracellularly with a canonical
Notch transmembrane ligand on a contacting cell, initiating
proteolytic cleavage of the receptor and the subsequent release of
the Notch intracellular domain (Notch ICD or NICD) of the
receptor. Notch ICD then translocates to the nucleus where it
interacts with a CBF1/Suppressor of Hairless/LAG-1 (CSL) family
DNA-binding protein {C promoter-binding factor (CBF1) is also
known as recombination signal binding protein for
immunoglobulin kappa J region (RBPJ-) or kappa-binding factor
2 (KBF2) in mammals, as Suppressor of Hairless [Su(H)] in flies
and Longevity-assurance gene-1 (LAG-1) in C. elegans} and
initiates the transcription of Notch target genes (Fig. 1). Noncanonical Notch signaling differs from canonical signaling in that
it can be initiated by a non-canonical ligand, or may not require
cleavage of the Notch receptor. Alternatively, in some forms of
non-canonical signaling there is no involvement of CSL, which
may reflect interactions with other signaling pathways upstream of
the Notch ICD-CSL interaction. Non-canonical Notch signaling has
recently been reviewed (D’Souza et al., 2010; Heitzler, 2010) and
is outside the scope of this review. Here, we focus on the multitude
of mechanisms that are utilized to generate diversity from the
otherwise simple canonical Notch pathway.
A conspicuous feature of the core canonical Notch pathway is
the lack of an amplification step during signal transduction; this is
in contrast to most other pathways, which have integrated signal
amplification steps, for example in the form of phosphorylation of
one or more of the core pathway proteins. In addition, each
activated Notch receptor molecule is consumed during signaling,
yielding one NICD, suggesting that Notch signaling exhibits a
stoichiometric relationship between signaling input and output and
that signaling strength is important for generating the appropriate
cellular response. In keeping with this line of reasoning, the Notch
pathway is indeed very sensitive to gene dosage deviations, and
DEVELOPMENT
Summary
3594 REVIEW
Development 138 (17)
Ligand-expressing cell
Intracellular
WASp
Endosome
Arp2/3
Endosome
Mib
Neur
Dynamin
Notch ligand
NECD
ADAM secretase
γ-secretase
DDR
Extracellular
1
NEXT
Receptor-expressing cell
Intracellular
Tmp21
GSAP
Dynamin
elF3f
Numb
Sanpodo
CD147
Deltex
ESCRT
Endosome
Heterodimeric
Notch
SGK1
Fringe
Golgi
Lgd
RITA
Fbxw7
Itch
Arc/Arg3.1
Notch
Furin
Uncleave
Notch
CSF
ER
d
PIN-1
NRARP
NICD
Ofut
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Twist
AML1
NF-κB
Cyclin C
CDK8
HesR
GATA
MAML
ediate
Notch imm
s
ne
ge
et
targ
D
NIC
Nucleus
DNA
CSL
Fig. 1. The Notch pathway: simplicity
and complexity in one. The core Notch
pathway contains a limited set of
components that form the signaltransmitting chain in the pathway: a
ligand (green), a Notch receptor (orange)
and the transcription factor CSL (pink). In
addition, some components (furin, ADAM
secretase, -secretase and MAML; blue
ovals) are not part of conveying the signal
but are nevertheless crucial for allowing
the signal to be transmitted from one step
to the next in the pathway. Briefly, the
Notch receptor is synthesized as a single
transmembrane receptor that is Furincleaved to yield a bipartite heterodimeric
Notch receptor, which is expressed on the
cell surface of a ‘receptor-expressing’ cell.
This receptor can be activated at the
plasma membrane by binding to Notch
ligands on ‘ligand-expressing’ cells. This
leads to the removal of the extracellular
domain of Notch, which is then targeted
for lysosomal degradation. The remaining
portion of the receptor, termed the Notch
extracellular truncated (NEXT) domain,
undergoes sequential cleavage by ADAM
secretases and -secretase as it becomes
endocytosed, yielding the Notch
intracellular domain (NICD). NICD then
translocates to the nucleus where it binds
the DNA-binding protein CSL
(CBF1/Suppressor of Hairless/LAG-1) and
activates the transcription of Notch target
genes. This simple signaling pathway can
be modified in a number of ways by a
growing roster of auxiliary proteins (gray),
which influence various stages of the
transduction process and contribute to
signal diversity. AML1, acute myeloid
leukemia 1 (also known as RUNX1); DDR1,
discoidin domain receptor family, member
1; NECD, Notch extracellular domain;
RITA, RBP-J interacting and tubulin
associated.
Key
Full-length heterodimeric
bipartite Notch receptor
Auxiliary protein
Notch intracellular
domain (NICD)
Notch ligand
Protein required for signal transmission
both haploinsufficiency and the presence of extra copies of the
Notch gene in Drosophila result in aberrant phenotypes (Fanto and
Mlodzik, 1999; Lyman and Yedvobnick, 1995; Mohr, 1919).
Furthermore, mice haploinsufficient for Notch1 display
supernumerary hair cells in the inner ear (Zhang et al., 2000),
whereas mice haploinsufficient for one of the Notch ligands
(Dll4+/– mice) are embryonic lethal (Krebs et al., 2004). In human,
haploinsufficiency of NOTCH2 or jagged 1 (JAG1), which encodes
a Notch ligand, is observed in Alagille syndrome (McDaniell et al.,
2006), a broad-spectrum syndrome characterized by liver, heart and
eye defects as well as vertebral malformations (Alagille et al.,
1987; Alagille et al., 1975), and NOTCH1 haploinsufficiency is
also seen in aortic valve disease (Garg et al., 2006).
In addition to the components in the core pathway, a growing
roster of auxiliary proteins has been shown to affect Notch
signaling at various steps of the signal transduction pathway. Such
auxiliary proteins range from intracellular proteins that affect
ligand intracellular trafficking in the signal-sending cell, such as
DEVELOPMENT
Full-length uncleaved
Notch receptor
Development 138 (17)
REVIEW 3595
Table 1. Notch signaling regulates numerous developmental processes
Processes regulated
References
Controls the balance between gliogenesis and neurogenesis;
stem cell maintenance; apicobasal polarity of neuroepithelial
cells
(Ohata et al., 2011) (reviewed by Tanigaki and Honjo,
2010)
Breast
During pregnancy: alveolar development, maintenance of
luminal cell fate, prevention of uncontrolled basal cell
proliferation
(Buono et al., 2006)
Craniofacial
structures
Palate morphogenesis: loss of Notch signaling results in cleft
palate, fusion of the tongue with the palatal shelves and other
craniofacial defects; Alagille syndrome includes craniofacial
defects; also involved in tooth development
Jag2 (Jiang et al., 1998), Jag2/Notch1 (Casey et al.,
2006), Dll3/Notch1 (Loomes et al., 2007), Jag1 (Li et
al., 1997), tooth development (Mitsiadis et al., 2005)
Ear
Defines the presumptive sensory epithelium, determines hair cell
and supporting cell fates
CSL (Yamamoto et al., 2011), Jag1 (Kiernan et al., 2006)
(reviewed by Cotanche and Kaiser, 2010)
Esophagus
Regulates esophageal epithelial homeostasis
(Ohashi et al., 2010)
Eye
Fiber cell differentiation in the lens/lens development
CSL/Notch1 (Rowan et al., 2008; Jia et al., 2007), Jag1
(Le et al., 2009)
Heart
Cardiac patterning, cardiomyocyte differentiation, valve
development, ventricular trabeculation, outflow tract
development
(Reviewed by MacGrogan et al., 2010)
Hematopoietic
system (including
immune and
lymphatic systems)
Required for the second wave of hematopoiesis in development;
controls the balance of B-cell versus T-cell development;
maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells; maintenance of
myeloid homeostasis
(Reviewed by Bigas et al., 2010)
Intestine
Controls proliferation and differentiation (including absorptive
fate versus secretory fate choices)
(Reviewed by Heath, 2010)
Kidney
Notch2 defines cell fate of podocytes and proximal tubules
(Cheng et al., 2007)
Limbs
Apical ectodermal ridge (AER) formation and digit
morphogenesis, especially regulation of apoptosis
Notch1/Notch2 (Pan et al., 2005), Notch1/Jag2 (Francis
et al., 2005), Jag1 (McGlinn et al., 2005), Jag2 (Jiang
et al., 1998), Hairy (Notch target gene) (Vasiliauskas
et al., 2003)
Liver
Regulates ductal plate formation and intrahepatic bile duct
morphogenesis in mice
Notch2 (Geisler et al., 2008; Zong et al., 2009),
Notch2/Jag1 (Lozier et al., 2008), Jag1 (Li et al., 1997)
Lungs
Lateral inhibition between tracheal cells prevents extra cells from (Ghabrial and Krasnow, 2006)
assuming the lead position during tracheal branching
morphogenesis
Muscle
Promotes transition of activated satellite cells to highly
proliferative myogenic precursor cells and myoblasts; prevents
myoblast differentiation into myotubes after injury
(Reviewed by Tsivitse, 2010)
Neural crest
Controls patterning of neural crest precursors for the outflow
tract region of the heart; regulates the transition from
Schwann cell precursor to Schwann cell, controls Schwann cell
proliferation and inhibits myelination; controls melanocyte
stem cell maintenance
(Reviewed by Jain et al., 2010; Mirsky et al., 2008;
Schouwey and Beermann, 2008)
Pancreas
Specifies endocrine cell differentiation through lateral inhibition: (Reviewed by Kim et al., 2010)
endocrine lineage cells inhibit endocrine differentiation of their
neighboring cells; maintains pancreatic endocrine precursor
cells, inhibits terminal acinar cell differentiation; controls
pancreatic epithelium branching and bud size
Pituitary
Regulates pituitary growth/proliferation, melanotrope
specification and gonadotrope differentiation
Hes1 (Monahan et al., 2009; Raetzman et al., 2007),
Notch2 (Raetzman et al., 2006) (reviewed by Davis et
al., 2010)
Placenta
Controls fetal angiogenesis, maternal circulatory system
development, spongiotrophoblast development
(Reviewed by Gasperowicz and Otto, 2008)
Prostate
Required for epithelial differentiation and growth; expressed by
progenitors that are required for branching morphogenesis
(Notch1); stromal survival [Notch2 and Delta-like 1 homolog
(Dlk1)]
(Wang, X. D. et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2004; Orr et al.,
2009)
Sex organs and
germ cells
Maintenance of Leydig progenitor cells in testis; regulation of
spermatogenesis; controls oocyte growth via actomyosindependent cytoplasmic streaming and oocyte cellularization
(Tang, H. et al., 2008; Hayashi et al., 2001; Nadarajan et
al., 2009) (reviewed by Barsoum and Yao, 2010)
Skin
Regulates cell adhesion, control of proliferation, hair follicle or
feather papillae differentiation and homeostasis
(Reviewed by Hayashi et al., 2001)
Table continued on next page
DEVELOPMENT
Organ/tissue
Brain
3596 REVIEW
Development 138 (17)
Table 1. Continued
Processes regulated
References
Spine/spinal
cord/somites
Somite segmentation through oscillation of genes
(Reviewed by Dunwoodie, 2009; Kageyama et al., 2010)
Spleen
Regulates generation of T lineage-restricted progenitors and
marginal zone (MZ) B-cell development; controls homeostasis
of CD8– dendritic cells in the spleen
(Reviewed by Yuan et al., 2010)
Stomach
Acts as a switch in choice between luminal and glandular cell
fates
(Matsuda et al., 2005)
Thymus
Thymic morphogenesis, differentiation of gamma delta lineage
T-cells
(Jiang et al., 1998)
Thyroid
Regulates the numbers of thyrocyte and C-cell progenitors and
regulates differentiation and endocrine function of thyrocytes
and C-cells
Hes1 (Carre et al., 2011)
Vasculature
Regulates arteriovenous specification and differentiation in
endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells; regulates
blood vessel sprouting and branching
(Reviewed by Gridley, 2010)
Mind bomb (Mib) (Itoh et al., 2003) and Neuralized (Neur) (Yeh
et al., 2001), to proteins that are important for regulating Notch
ICD and CSL interactions, such as Mastermind-like (MAML)
(Jeffries et al., 2002; Wu et al., 2002). Some of the most important
auxiliary proteins are depicted in Fig. 1. In the following sections,
we explore how modulations of the Notch pathway at different
steps of signal transduction can contribute to the observed
versatility in signaling output and to the modulation of signal
strength.
Notch ligand-receptor interactions
In mammals, there are four Notch receptors (Notch1-4) and five
canonical ligands of the Delta-Serrate-Lag (DSL) type [Jag1 and
Jag2 and delta-like 1 (Dll1), Dll3 and Dll4] (reviewed by D’Souza
et al., 2010). This generates a large number of receptor-ligand
combinations, which could potentially generate distinct responses.
There is, however, little evidence for differences in signaling output
between particular receptor-ligand combinations, with the notable
exception of Dll3, which is the most structurally divergent ligand
and lacks an extracellular Delta and OSM-11-like protein (DOS)
domain as well as lysine residues in the intracellular domain
(Dunwoodie et al., 1997). Dll3 is incapable of activating Notch
receptors in trans (Ladi et al., 2005) and is rarely, if ever, present
at the cell surface (Chapman et al., 2011; Geffers et al., 2007).
The relative strength of receptor-ligand interactions, however,
can be modulated by post-translational modifications of Notch
receptors. The extracellular epidermal growth factor (EGF) repeats
of Notch receptors can be modified by O-glucose or O-fucose
additions, which are then subject to further modification (Stanley
and Okajima, 2010). The addition of O-fucose to Notch receptors
by protein O-fucosyltransferase 1 (Pofut1), which is not required
for Notch receptor signal transduction per se (Okajima et al., 2008),
is necessary for the subsequent glycosylation of Notch receptors by
Fringe proteins (such as lunatic fringe, manic fringe and radical
fringe in mammals). Fringe proteins can then add Nacetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) sugars to the O-fucose moiety. This
glycosylation modulates the relative response of Notch receptors
to ligands of the Delta versus Jagged/Serrate classes: Fringe
potentiates interactions with Dll1 and reduces responsiveness to
Jag1 (Hicks et al., 2000; Kato et al., 2010). The Fringe-mediated
transcriptional changes reported thus far appear to be quantitative
rather than qualitative in nature, i.e. the level of expression of the
same set of downstream genes is modulated but the set of
downstream genes that is activated or repressed is not changed,
although this has not been systematically explored at a genomewide level. Notch can also be glycosylated by the
glycosyltransferase Rumi (Poglut1) (Acar et al., 2008; FernandezValdivia et al., 2011) and by two enzymes of the human
glycosyltransferase 8 family (Sethi et al., 2010). How the Notch
receptor is modified by glycans is the subject of much research
(Stanley and Okajima, 2010), and it will be interesting to see which
modifications are required for basic Notch function and which
confer ligand-specific effects. For example, a secreted Fringe
protein, chondroitin sulfate synthase 1 (CHSY1), has recently been
identified that appears to suppress Notch signaling; loss of function
of CHSY1 leads to hyperactivation of Notch signaling and Notch
gain-of-function phenotypes (Tian et al., 2010).
The expression domains of Fringe genes frequently coincide
with those of either Dll or Jag ligands, and it is likely that
Fringe+/Jag+ domains and Fringe+/Dll+ domains have different
effects on tissue organization and tissue domain boundaries. In
situations in which a Fringe+/Jag+ domain is juxtaposed with a
Fringe–/Dll+ domain, Notch signaling becomes localized to the
interface between the two domains. For example, at the
dorsoventral margin of the Drosophila wing, where Fringe is coexpressed with Jagged (Serrate) at the dorsal side, and Delta is
expressed alone at the ventral side, Notch signaling is active in only
the wing margin, as signaling in both the Fringe+/Jag+ and
Fringe–/Delta+ domains is inhibited, and occurs only immediately
across the domain boundary at the wing margin (Irvine and
Wieschaus, 1994; Wu and Rao, 1999). Conversely, co-expression
of Fringe with Dll1 but not with Jag1 results in Notch signaling
both within the Fringe+/Delta+ and the Fringe–/Jag+ domains, but
not at the domain boundary. This occurs, for example, in
dorsoventral domains in the developing ventral spinal cord and is
important for appropriate cell fate decisions and helps to insulate
the domains from each other at the domain boundaries as the spinal
cord develops (Marklund et al., 2010).
Restricting the distribution of Notch ligands and receptors to
specific areas within cells can also contribute to signaling
specificity, as it may allow only certain combinations of cells in a
larger cellular cluster to engage in Notch signaling. This is
observed in Drosophila sensory organ development, a model
system that relies on Notch signaling to generate lateral inhibition
DEVELOPMENT
Organ/tissue
Development 138 (17)
REVIEW 3597
Table 2. Mutations in Notch signaling components result in developmental defects and diseases in humans
Diseases associated with mutated gene
References
DLL3
Spondylocostal dysostosis (axial skeleton segmentation
disorder)
(Bonafe et al., 2003; Bulman et al., 2000; Turnpenny et
al., 2003; Whittock et al., 2004)
JAG1
Alagille syndrome; patients with JAG1 mutations display
variable phenotypes in bile duct paucity, cardiac defects
(including tetralogy of Fallot), posterior embryotoxon,
spine defects (including butterfly vertebrae) and deafness
(Bauer et al., 2010; Colliton et al., 2001; Crosnier et al.,
1999; Crosnier et al., 2001; Eldadah et al., 2001;
Heritage et al., 2002; Heritage et al., 2000; Krantz et
al., 1998; Krantz et al., 1999; Li et al., 1997; Oda et
al., 2000; Oda et al., 1997; Raas-Rothschild et al.,
2002; Ropke et al., 2003; Stankiewicz et al., 2001;
Warthen et al., 2006)
LFNG
Spondylocostal dysostosis (axial skeleton segmentation and
growth disorder)
(Sparrow et al., 2006)
MAML2
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma, secondary acute myeloid
leukemia
(Conkright et al., 2003; Enlund et al., 2004; Tonon et
al., 2003)
NOTCH1
T-ALL (T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia)
Aortic valve disease
(Weng et al., 2004)
(Garg, 2006)
NOTCH2
Alagille syndrome
Hajdu-Cheney syndrome (progressive and severe bone
resorption leading to osteoporosis)
(McDaniell et al., 2006)
(Simpson et al., 2011)
NOTCH3
CADASIL (cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with
subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy, a
hereditary stroke disorder)
(Joutel et al., 1997a; Joutel et al., 2004; Joutel et al.,
1997b; Oberstein et al., 1999)
NOTCH4
Debated involvement in schizophrenia
(Ivo et al., 2006; McGinnis et al., 2001; Sklar et al.,
2001; Skol et al., 2003; Tochigi et al., 2004; Wang, Z.
et al., 2006; Wei and Hemmings, 2000)
(the process whereby a cell adopts a particular fate and prevents its
immediate neighbors from doing likewise) and which proceeds
through a series of asymmetric cell divisions. The adult peripheral
nervous mechanosensory system arises from the development of a
single cell, the sensory organ precursor (SOP), which divides
asymmetrically to produce a pIIa and a pIIb cell. Each of these
cells also divides asymmetrically to produce a socket and a shaft
cell (from the pIIa cell) and a glial cell and a pIIIb cell (from the
pIIb cell). The pIIIb cell undergoes one more asymmetric division
to produce a neuronal cell and a sheath cell (Wang and Chia, 2005).
During SOP development, Delta is recycled in a Rab11-dependent
manner (Emery et al., 2005) and is relocalized from the basolateral
to the apical membrane in a process that requires Neur (Benhra et
al., 2010), Actin-related protein 2/3 (Arp2/3) and Wiskott-Aldrich
syndrome protein (WASp) (Rajan et al., 2009). This recycling
exclusively juxtaposes Delta in the pIIb cell to the other Notchexpressing pIIa cell, providing the precise signal required for
neuronal fate specification (Emery et al., 2005; Jafar-Nejad et al.,
2005).
An alternative means to localize Notch activation is by positioning
Notch ligands at cellular protrusions, such as filopodia, which leads
to the activation of signaling some distance away from the signalsending cell (Cohen, M. et al., 2010; De Joussineau et al., 2003),
literally stretching the concept of cell-cell communication. Cellular
motility can also generate specificity by providing a dynamic
interaction between Notch ligands and receptors, thus influencing the
duration of signaling. An example of this is seen in zebrafish mikre
oko (mok) mutants, which are defective for the motor protein
Dynactin 1. In these mutants, the pace of interkinetic movements
within the neuroepithelium is altered and mutant neuroepithelial
progenitor cells are therefore less exposed to active Notch signaling,
resulting in premature cell cycle exit and overproduction of earlyborn retinal ganglion cells at the expense of later-born interneurons
and glia (Del Bene et al., 2008).
In most cellular contexts, ligands are not uniquely expressed on
the signal-sending cell and, vice versa, receptors are not expressed
only on the signal-receiving cell. The cells therefore need to
establish the direction in which signaling should occur, based
sometimes on relatively small concentration differences of ligand
and receptor. Directionality of Notch signaling stems, at least in
part, from the fact that ligands activate receptors on contacting cells
(trans-activation), but generally inhibit receptors expressed in the
same cell (cis-inhibition) (de Celis and Bray, 1997; del Alamo et
al., 2011; Micchelli et al., 1997; Miller et al., 2009; Sprinzak et al.,
2010). Cis-inhibition has been reported to lead to a downregulation
of Notch receptor at the cell surface (Matsuda and Chitnis, 2009;
Perez et al., 2005), although this is not always seen (Fiuza et al.,
2010), as well as to a cell-autonomous downregulation of Notch
target genes. As discussed above, Dll3 might serve exclusively as
a cis-inhibiting ligand, as it is incapable of activating receptors in
trans (Ladi et al., 2005).
Progress has been made in unraveling how other ligands can
expedite both trans-activating and cis-inhibitory activities. For
example, the extracellular DSL-EGF 3 domain of Serrate is
important for both trans-activation and cis-inhibition (Cordle et
al., 2008), whereas mutations in the intracellular domain of
Serrate affect trans-activation but not cis-inhibition (Glittenberg
et al., 2006). However, it has also been shown that Notch ligand
and receptor ICDs display competitive interactions. In
endothelial cells, for example, Notch ICD can suppress the
antiproliferative effect of Delta ICD (Kolev et al., 2005) and,
conversely, the intracellular domain of Jag1 has been shown to
suppress Notch ICD-induced transcription in COS cells (LaVoie
and Selkoe, 2003). Cis-inhibition of the ligand by a Notch
receptor can occur in the ligand-presenting cell (Becam et al.,
2010), a process that is dependent on the Notch extracellular
domain and which reduces the levels of cell-surface ligand
available for transactivation of contacting cells.
DEVELOPMENT
Gene
In addition to the canonical ligands mentioned above, a
multitude of non-canonical ligands (reviewed by D’Souza et al.,
2010) can activate or inhibit Notch signaling. An interesting
example of a non-canonical ligand is Delta-like homolog 1/2
(Dlk1/2), which is structurally similar to the Dll ligands but lacks
a DSL domain. As such, it is believed to be incapable of
transactivation and is thought to act through cis-inhibition by
competing with trans-presented canonical ligands (Baladron et al.,
2005). Recently, a model for trans-activation versus cis-inhibition
has been proposed in which trans-activation occurs in a graded
manner in response to increasing levels of ligand, whereas cisinactivation occurs at a sharp threshold of Notch ligand coexpression, leading to an ultrasensitive switch that generates
mutually exclusive sending (high ligand/low Notch) and receiving
(low ligand/high Notch) signaling states (Sprinzak et al., 2010).
This model remains to be tested in vivo.
Notch receptor processing
As a result of ligand activation, the Notch receptor is
proteolytically processed. This is followed by the release of Notch
ICD and its translocation to the nucleus. These processing and
relocalization events are regulated at multiple steps, providing
further opportunities for modulating Notch signaling. The binding
of a Notch receptor to its ligand leads to removal of the Notch
extracellular domain (NECD) and its trans-endocytosis into the
ligand-expressing cell (Hansson et al., 2010; Nichols et al., 2007;
Parks et al., 2000). The Notch receptor is cleaved repeatedly during
its lifetime, first at site 1 (S1) by furin during its maturation (Logeat
et al., 1998) and subsequently at site 2 (S2) and sites 3/4 (S3/S4)
after trans-activation by a Notch ligand. The S2 cleavage is the key
regulatory step in receptor activation and is executed by ADAM (a
disintegrin and metalloprotease) proteases. Recently, structural
analysis of the Notch receptor domain that harbors the S2 cleavage
site has laid the ground for a model for Notch processing. In this
model, the ligand pulls the receptor into a state in which the
negative regulator region (NRR) of the receptor unfolds and
exposes an ADAM cleavage site. Interestingly, different ADAMs
have been implicated in this cleavage event (Brou et al., 2000;
Canault et al., 2010; Tian et al., 2008; Tousseyn et al., 2009; van
Tetering et al., 2009), and a recent report indicates that specific
ADAM proteases may cleave Notch specifically in a liganddependent or -independent manner (Bozkulak and Weinmaster,
2009). The structural aspects of the cleavage process have been
reviewed recently (Kovall and Blacklow, 2010) and will not be
discussed further here.
The remaining membrane-tethered portion of Notch, termed the
Notch extracellular truncation (NEXT), is then a substrate for
regulated intramembrane proteolysis by the -secretase complex, a
multi-subunit protease complex containing presenilin, nicastrin,
presenilin enhancer 2 (Pen2) and anterior pharynx-defective 1
(Aph1) (Jorissen and De Strooper, 2010). It was previously
assumed that S3 cleavage followed more or less constitutively in
the wake of the regulatory S2 cleavage, but recent data indicate that
the activity of -secretase is also regulated, both with regard to
cleavage efficacy and the position of the cleavage site in the
receptor. Emerging evidence suggests that -secretase complexes
containing different presenilin (PS1 or PS2) subunits have different
cleavage preferences for amyloid precursor protein (APP), and to
what extent PS1- and PS2-containing complexes differ with regard
to Notch processing in vivo largely remains to be explored
(Jorissen and De Strooper, 2010). A recent report shows that
nicastrin is dispensable for -secretase-mediated processing of
Development 138 (17)
Notch, but important for the stability of the -secretase complex
(Zhao et al., 2010). Other proteins that modulate the function of the
-secretase complex, such as CD147 (also known as BSG),
transmembrane protein 21 (Tmp21, also known as Tmed10) and secretase activating protein (GSAP, also known as Pion) (Chen et
al., 2006; He et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2006), have also been
identified but the mechanistic basis for their differential effects on
Notch versus other substrates awaits elucidation. Furthermore, S3
cleavage of Notch is heterogeneous with regard to the position of
the cleavage site: Notch ICD fragments generated from S3
cleavage have either an N-terminal valine (Val) or an N-terminal
serine/leucine (Ser/Leu), and Ser/Leu-NICD fragments have a
shorter half-life than Val-NICD fragments (Tagami et al., 2008),
which is likely to affect the duration of Notch signaling.
Notch processing is also controlled by estrogen receptor (ER)
signaling, such that blockage of ER activity by tamoxifen increases
Notch cleavage (Rizzo et al., 2008). Similarly, neuronal activity
enhances Notch processing through the protein activity-regulated
cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc)/activity-regulated gene 3.1
protein homolog (Arg3.1) (Alberi et al., 2011), highlighting yet
another way in which Notch processing, and hence Notch
signaling, can be modulated.
Endocytosis and trafficking of processed Notch
receptors
Endocytosis of the Notch receptor is an important step in the
transmission of the Notch signal, and, although Notch receptors
initially interact with components of the -secretase complex at the
cell surface (Hansson et al., 2005), there are indications that the
majority of cleavage occurs after internalization of the receptor by
endocytosis (Vaccari et al., 2008), although there is also evidence to
the contrary (Kaether et al., 2006; Sorensen and Conner, 2010;
Tarassishin et al., 2004). It is thus possible that the localization of
Notch cleavage is variable and constitutes another level of signal
fine-tuning that is dependent on cell context (Tagami et al., 2008).
Notch receptor endocytosis requires mono-ubiquitylation of the
receptor at lysine 1749 (Gupta-Rossi et al., 2004), and, recently, this
mono-ubiquitylation event has been shown to be followed by deubiquitylation mediated by elF3f, previously thought to solely
constitute a subunit of translation initiation factor E74-like factor 3
(Elf3), which is required for Notch to be processed by -secretase
(Moretti et al., 2010). The putative E3 ubiquitin ligase Deltex, which
has been implicated in the regulation of Notch processing and
internalization in several studies (Diederich et al., 1994; Hori et al.,
2004; Matsuno et al., 1995; Wilkin et al., 2008; Yamada et al., 2011),
serves as a bridging protein between elF3f and Notch in early
endosomes (Moretti et al., 2010). Deltex has been described as both
a positive (Fuwa et al., 2006; Matsuno et al., 1995; Matsuno et al.,
2002; Wilkin et al., 2008) and a negative (Sestan et al., 1999;
Mukherjee et al., 2005) regulator of Notch signaling, and Deltex
appears to be required for Notch signaling in some, but not all,
developmental processes in Drosophila (Fuwa et al., 2006).
Likewise, loss of Deltex function does not always severely impinge
on Notch-dependent processes, such as T-cell development, in the
mouse (Lehar and Bevan, 2006). Perhaps some of the discrepancy
can be explained by the recent suggestion that canonical Notch
signaling and Deltex-activated Notch signaling are separate events
that are activated in different endocytic compartments (Yamada et
al., 2011).
Numb (which is found in both Drosophila and vertebrates) is
an endocytic adaptor protein that, like its mammalian homolog
Numb-like (found in vertebrates), acts as a suppressor of Notch
DEVELOPMENT
3598 REVIEW
Development 138 (17)
A Notch receptor
REVIEW 3599
B Notch intracellular domain (NICD)
Ac
NICD
Extracellular
Plasma membrane
Intracellular
Notch receptor
Ub
JM
Juxtamembrane portion
RAM
Rbp-associated molecule
domain
Ac
NLS
Nuclear localization signal
P
Ub
Ac
P
P
ANK
Ankyrin repeats
NLS
Nuclear localization signal
TAD
Transactivation domain
OH
Ac
OH
Ac
Ac
P
Fig. 2. Notch ICD: domain
structure and posttranslational modifications.
(A)The Notch receptor is a
heterodimeric transmembrane
protein composed of an
extracellular domain and a
transmembrane domain that
can be cleaved to yield the
Notch intracellular domain
(NICD). (B)The NICD is
composed of several domains
(JM, RAM, ANK, TAD and PEST),
two nuclear localization signals
and several ankyrin repeats.
These various domains and
motifs can be modified by
phosphorylation, hydroxylation,
ubiquitylation or acetylation to
alter signaling through NICD.
The specific proteins that
mediate these modifications are
described in the text.
Ub
P
P
Proline (P), glutamic acid (E),
PEST serine (S) and threonine (T)
degradation domain
P
Key
P - phosphorylation
OH - hydroxylation
signaling (Rhyu et al., 1994; Uemura et al., 1989; Zhong et al.,
1997) (for reviews, see Cayouette and Raff, 2002; Gonczy, 2008).
Mechanistically, Numb has been shown to recruit the E3 ubiquitin
ligase itchy (Itch), the mammalian homolog of Drosophila
Suppressor of deltex [Su(Dx)], to promote degradation of the
Notch receptor (Beres et al., 2011) and to regulate post-endocytic
sorting events for Notch (McGill et al., 2009). Numb differentially
affects various Notch receptors, which might increase diversity in
the signaling response, and a recent report indicates that Numb
negatively regulates Notch1 and Notch2 receptors, but not
Notch3, during myogenic differentiation (Beres et al., 2011). In
human, six alternatively spliced NUMB isoforms have been
characterized to date. The two most recently identified isoforms,
NUMB5 and NUMB6, are less potent antagonists of Notch
signaling (Karaczyn et al., 2010), although it remains to be
established if the difference in biological effects among the
different isoforms is strictly due to different effects on Notch, as
Numb also interacts with other signaling proteins, such as p53 and
Gli1, a Hedgehog pathway effector (Colaluca et al., 2008; Di
Marcotullio et al., 2006). Sanpodo, a transmembrane protein so
far found only in Drosophila, is an important regulator of Notch
signaling and has also been shown to associate with Notch and
Numb during asymmetric cell division (O’Connor-Giles and
Skeath, 2003), where it augments Notch signaling in the absence
of Numb but represses Notch signaling in the presence of Numb
(Babaoglan et al., 2009). There is an emerging view that the
relationship between Numb and Notch is not just unidirectional.
Thus, in addition to negative Numb-mediated regulation of Notch,
Ac - acetylation
it has been shown that Notch can reciprocally influence Numb.
High levels of Notch, for example, reduce Numb and Numb-like
protein levels in cultured cells and in the developing chick CNS
(Chapman et al., 2006), and Notch controls the expression of
Numb, upregulating it in cells that have not inherited Numb
during cell division but must express Numb to later repress Notch
(Rebeiz et al., 2011).
After internalization by endocytosis, the intracellular trafficking
of Notch receptors further modulates the Notch signal.
Compromised sorting of Notch from early endocytic vesicles to
multivesicular bodies (MVBs) or lysosomal compartments, as seen
in endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) and
lethal giant discs [lgd; also known as l(2)gd1] mutants,
respectively, leads to ectopic, ligand-independent activation of
Notch signaling (Childress et al., 2006; Jaekel and Klein, 2006;
Vaccari et al., 2008). Recently, studies of Drosophila SOPs
revealed a specialized endocytic routing of Notch signaling that
generates differential Notch signaling in the resulting daughter
cells. This trafficking is mediated via SARA (Smad anchor for
receptor activation) endosomes, which segregate specifically to one
of the two daughter cells in the production of pIIa and pIIb cells
during asymmetric SOP division (for a review, see Gonczy, 2008).
During SOP mitosis, Delta and Notch are both internalized into
SARA endosomes, which are then asymmetrically localized to the
pIIa, but not to the pIIb, cell, resulting in the ligand-dependent
appearance of Notch ICD in only the pIIa cell (Coumailleau et al.,
2009). It is important to note that SARA itself is not required in this
process.
DEVELOPMENT
Ub - ubiquitylation
3600 REVIEW
Regulation of Notch ICD by phosphorylation
The Notch ICD is phosphorylated at several residues and by
several kinases. Phosphorylation of Notch ICD by glycogen
synthase kinase 3  (GSK3) occurs C-terminally to the ANK
repeats and inhibits Notch2 ICD-mediated induction of genes such
as hairy and enhancer of split 1 (Hes1) (Espinosa et al., 2003), but
stabilizes Notch1 ICD (Foltz et al., 2002). Granulocyte colony
stimulating factor (Csf) also phosphorylates Notch2 ICD, leading
to its inactivation (Ingles-Esteve et al., 2001). The PEST domain
of Notch ICD contains multiple phosphorylation sites, which are
important for the control of Notch ICD stability and serve as
triggers for subsequent ubiquitylation (see below). Furthermore,
cyclin C/cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 8 phosphorylates Notch
ICD, and this modification is important for both the activity and
turnover of Notch ICD (Fryer et al., 2004).
Regulation of Notch ICD by ubiquitylation
The Notch ICD can also be ubiquitylated, for example by E3
ubiquitin ligases, and this modification regulates its half-life (for a
review, see Le Bras et al., 2011). F-box and WD-40 domain protein
7 (Fbxw7; also known as Cdc4 and SEL10) can also ubiquitylate
Notch ICD within its PEST domain, leading to the rapid
degradation of Notch ICD (Fryer et al., 2004; Gupta-Rossi et al.,
2001; Oberg et al., 2001; Wu et al., 2001). The activity of Notch1
ICD, but not that of Notch4 ICD, was enhanced by a dominantnegative form of Fbxw7 (Wu et al., 2001). In contrast to these
findings, however, the analysis of Fbxw7–/– mice revealed that the
levels of Notch4 ICD, but not those of the Notch1, 2 and 3 ICDs,
were elevated following Fbxw7 knockout (Tsunematsu et al.,
2004), suggesting that the regulation of different Notch ICDs by
Fbxw7 is likely to be complex. It has recently been shown that
serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase (SGK1) forms a
trimeric complex with Notch ICD and Fbxw7, thereby enhancing
Fbxw7-mediated Notch degradation (Mo et al., 2011). Functionally,
Fbxw7 has been shown to be important in the control of stemness
and neuronal fate versus glial differentiation in the developing
brain (Matsumoto et al., 2011).
The importance of correctly controlling Notch ICD half-life and
the role of Fbxw7 in this process is also underscored by the fact
that NOTCH1 and FBXW7 mutations can be found in T-cell acute
lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) (Erbilgin et al., 2010; Malyukova
et al., 2007). In T-ALL patients, gain-of-function mutations in
NOTCH1 are found in more than 50% of cases (Weng et al., 2004)
and loss-of-function mutations in FBXW7 have also been described
(Malyukova et al., 2007; Mansour et al., 2009; O’Neil et al., 2007).
The NOTCH1 mutations are concentrated in the extracellular
heterodimerization (HD) domain and the intracellular PEST
domain; mutations in the HD domain enhance Notch cleavage,
whereas those in the PEST domain make the NOTCH1 ICD more
resistant to ubiquitylation and subsequent degradation (Weng et al.,
2004). In keeping with this, T-ALL cell lines lacking functional
FBXW7 display extended NOTCH1 ICD half-lives (Malyukova et
al., 2007; Mansour et al., 2009; O’Neil et al., 2007). Mutations in
the PEST domain of NOTCH1 have also been found in non-smallcell lung cancer (Westhoff et al., 2009), suggesting that altered
phosphorylation, ubiquitylation and degradation, and thus increased
Notch signaling, can lead to cancer in several organs. Mutation or
loss of NUMB, resulting in NOTCH gain of function, are likewise
responsible for a large proportion of non-small-cell lung cancers
(Westhoff et al., 2009), but it is not yet established whether
mutations in FBXW7 also appear in non-small-cell lung cancer.
Other E3 ubiquitin ligases affecting Notch include Deltex, which
in addition to its role in Notch intracellular trafficking ubiquitylates
Notch ICD (Yamada et al., 2011), and Itch (Cornell et al., 1999;
Qiu et al., 2000), which is required for Notch1 degradation in the
absence of ligand (Chastagner et al., 2008). For a recent review on
the role of ubiquitylation in Notch signaling, see Le Bras et al. (Le
Bras et al., 2011).
There is an expanding list of other non-E3 ubiquitin ligase
proteins that interact with Notch ICD and thereby might
influence Notch signaling output (see Table 3). However,
relatively little is known about many of these interactions, and a
number of them have thus far only been observed under
conditions of overexpression. It is therefore important to
determine whether these interactions occur under physiological
conditions in cells in vivo, and whether these interactions with
Notch ICD occur when Notch ICD is free in the cytoplasm or
nucleoplasm, or only when Notch ICD is present in the
transactivating complex together with CSL.
Regulation of Notch ICD by hydroxylation
Hydroxylation is an additional, more recently discovered type of
post-translational modification of Notch ICD. The asparagine
hydroxylase factor-inhibiting HIF1 (FIH1, also known as
HIF1AN), which also operates in the cellular hypoxic response (see
below), hydroxylates Notch ICD at two residues (N1945 and
N2012) (Coleman et al., 2007; Zheng et al., 2008). It is notable that
the ICDs of Notch1, 2 and 3, but not that of Notch4, are
hydroxylated by FIH1, and this might contribute to signaling
diversity. In vitro data suggest that FIH1 negatively regulates Notch
signaling, but the biological significance of the FIH1-mediated
modifications is not fully understood, and mice targeted for FIH1
do not display an overt Notch gain-of-function phenotype (Zhang
et al., 2010).
Regulation of Notch by acetylation
More recently, acetylation and deacetylation of the Notch ICD have
been shown to contribute to fine-tuning Notch half-life and thus
signaling in endothelial cells, where the deacetylase sirtuin 1 (Sirt1)
has been identified as a key deacetylase in this process (Guarani et
al., 2011).
Signaling diversity at the level of Notch
ICD-mediated gene activation
The binding of Notch ICD to CSL, which is stabilized by MAML,
and the subsequent activation of downstream genes by Notch ICDCSL are central aspects of canonical Notch signaling (Kovall and
Blacklow, 2010). The analysis of Notch-induced transcriptomes in
DEVELOPMENT
The Notch intracellular domain – a well-decorated
signaling hub
In the canonical Notch signaling pathway, the Notch ICD
constitutes the ‘business end’ of the Notch receptor and, after
localization to the nucleus, Notch ICD interacts with CSL to
activate the transcription of downstream genes. The Notch ICD is
composed of several domains (Fig. 2), including a Rbp-associated
molecule (RAM) domain that mediates interactions with CSL, an
ankyrin (ANK) repeat domain, a transcription activation domain
(TAD) and a C-terminal PEST [rich in proline (P), glutamic acid
(E), serine (S) and threonine (T)] degradation domain (Kovall and
Blacklow, 2010). It is becoming increasingly clear that the Notch
ICD is subject to a variety of post-translational modifications,
including phosphorylation, ubiquitylation, hydroxylation and
acetylation (Fig. 2).
Development 138 (17)
Development 138 (17)
REVIEW 3601
Table 3. Proteins that interact with the Notch ICD
Protein
Interaction with Notch ICD
References
Apc
Adenomatous polyposis coli
Controls Notch trafficking
(Munoz-Descalzo et al., 2011)
Axin
Axin
(Hayward et al., 2006; MunozDescalzo et al., 2011)
CDK8
Cyclin-dependant kinase 8
CSL/RBP-J
Ctnnb1
CBF1, Su(H) and LAG1/Recombination signal
binding protein for
immunoglobulin kappa J
region
-catenin
Synergizes with Notch ICD to control -catenin
stability and controls trafficking of Notch ICD
with Apc
Together with CycC phosphorylates Notch ICD to
make it a substrate for ubiquitylation and
degradation
Main canonical transcriptional co-factor for
Notch ICD
Synergizes with Notch ICD/CSL on Notch target
genes
CycC
Cyclin C
(Hayward et al., 2005; Shimizu et
al., 2008; Yamamizu et al.,
2010)
(Fryer et al., 2004)
Dab
Disabled
Dsh/Dvl
Dishevelled
Dtx1-4
Deltex-1-4
Fbxw7/Cdc4
F-box/WD repeat protein 7
Ubiquitylates Notch ICD, leading to its
degradation
FIH
Factor inhibiting HIF1
Hydroxylates Notch, represses Notch
GSK3
Glycogen synthase kinase 3
HIF1
Hypoxia inducible factor 1,
alpha subunit
Phosphorylates Notch, which can lead to
degradation or stabilization
Stabilizes Notch ICD and synergizes with it in
transcription of Notch target genes
Itch
Itchy, E3 ubiquitin protein
ligase
Mastermind-like 1/2
Promotes ubiquitylation of Notch ICD
Nuclear factor of kappa light
polypeptide gene enhancer
in B-cells 1
Notch ICD blocks NF- b transcription of NF- b
target genes through binding to p50/cRel
Notch ICD enhances NF- b transcription of target
genes by retaining NF- b in the nucleus
Nrarp binds and inhibits Notch ICD/CSL
Maml1/2
NF- b
Nrarp
Numb
Notch-regulated ankyrin
repeat protein
Numb homolog
Together with CDK8 targets Notch ICD for
phosphorylation to make it a substrate for
ubiquitylation and degradation
Acts as link to Abl proteins in non-canonical
Notch axon guidance
Dvl controls ligand-independent Notch
trafficking; inhibits canonical Notch signaling
Controls Notch ubiquitylation, processing and
internalization
Co-activator for Notch ICD/CSL
Suppresses Notch signaling by recruiting E3
ubiquitin ligases to ubiquitylate Notch
Controls Notch and Sanpodo trafficking during
asymmetric cell division
p73 (TA)
Tumor protein p73 alpha
(transactivating form)
RBP-J interacting and tubulin
associated
Smad family members
(homologs of Mothers
against decapentaplegic)
Binds Notch ICD and inhibits Notch ICD/CSLmediated transcription
Shuttles Notch ICD between the nucleus and
cytoplasm on tubulin networks
Smads enhance Notch signaling, Notch fine-tunes
signaling through Smads
SNW1/SKIP/NCOA-62
SNW domain-containing
protein 1/Ski-interacting
protein/Nuclear receptor coactivator NCoA-62
Tacc3
Transforming, acidic coiledcoil containing protein 3
Trio
Triple functional domain
(PTPRF interacting)
Can bind both Notch ICD and co-repressor SMRT,
but these are mutually exclusive; forms
multimers with Notch ICD and MAML, which
then associates with CSL to activate
transcription
Binds Notch ICD and inhibits transcription from
Notch target promoters; can be reversed by CSL
overexpression
A guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for
Rho GTPases that acts as link to Abl proteins in
non-canonical Notch axon guidance
RITA/C12ORF52
SMAD
(Fryer et al., 2004)
(Tanigaki and Honjo, 2010)
(Le Gall et al., 2008)
(Axelrod et al., 1996; MunozDescalzo et al., 2010)
(Diederich et al., 1994; Hori et
al., 2004; Matsuno et al., 1995;
Wilkin et al., 2008; Yamada et
al., 2011)
(Fryer et al., 2004; Gupta-Rossi et
al., 2001; Oberg et al., 2001;
Wu et al., 2001; Tsunematsu et
al., 2004)
(Coleman et al., 2007; Wilkins et
al., 2009; Zheng et al., 2008)
(Espinosa et al., 2003; Foltz et
al., 2002)
(Bertout et al., 2009; Gustafsson
et al., 2005; Sahlgren et al.,
2008)
(Qiu et al., 2000)
(Bray and Bernard, 2010;
McElhinny et al., 2008)
(Wang et al., 2001)
(Shin et al., 2006)
(Lamar et al., 2001; Yun and
Bevan, 2003)
(Beres et al., 2011; Rhyu et al.,
1994; Uemura et al., 1989;
Zhong et al., 1997)
(Hutterer and Knoblich, 2005;
O’Connor-Giles and Skeath,
2003; Skeath and Doe, 1998;
Tong et al., 2010)
(Hooper et al., 2006)
(Wacker et al., 2011)
(Blokzijl et al., 2003; Dahlqvist
et al., 2003; Fu et al., 2009;
Itoh et al., 2004; Sun et al.,
2005; Tang et al., 2010)
(Vasquez-Del Carpio et al.,
2011; Zhou et al., 2000)
(Bargo et al., 2010)
(Le Gall et al., 2008)
DEVELOPMENT
Symbol
3602 REVIEW
Development 138 (17)
A Spearman correlation of
B NICD-upregulated genes
NICD-activated transcriptomes
C NICD-upregulated genes in
in differentiating ES cells
LS174T cells, lymphatic ECs
and differentiating ES cells
Spearman ρ
ES cells r
neural
ES cells r
ectoderm
ES cells r
neural
ES cells r
mesoderm
462
9
Lymphatic
endothelial cells
LS174T
colon carcinoma
ES cells r
mesoderm
ES cells r
ectoderm
LS174T
colon carcinoma
376
ES cells r
ectoderm
21
93
LS174T
colon carcinoma
463
ES cell
intersection
from B
7
378
0
20
ES cells r
mesoderm
1 = Hey1
0
1
37
462
Lymphatic
endothelial
cells
different cell types reveals a considerable diversity in the
immediate downstream Notch response, which might be necessary
for Notch to function in so many different cellular contexts.
Genome-wide transcriptome studies in healthy or mutated T-cells
(Chadwick et al., 2009; Dohda et al., 2007; Palomero et al., 2006;
Weerkamp et al., 2006), mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells (Main
et al., 2010; Meier-Stiegen et al., 2010), alveolar epithelial cells
(Aoyagi-Ikeda et al., 2011), endometrial stromal cells (Mikhailik
et al., 2009), C2C12 mouse myoblast cells (Buas et al., 2009) and
Drosophila myogenic cells (Krejci et al., 2009) have unraveled
distinct sets of Notch target genes with rather limited overlap of the
transcriptomes. This is the case even when comparing
transcriptome studies that were carried out with relatively similar
modes and durations of Notch induction (summarized in Fig. 3). In
addition to output diversity in different cell types, the Notch
response changes during the cell cycle (for a review, see Kageyama
et al., 2009) and throughout cell lineage progression, for example
during T-cell development (for a review, see Radtke et al., 2010)
and during neural differentiation of ES cells in vitro, when cyclin
D1 is activated only at a specific temporal window during ES cell
neural differentiation in vitro (Das et al., 2010).
Traditionally, hairy and enhancer of split-related (HESR) genes,
which encode basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcriptional
repressors, have been considered key genes activated downstream
of Notch signaling. HESR genes do indeed execute important
aspects of Notch signaling, for example during tumor progression
(Sethi et al., 2011; Wendorff et al., 2010), but it is becoming
increasingly apparent that the immediate Notch transcriptome is
larger, and that there are many genes activated in parallel with,
rather than downstream of, the HESR genes. Challenging the view
that HESR genes are always activated in response to Notch
signaling, the microarray analyses performed for Fig. 3 revealed
that only one HESR gene, hairy/enhancer-of-split related with
YRPW motif 1 (Hey1), was upregulated in four of the five
experiments, whereas Hes5 was upregulated in the ES cell
experiments (see Table S1 in the supplementary material) but was
not similarly upregulated in colon carcinoma cells or in lymphatic
endothelial cells. Thus, some genes are seen to be upregulated in a
number of cell types, but no one gene can be identified as an
‘obligatory’ Notch target that will be upregulated in all cell types.
Among the immediate Notch target genes, activated in parallel with
HESR genes, are a number of ‘high profile’ genes such as c-Myc
(Rao and Kadesch, 2003; Satoh et al., 2004; Weng et al., 2006),
cyclin D1 (Cohen, B. et al., 2010; Ronchini and Capobianco, 2001;
Satoh et al., 2004), cyclin D3 (Joshi et al., 2009), cyclin-dependent
kinase 5 (CDK5) (Palomero et al., 2006), p21 (Rangarajan et al.,
2001), Snail (Sahlgren et al., 2008) and platelet-derived growth
factor receptor beta (PDGFR) (Jin et al., 2008; Morimoto et al.,
2010).
The basis for the observed transcriptome diversity in different
cell types is only partially understood. The conventional view holds
that CSL is bound via CGTGGGAA motifs to target promoters and
that it represses transcription when Notch is not activated. Upon
Notch pathway activation, Notch ICD, together with MAML, then
displaces co-repressors and brings co-activators to the Notch ICDCSL complex, which leads to transcriptional activation of target
genes. Certain genes, at least some in Drosophila, thus appear to
be in a repressed state in the absence of Notch signaling (Bardin et
DEVELOPMENT
Fig. 3. Diversity in Notch ICD-induced transcriptomes. A comparison of genes upregulated by Notch1 ICD overexpression in different cell types
[mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells undergoing ectodermal, mesodermal (Meier-Stiegen et al., 2010) or neural (Main et al., 2010) differentiation; the
human colon carcinoma cell line LS174T (Okamoto et al., 2009); and human lymphatic endothelial cells (ECs) (unpublished, GSE20978)] reveals
diversity in target gene activation. (A)Spearman correlation () of the five sets of transcriptomes following Notch1 ICD activation shows that the ES
cell-derived transcriptomes are more similar to each other than to the colon carcinoma or lymphatic ECs, but that they demonstrate considerable
diversity between them. (B)A comparison of the top 500 upregulated genes in ES cells undergoing ectodermal, mesodermal or neural induction
and in response to Notch1 ICD activation. Twenty-one genes were found to be upregulated in all three differentiation paradigms (see Table S1 in
the supplementary material). (C)The 21 genes upregulated in all three ES cell transcriptomes were compared with the top 500 upregulated genes in
the colon carcinoma (LS174T) and lymphatic ECs. In this analysis, genes upregulated in all three situations were not identified, but Hey1 was
upregulated in all three ES cell transcriptomes and in the lymphatic ECs. Gene expression data for series GSE19074, GSE15268, GSE10136 and
GSE20978 were downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). The microarray probe set annotations were converted into RefSeq transcript
IDs, taking the average for cases with more than one probe set interrogating the same transcript. RefSeq transcripts for the human data were
converted into mouse annotations using NCBI Entrez Gene. For each experiment independently, the relative expression difference for each gene
between the Notch-induced and control samples was computed and transformed into log2 scale, averaging over replicates when available. These
relative expression vectors (one per comparison) were used to compute Spearman correlations and to perform analyses of overlaps in the top 500
upregulated genes.
Development 138 (17)
al., 2005; Phng et al., 2009). By contrast, the Notch target gene
pin1 [protein (peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase) NIMAinteracting 1] positively reinforces Notch signaling by enhancing
Notch receptor cleavage (Ishitani et al., 2005).
Cooperativity at the promoter level between Notch ICD-CSL
and other transcription factors can also contribute to diversity in the
Notch signaling output. Proneural bHLH proteins, for example,
cooperate with Notch ICD-CSL in the regulation of HESR gene
expression (Holmberg et al., 2008) and synergy between Notch
ICD-CSL and GATA factors (Neves et al., 2007), NF-B (Vilimas
et al., 2007) and Twist (Bernard et al., 2010) has also been
demonstrated. To what extent these genetic interactions require
direct physical interactions between Notch ICD-CSL and the other
factors remains to be established, but the spacing between the
binding sites has, in some cases, been shown to be important
(Swanson et al., 2010).
Despite the progress in this area, there are still unresolved
questions as to how diversity is generated at the level of Notch
ICD-CSL. It will be important to identify the factors that determine
why CSL in some contexts remains bound to DNA in the absence
of Notch and/or in other situations is recruited to DNA by Notch
ICD. It also remains to be determined if the chromatin and
epigenetic status can influence this choice. The establishment of
genome-wide DNA-binding profiles for CSL and Notch ICD
(through CSL) would be helpful in this regard, as would mapping
studies that identify which co-repressors and co-activators are corecruited in different cellular settings.
Generating diversity through interactions with
other signaling mechanisms
Since the number of key cellular signaling mechanisms is rather
small, it is becoming increasingly appreciated that signaling
mechanisms do not operate in isolation but that they are integrated
into signaling networks. Interactions can be divided into different
categories based on their mode of interaction. First, one pathway
can be epistatic over another pathway, for example by regulating
the expression of key components of the other pathway, thus
controlling the activity of the other pathway indirectly. Second,
pathways can converge at the level of the promoters of downstream
genes, such that transcriptional regulators, activated by two (or
more) pathways, bind to distinct promoter elements and jointly
control the level of expression of downstream genes. Third, a direct
interaction between core components in the pathways can lead to
complex regulatory events in both pathways. For Notch signaling,
all three of the above categories of interaction are observed (Fig.
4), and to exemplify this we discuss recent advances in our
understanding of how Notch intersects with Wnt signaling,
TGF/BMP signaling and with the cellular hypoxic response.
Interactions with the Wnt pathway
Wnt signaling, like Notch signaling, is important for cellular
differentiation and homeostasis in a number of tissues, and several
nodes of Wnt-Notch signaling interactions have been identified.
Wnt signaling upregulates Jag1 transcription via -catenin in the
hair follicle (Estrach et al., 2006), increases Dll4 transcription
during vascular remodeling (Corada et al., 2010) and induces
Notch2 expression in colorectal cancer cells (Ungerback et al.,
2011). During somite differentiation, 1-integrin activity controls
both Wnt and Notch signaling, and activation of both signaling
mechanisms is required for activation of the downstream gene
cMESO1/mesp2 (Rallis et al., 2010). With regard to interaction
between core components, Dishevelled (Dvl), an intracellular
DEVELOPMENT
al., 2010; Castro et al., 2005; Koelzer and Klein, 2006), but it has
also been shown that in Drosophila, the CSL homolog Su(H) is
actively recruited to its binding sites by Notch ICD rather than
being positioned there in the ‘Notch-off’ state (Krejci and Bray,
2007). In keeping with a more dynamic interaction between CSL
and its cognate DNA-binding sites, the binding coefficient between
CSL and DNA has been shown to be weaker than previously
considered (Friedmann and Kovall, 2010), whereas the affinity of
CSL for the RAM domain of Notch ICD is unchanged by DNA
binding (Friedmann et al., 2008). As discussed below, studies that
aim to identify the factors that modulate the affinity of the Notch
ICD-CSL complex for distinct promoter sequences are beginning
to contribute to our understanding of the complexity of Notch
signaling output.
Given that different Notch receptors have at least partially
distinct expression patterns in most tissues, diversity in the
downstream response could be generated if the different Notch
ICDs are capable of activating distinct sets of downstream genes.
There is some evidence for target selectivity, and the
configuration of CSL binding sites within Notch target genes, for
example if they appear as monomers or dimers, influences the
likelihood of recruiting Notch1 or Notch3 ICD, respectively
(Ong et al., 2006). Interestingly, whereas Notch1 ICD performs
well on paired CSL binding sites, Notch3 ICD activity is more
amenable to binding CSL motifs adjacent to binding sites for
zinc-finger transcription factors (Ong et al., 2006). The spacing
of multimerized binding sites within target genes is also
important for activation (for a review, see Bray and Bernard,
2010). The ability of Notch ICDs to form dimers might also
influence the repertoire of activated genes by restricting the
response to dimeric CSL binding sites (Cave et al., 2005),
although structural analysis of the dimeric Notch ICD complex
suggests that a flexibility in spacer length can be accommodated
(Arnett et al., 2010). Recently, it has been proposed that Notch
ICD multimerization is an initial step in forming the active
transcriptional complex (Vasquez-Del Carpio et al., 2011). Based
on the notion that different Notch ICDs may activate at least
partially distinct transcriptomes, one might expect at least
partially distinct biological functions for the various ICDs. Thus,
Notch2 ICD, but not Notch1 ICD, promotes tumor growth in
xenografts in a medulloblastoma model (Fan et al., 2004), and
overexpression of Notch1 ICD or of Notch3 ICD signaling
generate distinct phenotypes in pancreas (Apelqvist et al., 1999;
Hald et al., 2003), whereas they appear to have more similar
functions in adult CNS progenitor cells (Tanigaki et al., 2001).
Furthermore, the expression of Notch3 ICD, but not that of
Notch1 or 2 ICD, during embryonic CNS development results in
the formation of invasive gliomas (Pierfelice et al., 2011).
Proteins encoded by genes activated immediately downstream
of Notch can feed back on the Notch transcriptional response
and, in this way, modulate the signaling output. This has been
demonstrated for c-Myc, which, together with Notch ICD-CSL,
activates a set of genes not activated by Notch ICD alone
(Palomero et al., 2006). In smooth muscle cells, Hey1 and Hey2
are activated by Notch and subsequently negatively regulate
Notch-mediated transcription by blocking Notch ICD-CSL
binding to DNA (Tang, Y. et al., 2008), which might affect the
duration of the Notch signaling response. Similarly, the
immediate Notch target gene Notch-regulated ankyrin repeat
protein (Nrarp) feeds back to negatively regulate Notch, and at
the same time activates Wnt signaling by stabilizing the
Lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1 (LEF1) protein (Ishitani et
REVIEW 3603
3604 REVIEW
Development 138 (17)
Wnt
pathway
Notch
pathway
Wnt
Notch
Hypoxia
pathway
TGFβ
BMP pathway
TGFβ TGFβ
≤ 5% O2
Fig. 4. Cross-talk between the Notch pathway and other
signaling pathways. Key intracellular mediators of the Wnt,
TGF/BMP and hypoxia pathways are depicted. Interactions
between Notch ICD and key intracellular mediators in the
other signaling mechanisms are indicated by dashed lines.
Extracellular
Plasma membrane
Intracellular
Dvl
FIH
GSK3β
Axin
HIF1α
APC
P P
Smad
NICD
β-catenin
Canonical Wnt signaling
Hypoxia signaling
TGFβ
BMP signaling
Notch downstream response
and Notch signaling; sFRPs bind to ADAM10, downregulating its
activity and thus inhibiting Notch signaling. This has consequences
for retinal neurogenesis, a process known to be Notch dependent
but Wnt independent (Esteve et al., 2011).
Interactions with TGF signaling pathways
Notch signaling also intersects with the TGF and BMP signaling
pathways. In the canonical TGF signaling pathway, secreted
dimeric cytokines, such as TGF, activin/inhibin and BMP, induce
the assembly of a tetrameric complex of type I and type II
transmembrane receptor serine/threonine kinases. Receptor II then
phosphorylates and activates receptor I, which phosphorylates
mothers against decapentaplegic (SMAD) transcription factors to
activate transcription together with co-activators such as p300 (for
a review, see Derynck and Zhang, 2003). TGF signaling also
activates MAPK signaling cascades, RhoA-ROCK signaling and
Ras signaling in a SMAD-independent manner (Derynck and
Zhang, 2003).
A direct convergence between Notch and TGF/BMP signaling
is evident in interactions of Notch ICD with SMADs (SMAD3 for
TGF; SMAD1 for BMP) (Blokzijl et al., 2003; Dahlqvist et al.,
2003; Itoh et al., 2004; Sun et al., 2005). During Notch-TGF
cross-talk, TGF signaling enhances canonical Notch signaling,
whereas the effect of Notch on TGF signaling is more multifaceted. For example, Notch/TGF induction of Hey1 occurs at the
expense of TGF-mediated induction of inhibitor of DNA binding
1 (Id1) (Itoh et al., 2004). TGF-mediated epithelial-tomesenchymal transition (EMT) also requires functional Notch
signaling in the developing heart (Timmerman et al., 2004) and in
various epithelia (Niimi et al., 2007; Zavadil et al., 2004). During
DEVELOPMENT
mediator of all Wnt signaling pathways described to date, binds to
Notch ICD (Axelrod et al., 1996; Munoz-Descalzo et al., 2010),
and interactions of Notch ICD with several components of the catenin destruction complex have also been described (Fig. 4).
These include an interaction with Axin, which affects -catenin
stability (Hayward et al., 2006), the control of Notch trafficking by
binding to Axin and adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) (MunozDescalzo et al., 2011), and GSK3-mediated phosphorylation of
Notch ICD (Espinosa et al., 2003; Foltz et al., 2002).
Concomitantly, Notch controls the stability of Armadillo, the
Drosophila homolog of -catenin (Hayward et al., 2005; MunozDescalzo et al., 2011; Sanders et al., 2009).
Interactions between Notch and Wnt signaling are also context
specific: -catenin can bind Notch ICD in neural precursor cells
(Shimizu et al., 2008) and can form complexes with Notch ICDCSL on CSL binding sites in arterial cells, but it does not do so in
venous endothelial cells (Yamamizu et al., 2010). Intriguingly, the
Dll1 ICD has been shown to induce Wnt reporter activity and
upregulate the expression of connective tissue growth factor
(CTGF) (Bordonaro et al., 2011). MAML represents another nexus
between Notch and Wnt signaling, and, in addition to its role in
stabilizing Notch ICD-CSL interactions, MAML has now been
shown to bind to both GSK3 (Saint Just Ribeiro et al., 2009) and
-catenin (Alves-Guerra et al., 2007). The binding of MAML to
GSK3 (which is normally inhibited by active Wnt signaling)
decreases MAML transcriptional activity (Saint Just Ribeiro et al.,
2009), whereas MAML can act as a transcriptional co-activator for
-catenin, enhancing expression of the target genes cyclin D1 and
c-Myc (Alves-Guerra et al., 2007). An unexpected level of crosstalk is also seen between soluble Frizzled-related proteins (sFRPs)
Development 138 (17)
Regulation of Notch signaling by hypoxia
A reduction in the level of oxygen activates the cellular hypoxic
response, and Notch signaling is linked in several ways to the
hypoxia pathway (Fig. 4). Certain aspects of the cellular hypoxic
response, such as the control of myogenic differentiation, EMT and
medulloblastoma precursor proliferation, require functional Notch
signaling (Gustafsson et al., 2005; Pistollato et al., 2010; Sahlgren
et al., 2008). Hypoxia also maintains a stem cell-like phenotype in
colorectal tumor cells in a Notch-dependent manner (Yeung et al.,
2011), and hypoxia resistance in Drosophila, acquired through
genetic selection in low oxygen, can be overridden by blocking
Notch signaling (Zhou et al., 2011). In pulmonary arterial
hypertension, hypoxia upregulates Notch3 expression, which is
important in disease development (Li et al., 2009). With regard to
Notch and hypoxia cross-talk, hypoxia controls the expression of
Notch ligands, and Dll1, Dll4 and Jag2 have been reported to be
upregulated by low oxygen levels (Diez et al., 2007; Dong et al.,
2011; Patel et al., 2005; Pietras et al., 2011; Sahlgren et al., 2008;
Xing et al., 2011).
There are also genes that are synergistically controlled by both
Notch and the cellular hypoxic response, and these contain binding
sites for both Notch ICD and the key hypoxia transcriptional
regulator hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1) (Diez et al.,
2007). Notch ICD has been shown to directly interact with two key
components in the hypoxia pathway (Fig. 4): HIF1 and FIH. The
binding of Notch ICD to HIF1 leads to the recruitment of HIF1
to Notch-responsive genes (Gustafsson et al., 2005; Sahlgren et al.,
2008). Hypoxia also leads to the stabilization of Notch ICD (Bertout
et al., 2009; Gustafsson et al., 2005; Sahlgren et al., 2008), but the
underpinning mechanism for the increased Notch ICD half-life
remains to be elucidated. In Drosophila crystal cells (a type of blood
cell), Similar (Sima, encoded by the Drosophila ortholog of Hif1),
is expressed at high levels even in normoxia and activates Notch in
a ligand-independent manner. Although this process does not result
in the transcription of hypoxia target genes, it promotes hemocyte
survival (Mukherjee et al., 2011). FIH serves as an asparagine
hydroxylase not only for HIF1, but also for Notch ICDs, with the
exception of Notch4 ICD, as discussed in the previous section
(Coleman et al., 2007; Wilkins et al., 2009; Zheng et al., 2008).
These examples illustrate that the signaling networks between
Notch and other pathways are complex and that they are built on
compound interactions between signaling pathways at multiple
levels. The intersections are not only confined to Wnt, TGF/BMP
and hypoxia, but are also elucidated for other pathways, such as the
Shh pathway (Driver et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2003; Molnar et al.,
2011; Morrow et al., 2009; Mukherjee et al., 2005) and NF-B
signaling (for a review, see Poellinger and Lendahl, 2008). A
critical node of interaction with other signaling pathways appears
to be the Notch ICD, but in some cases independent of any
interaction with CSL. Signaling pathway cross-talk might, at least
in part, underlie certain forms of non-canonical signaling, which
require Notch ICD but not CSL [for a review of non-canonical
Notch signaling, see Heitzler (Heitzler, 2010)].
Conclusions
In recent years, we have witnessed rapid progress in many fields
of Notch research, both in identifying the cellular differentiation
processes that are influenced by Notch signaling and in unraveling
the molecular machinery that interprets cell context and converts
this information into an appropriate signaling output. With these
studies, we can begin to resolve the ostensible paradox of how
simplicity in Notch pathway design is reconciled with the large
number of cell fate decisions that are influenced by Notch.
Importantly, these studies also highlight ways in which we can
experimentally regulate Notch signaling in disease. In this area,
sophisticated strategies have been developed to interfere with
specific stages of Notch signaling, for example by developing
MAML-interfering stapled -helical peptides (Moellering et al.,
2009) or antibodies that lock Notch receptors in the ‘OFF state’
(Aste-Amezaga et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2010). Unfortunately, the
long-term use of the latter might still yield unwanted side effects
(Yan et al., 2010), and a lesson from this is that, although the rapid
advances in basic science can be converted into potential therapies,
we still need to learn more about the finer details of the Notch
pathway and how it specifically operates in different spatial and
temporal cellular contexts.
Acknowledgements
Work in our laboratories is supported by grants from the EU (EuroSyStem and
NotchIT), the Swedish Cancer Society, the Swedish Research Council [DBRM,
project grant, Strategic Research Center in Stem Cells and Regenerative
Medicine (StratRegen)], Knut och ALice Wallenbergs Stiftelse (WIRM),
VINNOVA (AZ-KI Gene), Karolinska Institutet (Distinguished Professor Award
U.L.; BRECT and Theme Center for Stem cells and Regenerative Medicine). R.S.
is supported by a Starting Grant from the European Research Council.
Competing interests statement
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Supplementary material
Supplementary material for this article is available at
http://dev.biologists.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1242/dev.063610/-/DC1
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