Electronic Dating Violence
E l e c t r o n i c D a t in g V i o l e n c e
1
A Brief Guide for Educators and Parents
Sameer Hinduja, Ph.D. and Justin W. Patchin, Ph.D.
Cyberbullying Research Center
M
any teens across the United State experience dating
violence, defined as “physical assault or acts of
bodily harm, including psychological and emotional
abuse, verbal or implied, that take place in private or in
social situations.”1:34 To be clear, the term “dating
violence” is not intended to include violence between
casual acquaintances but rather is reserved for those
behaviors occurring between those whose relationship is
characterized by dating, affection, or sexual involvement.
It typically consists of various forms of mistreatment
ranging from insults and rumor spreading to threats and
physical assaults.
The number of persons who have been victimized offline
by romantic partners ranges from 10% to 47%, depending
on how the behaviors are defined and measured in
research studies. 2, 3 Interestingly, research has shown that
teenagers are at a higher risk than adults when it comes to
abuse by intimates.4 Recent estimates from the nationallyrepresentative Youth Risk Behavior Survey involving
almost 15,000 high school students, found that approximately 1 out of 10 had experienced physical dating
violence.5 As might be expected, the rates for psychological and verbal violence are higher. Somewhere
between 20% and 30% of teens have experienced this
form of dating violence, according to the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.6 Finally, a study
of high school students from 2007 reported that 85% of
boys and 92% of girls engaged in psychological aggression
against their partner in their current dating relationship;
85% of boys and 88% of girls also revealed that they had
been the victim of this type of aggression in their current
dating relationship.7 In addition, 24% of boys and 40% of
girls physically aggressed against their current partner,
while 31% of boys and 30% of girls stated they were
victims of such physical abuse from their current partner.
An overarching finding was that psychological aggression
has a strong direct effect on physical aggression,7
highlighting the need to address the former before it
contributes in some way to the latter.
It bears mentioning that dating violence may be
pronounced during adolescence due to the newness of
romantic relationships for boys and girls, and an as-yet
underdeveloped ability to constructively cope with
frustration, jealousy, or other negative emotions.8 In
addition, there may be a hesitance for one partner to leave
his or her abuser since youth relationships are perceived
to be more significant in a shorter period of time.9 There
may also be peer pressure from outside sources to remain
together or to simply be in a relationship with someone
because it is socially expected or encouraged.
With respect to demographic differences, the distribution
of dating violence victimization across the sexes appears to
be mixed, depending on the research consulted. Some find
that rates are similar among males and females,10, 11 while
others find that more females are targeted2 and still others
find that males are more frequently victimized.3, 12 Males
have previously been shown to offend more often,13, 14
although recent studies are finding the opposite.15, 16
Findings across race are also conflicting, with some
identifying Blacks as more often involved as victims and
offenders than Whites17-19 and others finding the
opposite.20, 21 It has also been determined that adolescents
involved in same-sex relationships are as likely to
experience dating violence as those involved in oppositesex relationships.22
"I call it an electronic leash. I've had girls
come into my office with cell phone bills
showing 9,000 text messages and calls in a
month. This is all hours of the day and
night. And it's threatening. 'Hi. How are
you? Where are you? Who are you with?
Who are you talking to?'"
– Dr. Jill Murray, Psychologist
US Department of Education
Finally, a number of other factors correlated with dating
violence deserve comment to emphasize the significance of
this problem.
Negative emotions such as anger,23
24
anxiety, sadness,25 depression,26 and fear27 often stem
from intimate partner abuse.
Psychoemotional and
physical well-being are also seemingly affected; violence
within romantic relationships has been linked to lower
self-esteem,28 somatic health symptoms such as headaches
and weight changes,29 and suicidal ideation.4 Many of
these correlates have also been linked to cyberbullying,30,
31 providing additional evidence that there are similarities
and overlap between the two experiences.
E l e c t r o n i c D a t in g V i o l e n c e
Cyberbullying as a Form of Teen Dating Violence
There are many ways in which teens can exploit Internetenabled devices to cause harm to a romantic partner.
Aggressors may be excessively mean-spirited to their
significant other when communicating with them online
for the same reasons that cyberbullies do so.31 In addition,
privacy violations can occur as perpetrators check up on,
monitor, and even stalk their partners if there is provision
for easy access of the latter’s computer or cell phone.
Some situations involve one person paying for the other’s
cell phone (and/or monthly bill), and then feeling entitled
to constantly check and monitor who is being called and
texted. When this happens – and conflict ensues – the
abuser may take away or even destroy that cell phone,
effectively cutting the victim off from help, support, and
communication with others.
"It's the phenomenon of no place to run and
no place to hide. Now, you can be stalked
electronically. You can't even see your
predator coming."
– Kevin Jennings,
Assistant Deputy Secretary,
US Department of Education
There have also been incidents where aggressors utilize
textual, audio, picture, or video content stored on their cell
phones or computers to blackmail, extort, or otherwise
manipulate their partner into saying or doing something
against their will. Notably, this content can be shared with
a very large audience – a classroom of students, the entire
student body, a neighborhood, the town, the entire world –
with ease and great speed either through the forwarding of
a text or multimedia message, or through its uploading to a
site like Facebook or YouTube. Its “viral” nature, then, can
greatly expand the extent of victimization a partner
suffers, knowing that the embarrassing or harmful content
is being viewed and shared – perhaps repeatedly – by so
many people. The situation can become worse after
realizing that it is often difficult to work with Internet
Service Providers and web site administrators to get the
content removed in a timely manner.
It is interesting to note that motivations for teenage dating
violence include anger and a felt need to exert power;32
both of these can be vividly demonstrated through the use
of communications technologies. An adolescent can
quickly send a scathing or harassing email or instant
message to a girlfriend or boyfriend solely based on
negative emotions, without taking the time to calm down
2
and react rationally to a feeling or situation and without
considering the implications of that textual content.31
Also, power can be readily expressed in a dating
relationship because the victim’s past and present
experiences with the abuser provide a unique relational
dependency and history that make it difficult to resist or
get away from online mistreatment or harm. Even though
this may be less true in adolescent relationships than in
adult relationships (where there is sometimes a need for
financial assistance and sometimes the presence of
children),8 there still often exists a power dynamic that
may be exploited if the relationship is unbalanced and
dysfunctional. More suffering and pain may very well
result from cyberbullying within a romantic relationship,
as compared to cyberbullying among strangers, casual
acquaintances, or even platonic friends. Relatedly, these
technological devices allow abusers to feel constantly
connected to (and within “reach” of) their dating partner,
who often feels that he or she has no escape from the
torment.31 This is amplified by the fact that teens
constantly have their phone with them day and night, and
use it as their lifeline to maintain and grow their
relationships.
There are many similarities between cyberbullying and
electronic dating violence that should be pointed out.
First, both naturally employ technology. Second, cyberbullying is largely perpetrated by and among known
peers,33 as is aggression in romantic relationships (where
youth typically select partners from within their peer
group).
Third, both lead to specific emotional,
psychological, physical, and behavioral consequences.34, 35
Fourth, both also may have similar fundamental
antecedents such as inherent insecurities and a need to
demonstrate control and power.
With regard to
differences, cyberbullying tends to occur between
individuals who do not like, and do not want to be around,
each other. Electronic dating violence transpires between
two people who are attracted to each other, at least on
some level.
As a final but very important point, outside of victimization
that is occurring (or has occurred) between teenage dating
partners, it is possible that this form of abuse might lead to
intimate partner violence during adulthood. Studies have
shown that patterns of dating violence often start during
adolescence and then carry on into adulthood,4 and that
the degree of intimate partner violence tends to increase if
the behavior has taken root during one’s formative years.36
This possibility must be targeted and addressed so that
problematic behavioral tendencies among youth can be
corrected before they lead to harm in future interpersonal
and romantic relationships.37
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E l e c t r o n i c D a t in g V i o l e n c e
What Does Research Tell Us About Electronic Dating
Violence?
•
Recent studies have shown that dating violence among
youthful populations remains a significant social problem,
and a few studies sponsored in part by private sector
corporations indicate that the Internet and cell phones
serve a contributing role.7-9, 38, 39 For example, an online
survey of teens sponsored by the Liz Claiborne company
revealed that 36% of teens say their boyfriend or girlfriend
checked up on them as many as 30 times per day and 17%
reported that their significant other made them afraid not
to respond to cell phone calls, email, or text messages.40
Another recent poll found that 22% of youth between the
ages of 14 and 24 who were involved in a romantic
relationship said that their partner wrote something about
them online or in a text message that wasn’t true.41 This
same survey reported that 22% of youth felt that their
significant other checked up on them too often online or
via cell phone.
•
OFFENDING
•
•
•
•
In research based on a random sample of approximately
4,400 11-18 year-old youth from a large school district in
the southern United States from 2010, we found that about
12% of students had been the victim of some form of
electronic dating violence. More specific results are
summarized below.
VICTIMIZATION
•
•
10% of youth said a romantic partner has prevented
them from using a computer or cell phone.
6% of boys and girls say their romantic partner posted
something publicly online to make fun of, threaten, or
embarrass them.
7% of youth admitted that they prevented their
romantic partner from using a computer or cell phone.
6% of boys and 4% of girls say they posted something
publicly online to make fun of, threaten, or embarrass
their romantic partner.
About 7% of youth said they sent a threatening cell
phone message to their romantic partner.
5% of boys and 3% of girls said they uploaded or
shared a humiliating of harassing picture of their
romantic partner online or through their cell phone.
RELATIONSHIPS
•
Well I was in this relationship with this boy
and he started to get upset because I didn’t
want to do anything sexual or physical so he
started to post mean and hurtful blogs about
me. He even commented on my status. I was
embarrassed. When I confronted him about it
he didn’t even care or have any regret but it
was a different story when I got revenge by
telling the school principal on him. Then he
got upset and did even meaner things to me
like sexually harassing me but since then it
been better because I erased all of my email
accounts and even got out of public school.
10.4% of boys and 9.8% of girls said they received a
threatening cell phone message from their romantic
partner.
5.4% of boys and 3.4% of girls said their romantic
partner uploaded or shared a humiliating or harassing
picture of them online or through their cell phone.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Victims of traditional (offline) dating violence are
significantly more likely to be victims of electronic
forms of dating violence (r=.75) than those who have
not experienced offline bullying.
Those who admit to engaging in traditional dating
violence also report engaging in electronic forms of
dating violence (r=.77).
Victims of dating violence (r=.51) and specifically
electronic forms of dating violence (r=.64) are
significantly more likely to also be victims of
cyberbullying.
Youth who are cyberbullied are 3.6 times as likely to
experience electronic teen dating violence as those
who are not cyberbullied.
Youth who admit to engaging in dating violence
(r=.52) and specifically electronic forms of dating
violence (r=.65) also admit to engaging in
cyberbullying.
Youth who share their passwords with their
significant other are nearly three times as likely to be
victims of electronic dating violence.
All forms of dating violence increase as youth get
older.
Policy Implications
It is clear that electronic dating violence affects a
meaningful proportion of teenagers. As this problem
continues to be studied, we hope to learn much more
about context, contributing factors, and consequences. As
described above, there are a number of individual- and
familial-level factors that have been correlated with being
either an abuser or victim in offline romantic relationships.
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E l e c t r o n i c D a t in g V i o l e n c e
Future research must determine if they are also relevant in
technology-based instances of dating violence, and can
consequently shape general programmatic strategies
implemented within the school and community. In this
way, youth-serving adults can be mindful of who might be
most susceptible to this phenomenon and can concentrate
their efforts on those teenagers. Preventive informational
and educational efforts based on data-driven knowledge,
then, may go a long way in curtailing adolescent partner
abuse.
"Tell somebody you trust and try to get help
because you can't go through it yourself.
It's too much of a burden to carry."
–Allyson Pereira, teenage dating violence victim
Additionally, there are laws on the books that enable
police to step in and address domestic and dating violence
in practically every jurisdiction. Law enforcement and
other responding entities need, however, to be perceived
as capable, compassionate entities who can deal with the
problem in a way that does not make it worse for the
victim. Research has consistently identified a reluctance
on the part of battered women and the sexually abused to
contact police,42-45 and this is tragic because it denies the
opportunity to help where it is most needed. A deeper
understanding of the emotional and psychological mindset
– and the situational circumstances – of teenaged victims
in a tenuous and complicated developmental stage
provided through the current research may help inform
police practice when called to deal with cases of teen
dating violence. These issues are perhaps made worse
when the violence is perpetrated via technology, as officers
unfamiliar with cyberbullying and/or dating violence may
not appreciate their significance and simply disregard
them as non-serious issues.
Finally, identifying and measuring certain predictors and
outcomes of offline and online teenage partner abuse
(such as suicidal ideation and traditional delinquency)
may serve to illuminate its weighty real-world
ramifications, and should hopefully lead to more attention
and resources to reduce its frequency. While it is
increasingly on the radar of criminal justice, educational,
victim advocacy, and social service institutions, there
appears to be a lack of knowledge associated with what
can be done about it. Future research should work to
identify which factors lead to harm in youthful romantic
relationships, and can also pave the way for more
informed prevention and response strategies.
Suggested citation:
Hinduja, S. & Patchin, J. W. (2011). Electronic dating
violence: A brief guide for educators and parents.
Cyberbullying Research Center (www.cyberbullying.us).
Notes
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Sameer Hinduja, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor at Florida Atlantic University and Justin W. Patchin, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor at the
University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Together, they lecture across the United States on the causes and consequences of cyberbullying and offer
comprehensive workshops for parents, teachers, counselors, mental health professionals, law enforcement, youth and others concerned with
addressing and preventing online aggression.
The Cyberbullying Research Center is dedicated to providing up-to-date information about the nature, extent, causes, and consequences of cyberbullying among
adolescents. For more information, visit http://www.cyberbullying.us. © 2011 Cyberbullying Research Center - Sameer Hinduja and Justin W. Patchin