F0542 – Manajemen Umum
Matakuliah
Tahun
Versi
: F0542/Manajemen Umum
: 2005
:5
Pertemuan 13
MENGELOLA PERUBAHAN DAN INOVASI
SERTA PENGAWASAN
Edisi : 1
Revisi : 5
BINA NUSANTARA
Sept - 2005
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
Learning Outcomes
Pada akhir pertemuan ini, diharapkan mahasiswa
akan mampu :
Mahasiswa dapat Menunjukkan hubungan antara
pentingnya pengendalian dan implikasi pengendalian pada
kinerja organisasi secara umum
Mahasiswa dapat Menyesuaikan dan mengelola
keanekaragaman, perubahan dan inovasi
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
Outline Materi
Apakah pengawasan itu?
Mengapa pengawasan itu penting?
Proses pengawasan
Tipe-tipe pengawasan
Apakah perubahan itu?
Faktor-faktor penyebab perubahan:
- Kekuatan eksternal
- Teknologi
- Perubahan ekonomi
- Kekuatan internal
Manajer sebagai agen perubahan
Mengelola perubahan
Inovasi
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 02 - 32
What Is Change?
 Change
- alterations in people, structure, or
technology
- change is an organizational reality
- managing change is an integral part of
every manager’s job
 complicates the jobs of managers
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 03 - 32
Forces For Change
 External Forces
- marketplace - adapt to changing consumer desires
- governmental laws and regulations - frequent
impetus for change
- technology - source of change in almost all
industries
- labor markets - HRM activities must change to
attract and retain skilled employees in the areas of
greatest need
- economic - uncertainties about interest rates,
budget deficits, and currency exchange rates
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 04 - 32
Forces For Change (cont.)


Internal Forces
- originate from the operations of the
organization
- forces may include strategy, workforce, new
equipment, or employee attitudes
Manager as Change Agent
- change agents - act as catalysts and assume
responsibility for change
 manager may serve as change agent
 outside consultant - used for systemwide
changes
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 05 - 32
Three Categories Of Change
Structure
Technology
People
Work specialization,
departmentalization,
chain of command, span of
control, centralization,
formalization, job redesign,
or actual design
Work processes, methods,
and equipment
Attitudes, expectations,
perceptions, and
behavior
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 06 - 32
Managing Change


Initiating Change:
- identifying what organizational areas might
need to be changed
- putting the change process in motion
- managing employee resistance to change
Types of Change
- changing structure - organization’s formal
design, centralization, degree of formalization,
and work specialization
 structural components and structural design
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 07 - 32
Managing Change (cont.)
 Types of Change (cont.)
- changing technology - modifications in the way
work is performed
 alterations in the methods and equipment used
- consequence of competitive factors or
innovations within an industry
- automation - replaces tasks done by people
with machines
- computerization - recent visible changes in
information systems
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 08 - 32
Managing Change (cont.)

Type of Change (cont.)
- changing people - changes in employee
attitudes, expectations, perceptions, and
behavior
 organizational development (OD) techniques or programs to change people
and the nature and quality of interpersonal
work relationships
- intended to help individuals and groups
work together more effectively
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 09 - 32
Organizational Development Techniques
Sensitivity
Training
Survey
Feedback
More
Effective
Interpersonal
Work
Environment
Process
Consultation
Team
Building
Intergroup
Development
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 10 - 32
Managing Change (cont.)

Dealing with Resistance to Change
- Why people resist change
 change replaces the known with ambiguity
and uncertainty
 change threatens investments in the status
quo
 belief that change is incompatible with the
goals and interests of the organization
- Techniques for reducing resistance
 a variety of actions available to managers
to deal with dysfunctional resistance
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 11 - 32
Stimulating Innovation
 Creativity versus Innovation
- creativity - ability to combine ideas in a
unique way or to make unusual
associations between ideas
- innovation - process of transforming
creative ideas into a useful product,
service, or method of operation
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 12 - 32
Systems View Of Innovation
Inputs
Transformation
Outputs
Creative individuals, Creative process Creative product(s)
groups,
Creative situation
organizations
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
Stimulating Innovation (cont.)

Stimulating and Nurturing Innovation
- must focus on inputs
 creative people and groups within the
organization
- requires appropriate environment
 structural variables
- organic design
- plentiful resources
- frequent inter-unit communication
BINA NUSANTARA
13 / 13 - 32
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
Stimulating Innovation (cont.)
13 / 14 - 32
 Stimulating and Nurturing Innovation (cont.)
- requires appropriate environment (cont.)
 cultural variables
- encourage experimentation
- reward success and failures
- celebrate mistakes
 human resource variables
- promote training and development of employees
- offer high job security
- encourage individuals to become idea champions
 self-confident, persistent, risk taking
 energize others with visions of innovation
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
Innovation Variables
BINA NUSANTARA
13 / 15 - 32
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 16 - 32
CHAPTER 18
FOUNDATIONS
OF
CONTROL
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
What Is Control?

13 / 17 - 32
Control
- the process of monitoring activities to ensure that they are
being accomplished as planned and of correcting
significant deviations
- control systems are judged in terms of how well they
facilitate goal achievement
- market control - emphasizes the use of external market
mechanisms to establish standards of performance
 useful where products and services are distinct
 useful where marketplace competition is considerable
 divisions turned into profit centers and judged by the
percentage of total corporate profits each contributes
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 18 - 32
What Is Control? (cont.)

Control
- bureaucratic control - emphasizes organizational
authority
 relies on administrative rules, procedures, and
policies
 depends on standardization of activities, welldefined job descriptions, and other administrative
mechanisms
- clan control - behavior regulated by shared values,
traditions, and other aspects of organizational culture
 dependent on individual and group to identify
expected behaviors and performance measures
 found where teams are common and technology
changes often
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 19 - 32
Why Is Control Important?

Control is the Final Link in the Management Process
- provides the critical link back to planning
- only way managers know whether organizational
goals are being met

Permits Delegation of Authority
- fear that employees will do something wrong for
which the manager will be held responsible
- provides information and feedback on employee
performance
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 20 - 32
The Planning-Controlling Link
Planning
Goals
Objectives
Strategies
Plans
Controlling
Standards
Measurements
Comparisons
Actions
Organizing
Structure
Human Resource
Management
Leading
Motivation
Leadership
Communication
Individual and
Group Behavior
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 21 - 32
The Control Process
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 22 - 32
The Control Process


Background
- controlling is a three-step process
- assumes that performance standards already exist
 specific goals are created in the planning process
Measuring
- How We Measure
 personal observation - permits intensive coverage
- Management By Walking Around (MBWA)
- drawbacks - subject to personal biases
 consumes a great deal of time
 suffers from obtrusiveness
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 23 - 32
The Control Process (cont.)

Measuring (cont.)
- How We Measure (cont.)
 statistical reports - numerical data are easy to
visualize and effective for showing relationships
- drawbacks - not all operations can be
measured
 important subjective factors may be ignored
 oral reports - includes meetings, telephone calls
- may be best way to control work in a virtual
environment
- technology permits creation of written record
from oral report
- drawbacks - filtering of information
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 24 - 32
The Control Process (cont.)

How We Measure (cont.)
- written reports - often more comprehensive
and concise than oral reports
 usually easy to file and retrieve
- comprehensive control efforts should use all
four approaches
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 25 - 32
The Control Process (cont.)
 What We Measure
- what we measure more critical than how we measure
- control criteria applicable to any management situation:
 employee satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover
 keeping costs within budgets
- control system needs to recognize the diversity of
activities
- some activities difficult to measure in quantifiable terms
 most activities can be grouped into some objective
segments that can be measured
 when objective measures are not available, should
rely on subjective measures
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 26 - 32
The Control Process (cont.)

Comparing
- determines the degree of variation between
actual performance and standard
- acceptable range of variation - deviations that
exceed this range become significant
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 27 - 32
The Control Process (cont.)

Taking Managerial Action
- Correct Actual Performance - action taken when the
performance variation is unsatisfactory
 immediate corrective action - corrects problems at
once to get performance back on track
 basic corrective action - identifies reason for
performance variation
- corrects the source of variation
- Revise the Standard - variance results from an
unrealistic standard
 standard, not performance, needs correction
 troublesome to revise the standard downward
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 28 - 32
Managerial Decisions in the Control
Process
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 29 - 32
Types Of Control
Input
Processes
Output
Feedforward
Control
Concurrent
Control
Feedback
Control
Anticipates
problems
Corrects
problems as
they happen
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Corrects
problems after
they occur
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 30 - 32
Types Of Control


Feedforward Control
- prevents anticipated problems
- most desirable type of control
- requires timely and accurate information that often
is difficult to get
Concurrent Control
- takes place while activity is in progress
- corrects problem before it becomes too costly
- best-known form is direct supervision
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
Types of Control (cont.)
13 / 31 - 32
 Feedback Control
- takes place after the activity is done
- problems may already have caused damage or
waste
- the most popular type of control
 feedback may be only viable form of control
available
- feedback has two advantages
 provides meaningful information on the
effectiveness of planning
 can enhance employee motivation
BINA NUSANTARA
F0542 – Manajemen Umum
13 / 32 - 32
Qualities Of An Effective Control System
Corrective
Action
Accuracy
Multiple
Criteria
Emphasis on
Exceptions
Timeliness
EFFECTIVE
CONTROL
SYSTEM
Strategic
Placement
Economy
Flexibility
Reasonable
Criteria
Understandability
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