Neighborhood Racial Isolation, Disorder and Obesity
Virginia W. Chang, University of Pennsylvania
Amy E. Hillier, University of Pennsylvania
Neil K. Mehta, University of Pennsylvania
Recent research suggests that racial residential segregation may
be detrimental to health. This study investigates the influence of
neighborhood racial isolation on obesity and considers the role
of neighborhood disorder as a mediator in this relationship. For
the city of Philadelphia, we find that residence in a neighborhood
with high black racial isolation is associated with a higher body
mass index and higher odds of obesity among women, but not
men, highlighting important sex differences in the influence of
neighborhood structure on health. Furthermore, the influence
of high racial isolation on women’s weight status is mediated, in
part, by the physically disordered nature of such neighborhoods.
Disorder of a more social nature (as measured by incident crime)
is not associated with weight status.
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This research was supported by grant RWJF ID #052210 from the Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation Active Living Research Program and grant K12-HD043459 from the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development. We are grateful to Jason Schnittker,
Theodore Iwashyna and three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and
suggestions. We also thank Mikko Myrskylä for assistance with portions of the analysis.
Early versions of this paper benefited from presentations at the Department of Sociology
Colloquium Series at the University of Pennsylvania, the Department of Health Studies
Seminar Series at the University of Chicago, the Wagner Research Colloquium at New York
University and the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting in 2008. Chang is
with the Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center and the Departments of Medicine and
Sociology at the University of Pennsylvania. Direct correspondence to Virginia W. Chang,
Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 1233 Blockley Hall,
423 Guardian Dr., Philadelphia, PA 19104-6021. E-mail: [email protected].
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Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Individual-Level Variables
Variable
BMI
Obese (BMI 30)
Age (years)
Female
Race/Ethnicity
White
Black
Latino
Asian
Other
Education
Less than HS (0–11 yrs)
HS Graduate (12 yrs)
Some College (13–15 yrs)
College Graduate (16 yrs)
Post College (16 yrs)
Household Income
$15,000
$15,000 $30,000
$30,000 $50,000
$50,000 $70,000
$70,000 or More
Don’t Know/ Missing
Married
Survey Year
2002
2004
Mean (SD) or %
27.3 (6.4)
26.6
46.5 (18.2)
65.8
42.9
38.3
7.8
9.0
2.0
14.3
36.3
21.1
17.3
11.1
18.8
18.9
13.0
14.4
16.8
18.3
40.9
51.8
48.2
Note: N = 6,698.
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Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for Neighborhood Variables
Variables
Mean (SD) or %
Units
% Non-Hispanic Black
High ( 60)
37.4
Medium (20–60)
19.0
Low ( 20)
43.7
% Hispanic
7.7 (14.8)
% Below the Federal Poverty Line 22.8 (14.7)
Population Size
4.29 (2.25) 1000 persons
Physical Disorder
Vacant Residential Properties
5.67 (7.16) # per 100 residential parcels
Vacant Lots
7.94 (10.25) # per 100 parcels
Housing Code Violations
18.45 (23.94) # per 100 occupied housing units
Fires on Property
.57
(.57) # per 100 parcels
PHA-owned Residential Properties 1.73 (5.30) # per 100 residential parcels
Median Residential Sales Price
8.04 (9.49) $10,000
Score (IQ range: -4.10–3.63)
.00 (4.87)
Social Disorder/Crime
Serious Crimes Against Persons
1.37 (1.12) # per 100 persons
Serious Crimes Against Property
6.45 (6.91) # per 100 persons
Criminal Mischief and Vandalism
1.61 (1.18) # per 100 persons
Disorderly Conduct
.44 (1.00) # per 100 persons
Curfew Violations
1.27 (1.33) # per 100 persons
Minor Disturbances
6.70 (4.53) # per 100 persons
Score (IQ range: -3.09–2.83)
.00 (5.21)
Other Covariates
% Park Area
4.81 (8.65)
Recreation Centers
2.00 (3.46) # per square mile
Supermarkets
1.68 (3.57) # per square mile
% Commercial Parcels
4.81 (5.29)
Billboards
15.91 (21.60) # per square mile
Notes: Mean and SD reflect the distribution across census tracts in our sample. Disorder
data are per year and averaged across the years 2000-02. Scores for each dimension of
disorder were computed by summing the z-scores (standardized values) for each of the
six component variables. Residential sales price was reverse-coded in creating the score.
PHA: Philadelphia Housing Authority. IQ: inter-quartile range. N = 348.
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(1.22)
—
.509
(1.66)
.365
(1.28)
—
.956**
(3.32)
.518
(1.83)
—
.992**
(3.53)
.564*
(2.04)
—
Model 2
Social Disorder/ Crime
Estimate for Men
Physical Disorder
Estimate for Women
Population Size
20
% Below Poverty
20–60
20
Estimates for Men:
% Non-Hispanic Black
60
20–60
Neighborhood-Level
Racial Isolation
Estimates for Women:
% Non-Hispanic Black
60
Model 1
Table 3: Models for Body Mass Index
Coefficient (z)
Model 3
Model 4
Model 5
0RGHO LQFOXGHV WKH EODFN UDFLDO LVRODWLRQ DV D QHLJKERUKRRGOHYHO
SUHGLFWRUYDULDEOH$PRQJZRPHQLQFUHDVLQJUDFLDOLVRODWLRQLVDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWKDPRQRWRQLFLQFUHDVHLQ%0,/LYLQJLQDQHLJKERUKRRGZLWKKLJKYV
ORZUDFLDOLVRODWLRQLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDXQLWLQFUHDVHLQ%0,S, GHVSLWHDGMXVWPHQWVIRULQGLYLGXDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQDJHUDFH6(6DQGPDULWDO
tSocial Forces 87(4)
Age2
2.170**
(6.56)
2.160**
(6.54)
2.230**
(6.76)
2.255**
(6.87)
2.207**
(6.72)
Education
Less than HS (0–11 yrs)
-.058
(-.20)
.401**
(16.89)
-.004**
(-16.02)
-.059
(-.20)
.401**
(16.88)
-.004**
(-16.01)
.522*
.520*
(2.11)
(2.10)
.402**
.402**
(16.92)
(16.91)
-.004**
-.004**
(-16.07)
(-16.05)
.338
(1.45)
.404**
(16.95)
-.004**
(-16.07)
Age
White or Other
Asian
Latino
Male
.367
(.95)
.974
(1.84)
-2.740**
(-6.55)
—
.367
(.95)
.977
(1.85)
-2.750**
(-6.58)
—
.274
(.71)
.764
(1.46)
-2.837**
(-6.83)
—
White or Other
Estimates for Men:
Black
Asian
Latino
.205
(.70)
.742
(1.44)
-2.864**
(-7.06)
—
.259
(.67)
.721
(1.38)
-2.868**
(-6.87)
—
2.244**
(8.06)
2.113**
(5.58)
-3.885**
(-9.77)
—
2.249**
(8.08)
2.112**
(5.57)
-3.892**
(-9.80)
—
2.357**
(8.50)
2.343**
(6.24)
-3.877**
(-9.76)
—
2.381**
(8.63)
2.397**
(6.49)
-3.847**
(-9.73)
—
3.037**
(14.81)
2.586**
(7.11)
-3.718**
(-9.46)
—
Individual-Level
Race/Ethnicity
Estimates for Women:
Black
Table 3 continued
Model 1
Model 2
Coefficient (z)
Model 3
Model 4
Model 5
VWDWXV$VSRLQWVRIUHIHUHQFHWKLVGLIIHUHQFHLQ%0,LVFRPSDUDEOHWRWKH
GLIIHUHQFHLQHVWLPDWHG%0,EHWZHHQDKLJKVFKRROJUDGXDWHYVDFROOHJH
JUDGXDWHIURP0RGHOQRWVKRZQLQWDEOHDVZHOODVWKHGLIIHUHQFH
EHWZHHQKDYLQJ,YV>LQKRXVHKROGLQFRPHIURP
0RGHO/LYLQJLQDQHLJKERUKRRGZLWKPHGLXPYVORZLVRODWLRQLV
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKDXQLWLQFUHDVHLQ%0,S, ,QFRQWUDVWWRZRPHQ
WKHUHLVQRVLJQLÀFDQWDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQ%0,DQGUDFLDOLVRODWLRQDPRQJ
PHQ1RVLJQLÀFDQWLQWHUDFWLRQVZHUHIRXQGEHWZHHQUDFLDOLVRODWLRQDQG
LQGLYLGXDOOHYHOUDFHLHWKHLQÁXHQFHRIQHLJKERUKRRGUDFLDOLVRODWLRQRQ
ZHLJKWVWDWXVGLGQRWYDU\E\WKHUDFHRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOUHVLGHQW$OVRQR
VLJQLÀFDQWHIIHFWVZHUHIRXQGIRU+LVSDQLFUDFLDOLVRODWLRQDQGWKHÀQGLQJV
IRUEODFNLVRODWLRQZHUHQRWVHQVLWLYHWRDGMXVWPHQWVIRU+LVSDQLFLVRODWLRQ
0RGHOIXUWKHUDGMXVWVIRUQHLJKERUKRRGSRYHUW\OHYHOVDQGSRSXODWLRQ
VL]H$PRQJZRPHQWKHFRHIÀFLHQWIRUKLJKUDFLDOLVRODWLRQLVVOLJKWO\
DWWHQXDWHGWREXWUHPDLQVVLJQLÀFDQWS ,VXJJHVWLQJWKDW
)
1.409**
(5.20)
.959**
(3.36)
.483
(1.67)
—
(
)
1.447**
(5.34)
.988**
(3.46)
.501
(1.74)
—
(
)
1.438**
(5.30)
.987**
(3.45)
.506
(1.75)
—
(
)
1.388**
(5.11)
.951**
(3.33)
.484
(1.68)
—
(
(
)
1.394**
(5.13)
.953**
(3.34)
.485
(1.68)
—
.745*
.707*
.671*
.637*
.643*
(2.58)
(2.45)
(2.29)
(2.18)
(2.20)
$15,000 $30,000
.394
.374
.349
.332
.338
(1.44)
(1.37)
(1.27)
(1.21)
(1.23)
$30,000 $40,000
.254
.232
.215
.224
.229
(.89)
(.81)
(.75)
(.78)
(.80)
$40,000 $70,000
.456
.431
.422
.414
.419
(1.68)
(1.59)
(1.55)
(1.53)
(1.54)
Don’t Know/ Missing
.576*
.558*
.539
.527
.530
(2.08)
(2.02)
(1.94)
(1.90)
(1.91)
—
—
—
—
$70,000 or More
—
Married
-.242
-.223
-.217
-.230
-.230
(-1.48)
(-1.36)
(-1.32)
(-1.40)
(-1.41)
Survey Year 2004 (vs. 2002)
-.116
-.126
-.124
-.129
-.129
(-.77)
(-.83)
(-.82)
(-.86)
(-.86)
Notes: Model includes interaction terms between sex and the following variables, neighborhood racial isolation (as measured by the percentage of residents who are non-Hispanic
black), neighborhood physical disorder, and individual-level race. Hence, the coefficients for
these variables are listed separately for women and men. The coefficient for male above is the
main effect of sex. Disorder variables are scaled so that an increase of one unit represents an
increase from the 25th to the 75th percentile of disorder (the inter-quartile range). Percent below poverty is scaled so that one unit represents 10 percentage points. Population size is scaled
so that one unit represents 1,000 persons. *p , .05 **p , .01. N = 6,698.
Post College (16 yrs)
Household Income
$15,000
College Graduate (16 yrs)
Some College (13–15 yrs)
HS Graduate (12 yrs)
*TPMBUJPOt
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UHODWLQJWRWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQRISRYHUW\7KHHVWLPDWHIRUPHGLXPYVORZ
LVRODWLRQLVQRWVLJQLÀFDQW0RGHODGGVSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHUWRWKHPRGHO
$VSUHYLRXVO\QRWHGWKHUHLVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQWLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQ
VH[DQGSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHUVRDVHSDUDWHFRHIÀFLHQWIRUSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHU
LVOLVWHGIRUHDFKVH['LVRUGHUYDULDEOHVDUHVFDOHGVRWKDWWKHFRHIÀFLHQWV
UHSUHVHQWWKHFKDQJHLQ%0,HVWLPDWHGIRUDQLQFUHDVHIURPWKHWKWR
WKSHUFHQWLOHRIGLVRUGHUWKHLQWHUTXDUWLOHUDQJH3K\VLFDOGLVRUGHULV
VLJQLÀFDQWO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWK%0,DPRQJZRPHQEXWQRWDPRQJPHQ
$PRQJZRPHQDQLQWHUTXDUWLOHLQFUHDVHLQSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHULVDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWKDXQLWLQFUHDVHLQ%0,S,)XUWKHUPRUHWKHFRHIÀFLHQWIRU
KLJKUDFLDOLVRODWLRQDPRQJZRPHQLVDWWHQXDWHGE\aSHUFHQWDQGLVQR
ORQJHUVLJQLÀFDQWLQ0RGHOVXSSRUWLQJWKHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKHHIIHFWRI
QHLJKERUKRRGUDFLDOLVRODWLRQRQZHLJKWVWDWXVLVPHGLDWHGE\QHLJKERUKRRG
SK\VLFDO GLVRUGHU )LQDOO\ 0RGHO IXUWKHU DGGV VRFLDO GLVRUGHUFULPH
Estimate for Men
Physical Disorder
Estimate for Women
Population Size
20
% Below Poverty
20–60
20
Estimates for Men:
% Non-Hispanic Black
60
20–60
Neighborhood-Level
Racial Isolation
Estimates for Women:
% Non-Hispanic Black
60
-.088
(-.22)
-.167
(-.45)
—
.053
(.80)
.006
(.17)
.142
(.33)
.063
(.16)
—
-.147
(-1.41)
.031
(.84)
1.089**
(3.52)
-.076
(-.21)
1.008**
(3.47)
.527
(1.86)
—
Model 2
.480
(1.53)
.350
(1.22)
—
Model 1
-.151
(-.38)
-.174
(-.47)
—
.057
(.87)
.005
(.13)
.950**
(3.30)
.510
(1.80)
—
Model 3
-.168
(-.43)
-.169
(-.45)
—
.074
(1.10)
.001
(.03)
.927**
(3.21)
.511
(1.80)
—
-.177
(-.44)
-.191
(-.51)
—
.069
(.96)
.000
(.01)
.926**
(3.17)
.498
(1.75)
—
Coefficient (z)
Model 4
Model 5
-.106
(-.27)
-.152
(-.41)
—
.038
(.56)
.008
(.22)
.988**
(3.42)
.534
(1.88)
—
Model 6
Table 4: Models for Body Mass Index with other Selected Neighborhood Covariates
1.119**
(3.59)
-.026
(-.07)
.116
(.26)
.022
(.06)
—
-.137
(-1.30)
.021
(.55)
.474
(1.47)
.330
(1.15)
—
Model 7
tSocial Forces 87(4)
WRWKHPRGHO,QFRQWUDVWWRSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHUVRFLDOGLVRUGHUFULPHLV
QRWVLJQLÀFDQWO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWK%0,DQGWKLVUHPDLQVWKHFDVHHYHQLI
SK\VLFDOGLVRUGHULVH[FOXGHGIURPWKHPRGHO1RVLJQLÀFDQWLQWHUDFWLRQV
ZHUHIRXQGEHWZHHQVH[DQGVRFLDOGLVRUGHURUEHWZHHQUDFHDQGHLWKHU
GLVRUGHUYDULDEOH,QFRPSDULQJ0RGHOZLWK0RGHOLQGLYLGXDOOHYHO
UDFLDOGLVSDULWLHVIRUEODFNDQG/DWLQRZRPHQDUHDWWHQXDWHGE\DGMXVWLQJ
IRUQHLJKERUKRRGFKDUDFWHULVWLFVEXWVLJQLÀFDQWGLVSDULWLHVUHPDLQ7KH
( )
-.073
(-.52)
.205
(1.31)
-.110
(-.86)
-.179
(-1.40)
-.066
(-.62)
.178
(1.18)
)
.005
(.03)
.221
(1.32)
-.225
(-1.62)
-.092
(-.69)
-.163
(-1.26)
.231
(1.40)
(
Note: All models adjust for individual age, race, education, income, marital status and survey year. Models
include interaction terms between sex and the following variables: individual-level race, neighborhood racial
isolation, and neighborhood physical disorder. Variables for disorder, park area, recreation centers, supermarkets,
commercial parcels, and billboards are scaled so that a change of one unit represents an increase from the 25th to
the 75th percentile (the inter-quartile range). Percent below poverty variable is scaled so that a change of one unit
represents an increase of 10 percentage points. Population size is scaled so that one unit represents 1,000 persons.
*p , .05 **p , .01. N = 6,698.
Billboards
% Commercial Parcels
Supermarkets
Recreation Centers
% Park Area
Social Disorder/ Crime
*TPMBUJPOt
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WKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ/DWLQRYVZKLWHZRPHQLVUHGXFHGE\SHUFHQW
,Q7DEOHZHFRQVLGHUZKHWKHURXUPDLQPRGHOLVVHQVLWLYHWRWKH
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tSocial Forces 87(4)
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WKHQHZYDULDEOHVVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WR0RGHODQGVKRZWKDWRXUHVWLPDWH
IRUSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHULVUREXVWWRWKHDGGLWLRQRIVHYHUDONH\QHLJKERUKRRG
FRQWUROV0RUHRYHUWKHDGGLWLRQRIVXFKFRQWUROVGRHVQRWDGGPXFKZLWK
UHVSHFWWRWKHDWWHQXDWLRQRIWKHLVRODWLRQHVWLPDWH
Obesity
7DEOHGLVSOD\VPRGHOVWKDWH[DPLQHREHVLW\UDWKHUWKDQ%0,DVWKH
RXWFRPHDQGWKHUHVXOWVVKRZDVLPLODUSDWWHUQ,Q0RGHOKLJKUDFLDO
LVRODWLRQLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDSHUFHQWLQFUHDVHLQWKHRGGVRIEHLQJ
REHVHDPRQJZRPHQS , DGMXVWLQJIRUQHLJKERUKRRGSRYHUW\DQG
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WKHYDULDEOHVIRUSK\VLFDODQGVRFLDOGLVRUGHUFULPHWRWKHPRGHODVZHOO
DVWKHÀYHRWKHUVHOHFWHGQHLJKERUKRRGIDFWRUV2XUVHQVLWLYLW\DQDO\VLV
RI XQPHDVXUHG FRQIRXQGLQJ VHH QH[W VHFWLRQ UHTXLUHV D FDWHJRULFDO
LQGHSHQGHQW H[SRVXUH YDULDEOH RI LQWHUHVW +HQFH 0RGHO VKRZV
SK\VLFDOGLVRUGHUPRGHOHGZLWKTXDUWLOHVWRSURYLGHEDVHOLQHHVWLPDWHVIRU
RXUVHQVLWLYLW\DQDO\VLV7KHHIIHFWRIUDFLDOLVRODWLRQLVQRORQJHUVLJQLÀFDQW
LQ0RGHODQGSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHUVKRZVDPRQRWRQLFSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLS
ZLWKREHVLW\7KRVHLQWKHWKKLJKHVWTXDUWLOHKDYHSHUFHQWKLJKHU
RGGVRIREHVLW\UHODWLYHWRWKHVWORZHVWTXDUWLOHS,DQGWKRVHLQ
WKHUGTXDUWLOHKDYHSHUFHQWKLJKHURGGVS, 6RFLDOGLVRUGHUFULPH
DQGWKHRWKHUQHLJKERUKRRGFRYDULDWHVDUHDJDLQQRWVLJQLÀFDQWZLWKWKH
H[FHSWLRQRISHUFHQWFRPPHUFLDOSDUFHOVZKLFKLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKORZHU
RGGVRIREHVLW\/DVWO\ÀQGLQJVIRUPRGHOVRI%0,DQGREHVLW\ZHUHQRW
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Sensitivity Analyses for Unmeasured Confounding
'HVSLWHDGMXVWPHQWVIRUDODUJHQXPEHURIobservedFRYDULDWHVZHIXUWKHU
FRQVLGHUWKHVHQVLWLYLW\RIRXUUHVXOWVWRDGMXVWPHQWIRUDhypothetical
unmeasuredFRQIRXQGHU/LQ3VDW\DQG.URQPDO6FKQHHZHLVV
7DEOHVKRZVKRZHVWLPDWHVIURP0RGHORI7DEOHIRUWKHDVVRFLDWLRQ
EHWZHHQSK\VLFDOGLVRUGHUDQGREHVLW\DPRQJZRPHQ25VIRUUGDQGWK
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DK\SRWKHWLFDOFRQIRXQGHU&ZLWKYDULRXVFKDUDFWHULVWLFV:HYDU\WKH
VWUHQJWKRIWKHDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQ&DQGREHVLW\25&REHVLW\
WRDVZHOODVWKHSUHYDOHQFHRI&WRLQWKHGLVRUGHUFDWHJRU\
TXDUWLOHXQGHUFRQVLGHUDWLRQ$GGLWLRQDOO\ZHDVVXPHWKDWWKHSUHYDOHQFH
RI&LVSHUFHQWKLJKHULQWKHGLVRUGHUFDWHJRU\XQGHUFRQVLGHUDWLRQ
*TPMBUJPOt
Table 5: Models for Obesity: Neighborhood-Level Estimates
Model 1
Coeff. (z)
OR
Model 2
Coeff. (z)
OR
Racial Isolation
Estimates for Women:
% Non-Hispanic Black
.109 (.89) 1.11
60
.298 (2.77) 1.35**
20–60
.181 (1.65) 1.20
.106 (.93) 1.11
—
—
—
—
—
—
20
Estimates for Men:
% Non-Hispanic Black
.150 (.83) 1.16
60
.098 (.61) 1.10
20–60
-.065 (-.40)
.94
.008 (.05) 1.01
—
—
—
—
—
—
20
-.024 (-.60)
% Below Poverty
.050 (1.95) 1.05
.98
-.007 (-.45)
Population Size
-.011 (-.78)
.99
.99
Physical Disorder in Quartiles
Estimates for Women:
.576 (3.16) 1.78**
4th Quartile
.452 (3.08) 1.57**
3rd Quartile
.211 (1.90) 1.24
2nd Quartile
—
—
—
1st Quartile (lowest)
Estimates for Men:
.070 (.31) 1.07
4th Quartile
-.080 (-.42)
.92
3rd Quartile
.016 (.11) 1.02
2nd Quartile
—
—
—
1st Quartile (lowest)
.057 (.88) 1.06
Social Disorder/ Crime
.017 (.26) 1.02
% Park Area
-.005 (-.08) 1.00
Recreation Centers
.022 (.41) 1.02
Supermarkets
-.114 (-2.22)
% Commercial Parcels
.89*
.061 (.92) 1.06
Billboards
Note: All models adjust for individual age, race, education, income, marital status
and survey year. Models include interaction terms between sex and the following
variables: individual-level race, neighborhood racial isolation, and neighborhood
physical disorder. Percent below poverty variable is scaled so that a change of one
unit represents an increase of 10 percentage points. Variables for social disorder, park
area, recreation centers, supermarkets, commercial parcels, and billboards are scaled
so that a change of one unit represents an increase from the 25th to the 75th percentile
(the inter-quartile range). Population size is scaled so that one unit represents 1,000
persons. *p < .5 **p < .01. N = 6,698.
tSocial Forces 87(4)
Table 6: Sensitivity Analysis of the Effect of Unmeasured Confounding on
the Association between Physical Disorder and Obesity among Women
(C = Confounder)
OR Disorder-Obesity Adjusted
for Confounderc
Prevalence C in
OR C-Obesitya
3rd Quartile
4th Quartile
Disorder Categoryb
1.50
.0
1.57**
1.78**
1.50
.2
1.52**
1.72**
1.50
.4
1.48**
1.68**
1.50
.6
1.45*
1.64**
1.75
.0
1.57**
1.78**
1.75
.2
1.50**
1.70**
1.75
.4
1.45*
1.64**
1.75
.6
1.41*
1.59*
2.00
.0
1.57**
1.78**
2.00
.2
1.48**
1.68**
2.00
.4
1.42*
1.61**
2.00
.6
1.37*
1.56*
Notes:
a
Odds ratio (association) between the hypothetical confounder and obesity.
b
Prevalence of the hypothetical confounder in the disorder category under
consideration (3rd quartile or 4th quartile).
c
Odds ratios for the association between physical disorder and obesity (3rd quartile
disorder [vs. 1st] and 4th quartile [vs. 1st]) after adjusting for the hypothetical
confounder.
The prevalence of the hypothetical confounder is assumed to be 50 percent higher
in the disorder category under consideration than in the base category (1st quartile
disorder). *p , .05 **p , .01.
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Discussion
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References
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ZLWK:DONLQJIRU([HUFLVHDPRQJ$XVWUDOLDQ$GXOWVµPreventive Medicine
%DQGXUD $OEHUW Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social
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