governors
Gubernatorial Elections, Campaign Costs and Powers
By Thad Beyle
Only two governorships were contested and decided in the elections of 2005—those in New Jersey and Virginia. In both political situations the races seemed very close in the campaign “horserace” polls, yet in the final vote count, the Democratic candidates won by nearly nine points in
New Jersey and by nearly six points in Virginia. This continued the Democratic Party’s control
over these two gubernatorial chairs and left the 50 states split with 28 Republican governors and
22 Democratic governors holding office in 2006.
Governors remain in the forefront of activity as we
move into the 21st century. With Republican governors across the country serving as his major supporters and guides, Texas Gov. George W. Bush sought
and won the presidency in the 2000 election. He
became the fourth of the last five presidents who had
served as governor just prior to seeking and winning
the presidency.1 When George H. W. Bush, a nongovernor, won the 1988 presidential election, he beat
a governor, Michael Dukakis (D-Mass., 1975–1979
and 1983–1991). Clearly, governors have been key
players in presidential politics in the three decades
following the Watergate scandal.
Additionally, the demands on governors to propose state budgets and then keep them in balance
during the two recessions of the early 1990s and now
in the early 2000s have made the governor’s chair
a “hot seat” in more ways than one.2 In the current
downturn, governors have moved from the halfdecade of economic boom of the late 1990s, in which
they could propose tax cuts and program increases,
to an economic downturn period in which there is
increasing demand for program support while state
tax revenues fell off significantly. Proposed and
adopted budgets fell victim to severe revenue shortfalls in most states. As we entered 2006, signs of an
upturn in the economy eased some of the budgetary
problems that governors have faced.
2005 Gubernatorial Politics
Only two governorships were contested and decided
in the elections of 2005—those in New Jersey and
Virginia. In both political situations the races seemed
very close in the campaign “horse-race” polls, yet in
the final vote count, the Democratic candidates won
by nearly nine points in New Jersey and by nearly
six points in Virginia. This continued the Democratic
Party’s control over these two gubernatorial chairs and
left the 50 states split with 28 Republican governors
and 22 Democratic governors holding office in 2006.
Incumbents did not seek another term in these races as
Virginia only allows a governor to serve a single term
and New Jersey’s acting Gov. Richard Codey, a Democrat, opted not to seek election to a full term. Codey,
as president of the New Jersey Senate, had ascended
to the governorship in 2004 when Democratic Gov.
Jim McGreevey stepped down for personal reasons.
Both races were for an open seat, which U.S. Sen. Jon
Corzine, a Democrat, won in New Jersey and Democratic Lt. Gov. Timothy Kaine won in Virginia.
One other new governor was sworn in Jan. 21,
2005—Nebraska Republican Dave Heineman. As
lieutenant governor, he ascended to the governorship upon the resignation of incumbent Republican
Gov. Mike Johanns, who was appointed by President
Bush and sworn in as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture.
In March 2006, Gov. Dirk Kempthorne, (R-Idaho),
was appointed U.S. Interior Secretary by President
George W. Bush. Upon his confirmation by the
U.S. Senate and resignation as governor, Republican Lt. Gov. Jim Risch will be sworn in as Idaho’s
31st governor to fill out the rest of the last year of
Kempthorne’s term.
Gubernatorial Elections
As can be seen in Table A, in the 483 gubernatorial
elections held between 1970 and 2005, incumbents
were eligible to seek another term in 368 (76 percent) of the contests. Of the 286 (78 percent) eligible
incumbents seeking re-election, 211 succeeded (74
percent). Those who were defeated for re-election
were more likely to lose in the general election than in
their own party primary by a 2.9-to-1 ratio, although
two of the four incumbent losses in 2004 were tied
to party primaries. Not since 1994 had an incumbent
governor been defeated in his party’s primary.
Democratic candidates held a winning edge in the
elections held between 1970 and 2005 (55 percent).
In 195 races (40 percent), the results led to a party
shift in which a candidate other than the incumbent
The Council of State Governments 143
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governors
Table A: Gubernatorial Elections: 1970–2005
Number of incumbent governors
Year
Lost
Democratic
winner
Eligible to run
Actually ran
Won
Number
In general
of races Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent In primary election
1970
1971
1972
1973
35
3
18
2
22
3
11
1
63
100
61
50
29
0
15
1
83
. . .
83
50
24
. . .
11
1
83
. . .
73
100
16
. . .
7
. . .
67
. . .
64
. . .
8
. . .
4
1
33
. . .
36
100
1 (a)
. . .
2 (c)
1 (e)
7 (b)
...
2 (d)
...
1974
1975
1976
1977
35
3
14
2
27 (f)
3
9
1
77
100
64
50
29
2
12
1
83
66
86
50
22
2
8
1
76
100
67
100
17
2
5
1
77
100
63
100
5
. . .
3
. . .
23
. . .
38
. . .
1 (g)
. . .
1 (i)
. . .
4 (h)
...
2 (j)
...
1978
1979
1980
1981
36
3
13
2
21
2
6
1
58
67
46
50
29
0
12
0
81
. . .
92
. . .
23
. . .
12
. . .
79
. . .
100
. . .
16
. . .
7
. . .
70
. . .
58
. . .
7
. . .
5
. . .
30
. . .
42
. . .
2 (k)
. . .
2 (m)
. . .
5 (l)
...
3 (n)
...
1982
1983
1984
1985
36
3
13
2
27
3
5
1
75
100
38
50
33
1
9
1
92
33
69
50
25
1
6
1
76
100
67
100
19
. . .
4
1
76
. . .
67
100
6
1
2
. . .
24
100
33
. . .
1 (o)
1 (q)
. . .
. . .
5 (p)
...
2 (r)
...
1986
1987
1988
1989
36
3
12
2
19
3
5
2
53
100
42
100
24
2
9
0
67
67
75
. . .
18
1
9
. . .
75
50
100
. . .
15
. . .
8
. . .
83
. . .
89
. . .
3
1
1
. . .
17
100
11
. . .
1 (s)
1 (u)
. . .
. . .
2 (t)
...
1 (v)
...
1990
1991
1992
1993
36
3
12
2
19 (w)
2
8
0
53
67
67
0
33
2
9
1
92
67
75
50
23
2
4
1
70
100
44
100
17
. . .
4
. . .
74
. . .
100
. . .
6
2
. . .
1
26
100
. . .
100
. . .
1 (y)
. . .
. . .
6 (x)
1 (z)
...
1 (aa)
1994
1995
1996
1997
36
3
11
2
11 (bb)
1
7
0
31
33
36
0
30
2
9
1
83
67
82
50
23
1
7
1
77
50
78
100
17
1
7
1
74
100
100
100
6
. . .
. . .
. . .
26
. . .
. . .
. . .
2 (cc)
. . .
. . .
. . .
4 (dd)
...
...
...
1998
1999
2000
2001
36
3
11
2
11 (ee) 31
2
67
8
73
2
100
27
2
7
0
75
67
88
. . .
25
2
6
. . .
93
100
86
. . .
23
2
5
. . .
92
100
83
. . .
2
. . .
1
. . .
8
. . .
17
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
2 (ff)
...
1 (gg)
...
2002
2003
2004
2005
36
4 (ii)
11
2
14
1
6
2
22
2
11
1
61
50
100
50
16
2
8
. . .
73
100
73
. . .
12
. . .
4
. . .
75
. . .
50
. . .
4
2
4
. . .
25
100
50
. . .
. . .
. . .
2 (kk)
. . .
4 (hh)
2 (jj)
2 (ll)
...
19
25.3
56
74.7
Totals:
Number
Percent
483
100
39
25
55
100
266
55.1
368
76.2
286
77.7
Source: The Council of State Governments, The Book of the States, 2005,
(Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 2005), 192, updated.
Key:
(a) Albert Brewer, D-Ala.
(b) Keith Miller, R-Alaska; Winthrop Rockefeller, R-Ark.; Claude
Kirk, R-Fla.; Don Samuelson, R-Idaho; Norbert Tieman, R-Neb.; Dewey
Bartlett, R-Okla.; Frank Farrar, R-S.D.
(c) Walter Peterson, R-N.H.; Preston Smith, D-Texas.
(d) Russell Peterson, R-Del.; Richard Ogilvie, R-Ill.
(e) William Cahill, R-N.J.
(f) One independent candidate won: James Longley of Maine.
(g) David Hall, D-Okla.
(h) John Vanderhoof, R-Colo.; Francis Sargent, R-Mass.; Malcolm
Wilson, R-N.Y.; John Gilligan, D-Ohio.
(i) Dan Walker, D-Ill.
(j) Sherman Tribbitt, D-Del.; Christopher ‘Kit’ Bond, R-Mo.
(k) Michael Dukakis, D-Mass.; Dolph Briscoe, D-Texas.
(l) Robert F. Bennett, R-Kan.; Rudolph G. Perpich, D-Minn.; Meldrim
Thompson, R-N.H.; Robert Straub, D-Oreg.; Martin J. Schreiber, D-Wis.
(m) Thomas L. Judge, D-Mont.; Dixy Lee Ray, D-Wash.
(n) Bill Clinton, D-Ark.; Joseph P. Teasdale, D-Mo.; Arthur A. Link, D-N.D.
(o) Edward J. King, D-Mass.
(p) Frank D. White, R-Ark.; Charles Thone, R-Neb.; Robert F. List,
R-Nev.; Hugh J. Gallen, D-N.H.; William P. Clements, R-Texas.
(q) David Treen, R-La.
(r) Allen I. Olson, R-N.D.; John D. Spellman, R-Wash.
(s) Bill Sheffield, D-Alaska.
211
73.8
75
26.2
(t) Mark White, D-Texas; Anthony S. Earl, D-Wis.
(u) Edwin Edwards, D-La.
(v) Arch A. Moore, R-W. Va.
(w) Two Independent candidates won: Walter Hickel (Alaska) and Lowell
Weiker (Conn.). Both were former statewide Republican office holders.
(x) Bob Martinez, R-Fla.; Mike Hayden, R-Kan.; James Blanchard, D-Mich.;
Rudy Perpich, DFL-Minn.; Kay Orr, R-Neb.; Edward DiPrete, R-R.I.
(y) Buddy Roemer, R-La.
(z) Ray Mabus, D-Miss.
(aa) James Florio, D-N.J.
(bb) One Independent candidate won: Angus King of Maine.
(cc) Bruce Sundlun, D-R.I.; Walter Dean Miller, R-S.D.
(dd) James E. Folsom Jr., D-Ala.; Bruce King, D-N.M.; Mario Cuomo,
D-N.Y.; Ann Richards, D-Texas.
(ee) Two Independent candidates won: Angus King of Maine and Jesse
Ventura of Minnesota.
(ff) Fob James, R-Ala.; David Beasley, R-S.C.
(gg) Cecil Underwood, R-W. Va.
(hh) Don Siegelman, D-Ala.; Roy Barnes, D-Ga., Jim Hodges, D-S.C.;
and Scott McCallum, R-Wis.
(ii) The California recall election and replacement vote of 2003 is included
in the 2003 election totals and as a general election for the last column.
(jj) Gray Davis, D-Calif., Ronnie Musgrove, D-Miss.
(kk) Bob Holden, D-Mo.; Olene Walker, R-Utah, lost in the pre-primary convention.
(ll) Joe Kernan, D-Ind.; Craig Benson, R-N.H.
144 The Book of the States 2006
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governors
won. These party shifts have evened out over the
years so that neither of the two major parties has an
edge. In three of the five party shifts in the 2004 elections, a Democrat won the seat for the first time since
the 1984 election (Montana), and two Republicans
also won the seat for the first time since the 1984
elections (Indiana and Missouri). But there have
been some interesting patterns in these shifts over
the past 35 years of gubernatorial elections.
Between 1970 and 1992, Democrats won 200 of
the 324 races for governor (62 percent). From 1993
to date, Republicans leveled the playing field by winning 94 of the 159 races for governor (59 percent).
Despite this Republican trend, Democratic candidates did win eight of the 11 gubernatorial races in
2000, when Gov. Bush won the presidency in a very
close race, and six of the 11 when Bush won his second term in 2004. But since the 1994 elections there
have been more Republicans than Democrats serving
as governor each year.
Another factor in determining how many governors have served in the states is the number of newlyelected governors who are truly new to the office and
the number who are returning after complying with
constitutional term limits or holding other positions.
Looking at the number of actual new governors taking office over a decade, the average number of new
governors elected dropped from 2.3 new governors
per state in the 1950s to 1.9 in the 1970s and to 1.1 in
the 1980s. In the 1990s, the rate began to move up a
bit to 1.4 new governors per state.
As we move through the first decade of the 21st
century, we continue to find new faces in the governors’ offices. New governors were elected in 45
of 66 elections held between 2000 and 2005 (68
percent). And, two other governors ascended to the
office during 2004 and one in 2005. In 2006, 37 of
the incumbent governors will be serving in their first
term (74 percent). The beginning of the 21st century
has certainly proved to be a time of change in the
governors’ offices across the 50 states.
The New Governors
Over the 2002–2005 cycle of gubernatorial elections and resignations, there were several different
routes to the governor’s chair by the elected governors and those who have ascended to the office.
First were the 12 new governors who had previously
held statewide office. These include: four attorneys
general—Janet Napolitano (D-Ariz.), Jennifer Granholm (D-Mich.), Christine Gregoire (D-Wash.) and
Jim Doyle (R-Wisc.); four lieutenant governors—M.
Jodi Rell (R-Conn.), Kathleen Blanco (D-La.), Dave
Heineman (R-Neb.) and Timothy Kaine (D-Va.); two
secretaries of state—Matt Blunt (R-Mo.) and Joe
Manchin (D-W.Va.); one state insurance commissioner—Kathleen Sebelius (D-Kan.); and one state
treasurer—James Douglas (R-Vt.).
Second were the nine members or former members of Congress who returned to work within their
state. These included U.S. Sens. Frank Murkowski
(R-Alaska) and Jon Corzine (D-N. J.), and Congressmen Bob Riley (R-Ala.), Rod Blagojevich (D-Ill.),
Ernie Fletcher (R-Ky.), John Baldacci (D-Maine),
Robert Ehrlich (R-Md.), and Mark Sanford (R-S.C.).
Former Congressman Bill Richardson (D-N.M.) had
also served as an administrator in the Clinton administration. And Brian Schweitzer (D-Mont.), who had
unsuccessfully sought a U.S. Senate seat in 2000 as
the Democratic candidate, turned that around to win
the governorship in 2004.
Third were the five legislators or former legislators who moved up from a district to a statewide
office. These included Sonny Perdue (a Republican
from the Georgia Senate), Tim Pawlenty (a Republican from the Minnesota House), Brad Henry (a
Democrat from the Oklahoma Senate), Mike Rounds
(a Republican from the South Dakota Senate), and as
noted earlier Richard Codey (a Democrat from the
New Jersey Senate).
Fourth were four from the business sector: Craig Benson (R-N.H., 2002), John Lynch (D-N.H., 2004), Don
Carcieri (R-R.I.) and John Huntsman Jr. (R-Utah).
Fifth were the three mayors or former mayors:
Linda Lingle (R-Maui, Hawaii), Ed Rendell (D-Philadelphia, Pa.) and Phil Bredesen (D-Nashville, Tenn.).
Finally, were the six new governors who followed
a unique path compared to their counterparts: actorbusinessman Arnold Schwarzenegger (R-Calif.),
former head of the Federal Office of Management
and Budget Mitch Daniels (R-Ind.), the 2000 Winter
Olympics Chairman Mitt Romney (R-Mass.), former
Republican Party National Chairman Haley Barbour
(R-Miss.), former state Supreme Court Justice Ted
Kulongoski (D-Ore.) and former U.S. Attorney Dave
Freudenthal (D-Wyo.).
In the 373 gubernatorial races between 1977 and
2005, among the candidates were 101 lieutenant governors (29 won), 84 attorneys general (21 won), 27
secretaries of state (seven won), 22 state treasurers
(six won) and 14 state auditors, auditors general or
comptrollers (three won). Looking at these numbers
from a bettor’s point of view, the odds of a lieutenant
governor winning were 3.5-to-1, an attorney general
4.0-to-1, a secretary of state 3.9-to-1, a state treasurer
3.7-to-1 and a state auditor 4.7-to-1.
The Council of State Governments 145
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governors
Table B: Total Cost of Gubernatorial Elections: 1977–2004
(in thousands of dollars)
Year
Total campaign costs
Number
of races
Actual $
2004$ (a)
Average cost
per state (2004$)
Percent change in
similar elections (b)
1977
1978
1979
1980
2
36
3
13
12,312
102,342
32,744
35,634
38,840
300,125
86,167
82,677
19,420
8,337
28,722
6,360
N.A.
N.A. (c)
N.A.
N.A.
1981
1982
1983
1984
2
36
3
13
24,648
181,832
39,966
47,156
51,782
360,064
76,710
86,683
25,891
10,002
25,570
6,668
+33
+20 (d)
-11
+5
1985
1986
1987
1988
2
36
3
12 (e)
18,859
270,605
40,212
52,208
33,497
471,438
67,583
84,343
16,748
13,095
22,528
7,029
-35
+31
-12
-3
1989
1990
1991
1992
2
36
3
12
47,902
345,493
34,564
60,278
73,809
505,107
48,477
82,011
36,905
14,031
16,159
6,834
+120
+7
-28
-3
1993
1994
1995
1996
2
36
3
11 (f)
36,195
417,873
35,693
68,610
47,814
538,496
44,728
85,019
23,907
14,958
14,909
7,729
-35
+7
-8
+4
1997
1998
1999
2000
2
36
3
11
44,823
470,326
16,277
97,098
53,045
548,166
18,666
107,647
26,522
15,227
6,222
9,786
+11
+2
-58
+27
2001
2002
2003
2004
2
36
3
11
70,400
839,650
69,939
112,625
75,944
891,348
72,626
112,625
37,972
24,760
24,209
10,239
+43
+63
+289
+4.6
Source: Thad Beyle.
(a) Developed from the Table, “Historical Consumer Price Index for All
Urban Consumers (CPI-U),” Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department
of Labor. Each year’s actual expenditures are converted to the 2004$ value
of the dollar to control for the effect of inflation over the period.
(b) This represents the percent increase or decrease in 2004$ over
the last bank of similar elections, i.e., 1977 v. 1981, 1978 v. 1982, 1979
v. 1983, etc.
(c) The data for 1978 are a particular problem as the two sources compiling data on this year’s elections did so in differing ways that excluded
some candidates. The result is that the numbers for 1978 under-represent
One other unique aspect about the current governors is that there will be eight women serving as
governor in 2006—one less than the nine women
serving as governor in the last half of 2004, which
was the all-time high for women governors serving
at the same time. Seven are women elected in their
own right: Janet Napolitano (D-Ariz.), Ruth Ann
Minner (D-Del.), Linda Lingle (R-Hawaii), Kathleen
Sebelius (D-Kan.), Kathleen Blanco (D-La.), Jennifer Granholm (D-Mich.) and Christine Gregoire
(D-Wash.). The other is M. Jodi Rell of Connecticut,
the actual costs of these elections by some unknown amount. The sources
are: Rhodes Cook and Stacy West, “1978 Advantage,” CQ Weekly Report,
(1979): 1757–1758, and The Great Louisiana Spendathon (Baton Rouge:
Public Affairs Research Council, March 1980).
(d) This particular comparison with 1978 is not what it would appear to
be for the reasons given in note (c). The amount spent in 1978 was more
than indicated here so the increase is really not as great as it appears.
(e) As of the 1986 election, Arkansas switched to a four-year term for
the governor, hence the drop from 13 to 12 for this off-year.
(f) As of the 1994 election, Rhode Island switched to a four-year term
for the governor, hence the drop from 12 to 11 for this off-year.
who became governor upon the resignation of Gov.
John Rowland. While gubernatorial politics continues to be volatile, women continue to hold their own
in these races. In the 2002–2005 gubernatorial races,
seven of the 12 women running either as the incumbent or as the candidate of a major party won—a 58
percent success rate. There will be more soon.3
Timing of Gubernatorial Elections
The election cycle for governors has settled into a
regular pattern. Over the past few decades, many
146 The Book of the States 2006
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governors
states have moved their elections to the off-presidential election years to decouple the state and national
campaigns. Now, only 11 states hold their gubernatorial elections in the same year as a presidential
election. Two of these states—New Hampshire and
Vermont—still have two-year terms for their governor so their elections alternate between presidential
and the even non-presidential years.
As can be seen in Table A, the year following a
presidential election has only two states with gubernatorial elections.4 Then in the even years between
presidential elections, 36 states hold their gubernatorial elections, and in the year before a presidential
election, three Southern states hold their gubernatorial elections.5
Cost of Gubernatorial Elections
Table C presents data on the costs of the most recent
elections. There is a wide range in how much these
races cost, from the all-time most expensive race
recorded in New York in 2002 ($155.8 million in
2004 dollars) to the low-cost 2004 race in Vermont
($1,201,530 in 2004 dollars). Both the New York
and the Vermont races saw an incumbent Republican
governor successfully win re-election.
But if we look at how much was spent by all the
candidates per general election vote, a slightly different
picture evolves. In 2004, the West Virginia governor’s
race was the most expensive at $15.52 per vote, followed by the Indiana race at $13.08 per vote. Both of
these races were for an open seat. The most expensive
governor’s race per vote in the 2001–2004 cycle was in
New Hampshire’s 2002 race when the candidates spent
$45.41 per vote in 2004 dollars. The least expensive
race during the same cycle was in Minnesota’s 2002
race when the candidates spent only $2.81 per vote.
In Figure A, by converting the actual dollars spent
each year into the equivalent 2004 dollars, we see
how the cost of these elections has increased over
time. Since 1981, we have been able to compare the
costs of each four-year cycle of elections with the
previous cycle of elections.
In the 54 elections held between 1977 and 1980, the
total expenditures were $507.8 million in equivalent
2004 dollars. In the 53 elections held between 2001
and 2004—just over two decades later—the total
expenditures were a bit over $1.14 billion in 2004 dollars, an increase of 125 percent. The greatest increases
in expenditures were between the 1977–1980 and the
1987–1990 cycles, when there was a 43.9 percent
Figure A: Gubernatorial Elections Expenditures (by millions)
1200
$1,143
2004 Dollars (in millions)
1000
800
$657
600
$709
$716
$728
1989–1992
1993–1996
1997–2000
$575
$508
400
200
0
1977–1980
1981–1984
1985–1988
2001–2004
Source: Thad Beyle.
The Council of State Governments 147
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governors
Table C: Cost of Gubernatorial Campaigns, Most Recent Elections, 2000–2004
Total campaign expenditures
Winner
State
Year
Winner
Point
margin
All candidates
(2004$)
Percent of all
expenditures
Vote
percent
Alabama................ Alaska.................... Arizona.................. Arkansas................ California.............. 2002
2002
2002
2002
2002
R★★★
R#
D#
R★
D★
+0.3
+15
+1
+6
+4.9
$33,512,464
5,672,033
8,085,414
4,790,362
116,314,901
24.51
25.01
6.59
5.94
15.56
$14,700,611
1,835,582
2,439,470
2,898,362
68,169,007
43.9
32.4
30.2
60.5
58.6
49.2
55.9
46.2
53.0
47.3
Colorado................ Connecticut........... Delaware................ Florida................... Georgia.................. 2002
2002
2004
2002
2002
R★
R★
D★
R#
R★★★
+29
+12
+5.1
+13
+5
6,426,516
8,353,753
2,645,766
18,216,101
25,752,306
4.55
8.17
7.25
3.57
12.70
5,116,110
6,493,702
1,764,586
8,094,338
3,880,257
79.6
77.7
66.7
44.4
15.1
62.6
56.1
50.9
56.0
51.4
Hawaii.................... Idaho...................... Illinois.................... Indiana................... Iowa....................... 2002
2002
2002
2004
2002
R#
R★
D#
R★★★
D★
+4
+14
+8
+5.3
+8
10,041,642
2,374,205
51,768,316
32,028,028
13,958,685
26.28
5.77
14.63
13.08
13.61
5,741,536
1,181,847
23,789,347
16,829,092
6,424,202
57.2
49.8
46.0
52.5
46.0
51.1
56.3
52.2
50.8
52.7
Kansas................... Kentucky............... Louisiana............... Maine..................... Maryland............... 2002
2003
2003
2002
2002
D#
R#
D#
D#
R#
+8
+10
+3.8
+5.6
+3.9
16,201,626
11,872,641
40,427,109
4,595,672
5,452,542
19.39
10.96
28.72
9.10
3.20
4,631,042
5,917,266
6,871,733
1,681,932
2,689,846
28.6
49.8
17.0
36.6
49.3
52.9
55.0
51.9
47.1
51.6
Massachusetts....... Michigan................ Minnesota.............. Mississippi............. Missouri................. 2002
2002
2002
2003
2004
R#
D★★★
R#
R★★★
R★★
+5
+4
+8
+7
+2.9
32,486,102
16,228,800
6,334,174
20,326,276
15,526,723
14.63
5.11
2.81
22.72
5.71
9,937,370
9,336,445
2,681,285
11,721,105
4,287,730
30.6
57.5
42.3
57.7
31.1
49.8
51.4
44.4
52.6
50.8
Montana................ Nebraska................ Nevada................... New Hampshire..... New Jersey............. 2004
2002
2002
2004
2001
D#
R★
R★
D★★★
D#
+4.4
+41
+46
+2.1
+15
3,790,902
1,697,424
2,883,964
5,735,434
39,452,688
8.50
3.53
5.72
8.61
17.71
1,726,951
1,287,850
2,806,829
2,977,714
16,414,420
45.6
75.9
97.3
51.9
41.6
50.4
68.7
68.1
51.0
56.4
New Mexico........... New York............... North Carolina...... North Dakota........ Ohio....................... 2002
2002
2004
2004
2002
D#
R★
D★
R★
R★
+15
+16
+13
+44
+20
10,639,323
155,787,222
18,178,511
1,395,649
15,362,890
21.97
33.21
5.21
8.82
4.76
7,777,598
46,909,872
8,227,561
1,245,918
13,623,911
73.1
30.1
45.3
48.7
88.7
55.5
48.2
55.6
55.0
57.8
Oklahoma.............. Oregon................... Pennsylvania......... Rhode Island......... South Carolina...... 2002
2002
2002
2002
2002
D#
D#
D#
R#
R★★★
+0.7
+2.8
+9
+10
+6
11,912,260
16,041,053
69,151,599
7,350,029
31,432,056
11.50
12.73
19.31
22.15
28.58
3,430,690
4,424,201
41,574,906
2,592,029
7,597,776
28.8
27.6
60.1
35.3
24.2
43.3
49.0
53.4
54.8
52.8
South Dakota......... Tennessee............... Texas...................... Utah....................... Vermont................. 2002
2002
2002
2004
2004
R#
D#
R★
R★★
R★
+15
+3
+18
+16
+21
9,833,246
18,255,080
112,055,236
6,298,295
1,201,530
29.39
11.04
24.61
6.85
3.88
1,724,149
10,364,483
29,617,542
3,276,294
681,662
17.5
56.8
26.4
52.0
56.7
56.8
50.6
57.8
57.7
58.7
Virginia.................. Washington............ West Virginia......... Wisconsin.............. Wyoming................ 2001
2004
2004
2002
2002
D#
D#
D#
D★★★
D#
+5
+0.005
+29.6
+3.7
+2.1
36,491,411
14,270,735
11,553,283
18,158,028
2,735,552
19.34
5.08
15.52
10.23
14.75
21,555,447
6,210,217
3,540,719
5,866,573
781,845
59.1
43.5
30.6
32.3
29.0
52.2
48.9
63.5
45.1
50.0
Source: Thad Beyle.
Note: 2004$ – Using the November 2004 CPI Index which was 1.910
of the 1982–84 Index = 1,000, the actual 2000 expenditures were based
on a 1.722 value or .901 of the 2004$ index, the actual 2001 expenditures were based on a 1.771 index value or .927 of the 2004$ index, the
actual 2002 expenditures were based on a 1.799 index value or .942 of
the 2004$ index, and the 2003 expenditures were based on a 1.840 index
value or .963 of the 2004$ index. Then the actual expenditures of each
state’s governor’s race were divided by the .9 value for that year to get
the equivalent 2004$ value of those expenditures.
Cost per vote
(2004$)
Spent (2004$)
Key:
D — Democrat
I — Independent
R — Republican
# — Open seat
★ — Incumbent ran and won.
★★ — Incumbent ran and lost in party primary.
★★★ — Incumbent ran and lost in general election.
148 The Book of the States 2006
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governors
increase, and between the 1992–1995 and the 2001–
2004 cycles when there was a 60.3 percent increase.
These increases reflect the new style of campaigning for governor—with the candidates developing
their own personal party by using outside consultants, opinion polls, media ads and buys, and extensive fundraising efforts to pay for it all. This style
has now reached most every state. Few states will be
surprised by a high-price, high-tech campaign; they
are commonplace now. The “air-war” campaigns
have replaced the “ground-war” campaigns across
the states.
Another factor has been the increasing number
of candidates who are either wealthy or who have
access to wealth and are willing to spend some of this
money to become governor. For some, spending a lot
of money leads to winning the governor’s chair. In
2002, Gov. Gray Davis spent $68.2 million in 2004
dollars in his successful bid for re-election in California, while Gov. George Pataki spent $46.9 million
in 2004 dollars to win his third term in New York.
However, spending that amount of money and winning re-election did not deter those wanting to have
Davis recalled from office less than a year later.
But spending a lot doesn’t always lead to a
win. For example, in the 2002 New York election,
Thomas Golisano spent $81 million in 2004 dollars
in his unsuccessful campaign for governor as an
Independent candidate. And in Texas, Tony Sanchez
also spent $81 million in 2004 dollars as the unsuccessful Democratic candidate. In California’s 1998
gubernatorial election, three candidates spent $126
million in 2004 dollars in their campaigns. Two of
these candidates won their party’s nomination and
faced off in November, with Democrat Gray Davis at
$43.9 million in 2004 dollars the winner over Republican Dan Lundgren at $36.8 million in 2004 dollars.
The largest spender at $45.4 million in 2004 dollars,
Al Checci wasn’t even able to win the Democratic
nomination.
Gubernatorial Forced Exits6
The 2003 California gubernatorial recall and replacement votes highlighted the fact that some elected
governors faced situations in which they could lose
their office without being beaten by a challenger at
the ballot box, becoming ill or dying. In 2004, two
other governors resigned from office, John Rowland
(R-Conn.), facing the threat of a potential impeachment move, and Jim McGreevey (D-N.J.), due to
personal reasons.
However, 2005 has been rather quiet on this
type of situation and no governor has been driven
or recalled from office. Several governors have
been facing some difficult times in terms of things
that have happened while they served and their job
approval ratings in state level polls indicate many are
not happy with their performance.
Gubernatorial Powers7
One way to view the changes that have been occurring in gubernatorial powers is to look at the “Index
of Formal Powers of the Governorship” first developed by Joseph Schlesinger in the 1960s,8 which
this author has continued to update.9 The index used
here consists of six different indices of gubernatorial power as seen in 1960 and 2005. These indices
include the number and importance of separately
elected executive branch officials, the tenure potential of governors, the appointment powers of governors for administrative and board positions in the
executive branch, the governor’s budgetary power,
the governor’s veto power and the governor’s party
control in the legislature. Each of the individual indices is set in a five-point scale, with five being the
most power and one being the least.
During the four and a half decades between 1960
and 2005, the overall institutional powers of the
nation’s governors increased by 12.5 percent. The
greatest increase among the individual gubernatorial powers was in their veto power (plus 61 percent)
as more governors gained an item veto, and in 1996
North Carolina voters were finally able to vote on a
constitutional amendment giving their governor veto
power. Voters approved it by a 3-to-1 ratio.
The indices measuring the governor’s tenure
potential (length of term and ability to seek an additional term or terms) and the number of separately
elected executive branch officials showed identical
28 percent increases in favor of the governor. The
governors’ appointment power over specific functional area executive branch officials increased by
only 7 percent. In addition, the states continue to
hold to the concept of the multiple executive in terms
of how many statewide elected officials there are. In
2004, there were 308 separately elected executive
officials covering 12 major offices in the states.10
This compares to 709 elected officials in 1955.11 Ten
states also have multimember boards, commissions
or councils with members selected by statewide or
district election.
The gubernatorial budgetary power actually
declined over the period (minus 14 percent). However, we must remember that during the same period,
state legislatures were also undergoing considerable
reform, and gaining more power to work on the govThe Council of State Governments 149
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governors
ernor’s proposed budget was one of those reforms
sought. Hence, the increased legislative budgetary power more than balanced out any increases in
gubernatorial budgetary power.
There has also been a drop in the gubernatorial
party control in state legislatures over the period
(minus 17 percent). Much of this can be attributed
to the major partisan shifts occurring in the Southern
states as the region has been moving from one-party
dominance to a very competitive two-party system.12
In 1960, 13 of the 14 governors were Democrats,
and all 28 state legislative chambers were under
Democratic control. In 2005, Republicans controlled
eight governorships to the Democrats’ six, while the
Democrats held a 15-to-13 edge in control of the legislative chambers. Four Southern governors face a
legislature completely controlled by the other party,13
while three others face a legislature with split partisan control.14
Statewide Elected Officials, 2004,” CQ’s State Fact Finder,
2005 (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005): 113.
11
The Book of the States, 1984–85 (Lexington, KY: The
Council of State Governments, 1984), 44.
12
The following states are included in this definition of
the South: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia.
13
Republicans Bob Riley in Ala., Mike Huckabee in Ark. and
Haley Barbour in Miss., and Democrat Mark Warner in Va.
14
Republican Ernie Fletcher in Ky., and Democrats Brad
Henry in Okla. and Phil Bredesen in Tenn.
About the Author
Thad Beyle is professor of Political Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. A Syracuse University
AB and Am, he received his Ph.D. at the University of Illinois. He spent a year in the North Carolina governor’s office
in the mid-1960s and has worked with the National Governors
Association in several capacities on gubernatorial transitions.
Notes
1
The former governors winning the presidency over the
past three decades were Jimmy Carter (D-Ga., 1971–1975)
in 1976, Ronald Reagan (R-Calif., 1967–1975) in 1980 and
1984, Bill Clinton (D-Ark., 1979–1981 and 1983–1992) in
1992 and 1996, and George W. Bush (R-Texas, 1995–2001)
in 2000.
2
For an analysis of governors trying to handle the impact
of the early 1990s economic downturn, see Thad Beyle, ed.,
Governors in Hard Times (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1994).
3
For more detail on this topic check “Table D: Women
Governors” and accompanying text “A Shift to More Women
Governors” in The Book of the States, 2005 (Lexington, KY:
The Council of State Governments, 2005): 197, 199.
4
New Jersey and Virginia.
5
Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi.
6
For more detail on this topic check “Table E: Impeachments and Removals of Governors” and accompanying text
“Gubernatorial Forced Exits” in The Book of the States,
2005 (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments,
2005): 198–200.
7
For more detail on this topic check “Table F: Governors’ Institutional Powers, 1960 v. 2005,” in The Book of
the States, 2005 (Lexington, KY: The Council of State Governments, 2005): 200.
8
Joseph A. Schlesinger, “The Politics of the Executive,”
Politics in the American States, 1st and 2nd ed, Herbert
Jacob and Kenneth N. Vines, eds., (Boston: Little Brown,
1965 and 1971).
9
Thad L. Beyle, “The Governors,” Politics in the American States 8th ed, Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson,
eds., (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2003). Earlier versions
of this index by the author appeared in the 4th edition
(1983), the 5th edition (1990), the 6th edition (1996), and
the 7th edition (1999).
10
Kendra Hovey and Harold Hovey, “D-12—Number of
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