History of Philosophy, lecture/seminar, lecturer: Prof. Miłowit Kuniński
3rd year (6-year program), 5th semester
Handout 5
Faith and reason: Scholasticism and the limits of rational analysis (St. Augustine, St. Anselm, St.
Thomas Aquinas).
Scholasticism (Latin: schola) is the doctrine (theology, philosophy, medicine and law (canon
and civil), the most important being arts (artes): theology and philosophy) and the method of teaching
in the medieval European schools (convents and then universities). The method consisted of the
careful reading (lectio) of a book recognized as an authoritative work of human or divine origin, the
discussion (disputatio) of a question (quaestio) arising from the text. Philosophy of the middle ages
from St. Augustine Aurelius, bishop of Hippo (354-430) and Boethius (c. 475/480 - 524) to the 16th c.
The Golden Age of scholasticism in the 13th and 14th c. (St. Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus,
William (of) Ockham (Occam) – ‘Ockham’s razor’). After a period of decline in the 14th – 16th c. the
revival as the “second scholasticism” 16th c. – 18th c. (Thomas de Vio Cajetan, Ignatius Loyola, Robert
Bellarmine, Francisco Suarez, Conrad Koellin, Francesco de Vittoria - the founder of the School of
Salamanca and its representatives: Martin de Azpilcueta (Navarrus), Domingo de Soto and others).
Neo-Scholasticism emerged in the 19th c., particularly after the encyclical Aeterni Patri (1879) of the
Pope Leo XIII and continued until the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965): Jacques Maritain,
Etienne Gilson, Yves Congar. Even today scholasticism in St. Thomas Aquinas’ version (neoThomism) is a source of philosophical inspiration.
Scholasticism was essentially Aristotelian because most of Aristotle’s writings (particularly his logic)
had become known between the 9th and 13th c. St. Thomas Aquinas adapted Aristotle’s philosophy in
an original way for Christian purposes, and in a way his theology and philosophy are the best
adaptations of Aristotle’s concepts and arguments for the creation of a new philosophy. The
fundamental assumption of scholasticism is the idea of making faith and philosophy compatible or to
find rational, consistent argument for the justification of religious claims. According to scholastic
thinkers reason is able to find arguments for the most of religious truths. Those, which are not
justifiable rationally are few and must be accepted as true on the grounds of the authority of the
Scripture and the Church magisterium (official Catholic church teachings).
(J.A.Weisheipl)
St. Augustine’s maxim: Credo ut intellegam, intellego ut credam = I believe to understand, I
understand to believe.
St. Anselm of Canterbury: Fides quaerens intellectum = Faith seeking understanding.
One of the most important issues in scholasticism were the so called ‘proofs’ of God’s existence or as
they are called now the arguments for the existence of God. Logic and consistent line of reasoning
were used to show the ability of human reason to justify what was believed in. Here we can find the
origins of western rationalism, rules of reasoning and rigid conceptual analysis.
Traditional "proofs" or arguments for God's Existence
1) The argument from design.
If you found a clock and examined its mechanism, you would probably think that it was not the
outcome of mere chance, that it had been designed. The universe seems also to be such a complex
mechanism. And if so must have been designed by a superhuman being, and that being must be God.
2) The ontological argument.
God is the perfect being. As He is most perfect, He must have all perfections. If God lacked existence
He would not be perfect, as He is perfect he must exist.
3) The cosmological argument (God as the "First cause").
Everything that exists has a cause. However, there must at some time have been a cause prior to all
other causes. This 'prime mover (primus motor)' or first cause is necessary to explain existence. This
first cause is God.
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St. Anselm (1033-1109)
The ontological argument for God's Existence
St. Anselm (arch-bishop) of Canterbury (born in Aosta, Italy) was one of the first scholastic philosophers and the author of
Monologion and Proslogion. In Proslogion in chps. 2 and 3 he put forward his ontological proofs of God’s existence. He was
the Arch-Bishop of Canterbury, England. He is well known for his Ontological Argument for the existence of God. This
unique argument has been debated for centuries among many great philosophers.
St. Anselm’s Argument
1. God is defined as the being in which none greater is possible.
2. It is true that the notion of God exists in the understanding (your mind.)
3. And that God may exist in reality (God is a possible being.)
4. If God only exists in the mind, and may have existed in reality, then God might have been greater
than He is.
5. Then, God might have been greater than He is (if He existed in reality.)
6. Therefore, God is a being which a greater is possible.
7. This is not possible, for God is a being in which a greater is impossible.
8. Therefore God exists in reality as well as in the mind.
St. Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-1274)
Summa Theologiae
Whether God exists?
Objection 1. It seems that God does not exist; because if one of two contraries be infinite, the other
would be altogether destroyed. But the word "God" means that He is infinite goodness. If, therefore,
God existed, there would be no evil discoverable; but there is evil in the world. Therefore God does
not exist.
Objection 2. Further, it is superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by a few principles
has been produced by many. But it seems that everything we see in the world can be accounted for by
other principles, supposing God did not exist. For all natural things can be reduced to one principle
which is nature; and all voluntary things can be reduced to one principle which is human reason, or
will. Therefore there is no need to suppose God's existence.
On the contrary, It is said in the person of God: "I am Who am." (Exodus 3:14)
I answer that, The existence of God can be proved in five ways.
The first and more manifest way is the argument from motion.
The second way is from the nature of the efficient cause.
The third way is taken from possibility and necessity.
The fourth way is taken from the gradation to be found in things.
The fifth way is taken from the governance of the world.
Virtue ethics in scholasticism
The moral core of Judaism and Christianity are the Ten Commandments (absolute duties and
forbidden activities). But the most important Christian Commandment can be found in the New
Testament: “Love thy neighbour”. Christian ethics, however, is not confined to the commandments,
it is also the ethics of virtues. In the Middle Ages, under the influence of Christianity, the classic
Aristotelian theory of virtue was changed and developed by St. Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-1274), who
wrote a commentary to Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. He introduced the concept of synderesis (a
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concept borrowed from St. Jerome (Hieronymus) (d. 420): the infallible knowledge of the first
practical principles or precepts of the law of nature), which is foundational for the fallible conscience
(Latin: conscientia), to be formed adequately, and a corresponding intellectual and moral virtue of
prudence (Latin: prudentia). Contrary to Aristotle, St. Thomas argued that the so called ‘natural
virtues’ (four cardinal and acquired virtues he borrowed from Aristotle: prudence, fortitude,
temperance, and justice) must be backed by the divine grace to become ‘infused virtues’ (virtutes
infusae), which enable us to act under the influence of the Holy Spirit. He also speaks of three
theological (or rather ‘theologal’) virtues: faith, hope and love, which were unknown to the ancients,
and includes into the system of virtues seven gifts of the Holy Spirit (wisdom, understanding,
knowledge, counsel, fortitude, piety and fear of the Lord) and the eight blessings1.
"Neither negating our personality nor depriving us of freedom, God saves us in a way which surpasses
all our plans and expectations. A logic such as this reveals the gifts of the Holy Spirit as perfections of
man which dispose him to follow readily the promptings of God"(St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa
Theologiae).
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“Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn; for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the
meek, for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled. Blessed are the
merciful; for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart; for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers: for they will be
called the children of God. Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are ye
when men shall revile you, and persecute you and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake (Matthew 5:3-11, KJV [King
James Version], 1611).”
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