Polytheism
Both nomadic and early agricultural peoples often held to a belief in many gods or goddesses, or polytheism. Among the oldest forms of polytheism are ancestor worship and the veneration of spirits. The ancient river valley civilizations in the Eastern Hemisphere as well as the early civilizations in the Americas believed in numerous gods and goddesses representing spirits or objects of nature. Other examples include totemism (identification of the self with animal symbols), shamanism (a belief in spirit worlds, common in Central Asia, Siberia and the Americas), “dreamtime” (a spiritual concept peculiar to the Australian aborigines), Shinto (native to Japan), and animism (a worship of life forces prevalent in Africa, the Pacific Islands, and parts of Asia). The Greeks and Romans also believed in an array of deities who represented natural phenomena but at the same time took on humanlike qualities. Pantheons Some civilizations developed elaborate pantheons of gods, each of whom had a distinct personality and function. Among the best‐known are the Sumerian‐Babylonian deities, shared by many peoples of the ancient Middle East; the Egyptian gods, whose worship was bound up with ritual preparation for the afterlife; the Olympian deities worshipped by the Greeks (and, in modified form, by the Romans); the Vedic gods of ancient India; the Teutonic and Norse gods worshipped in northern Europe; and the “celestial bureaucracy” of deities venerated in China. Partial Monotheism: Zoroastrianism Most of the polytheisms faded away, remaining as bodies of myth and legend. A few, like Hinduism and some forms of Buddhism, survive as major religions. One faith that represents a partial commitment to monotheism (worship of a single god or goddess) is Zoroastrianism, founded in ancient Persia by the priest Zoroaster (also Zarathustra), sometime in the 500s B.C.E. Basing his teachings on a collection of texts called the Avestas, Zoroaster proposed the worship of only one god, Ahura Mazda, the “wise lord.” Later, Ahura Mazda’s son Mithra was venerated as well. The enemy of Ahura Mazda was Ahriman, the god of darkness. Zoroastrianism flourished in Persia until the 600s C.E., when the expansion of Islam drove it out. It linger today mainly in India, among the small religious community known as Parsis. However, basic concepts from Zoroastrianism are thought by most religious historians to have played a role in shaping later Jewish thought and early Christianity. Judaism
The First Monotheistic Faith Judaism emerged among the Middle Eastern people known as the Hebrews (the terms Jews and Jewish were not commonly used until the 900s B.C.E.). It is generally considered to have been the world’s first monotheistic faith – that is, the first to devote itself to the worship of one deity alone. Along with Christianity, which grew out of it, Judaism forms a key part of the Western world’s ethical, intellectual, and cultural foundation. The Hebrews traced their origins back to Abraham, who migrated from Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean about 2000 B.C.E. According to Judaic tradition, the patriarch Abraham, of the Sumerian city Ur, entered into a covenant with the god YHWH (often rendered as Yahweh or Jehovah). The history of this covenant relationship became the basis of the Torah, or the Hebrew scriptures. YHWH swore to make the Hebrews his “chosen people” and to lead them to the “promised land” of Canaan (present‐day Israel). Abraham’s leadership was carried on by his son Isaac and grandson Jacob (who took the name Israel and whose sons are considered to be the founders of Israel’s Twelve Tribes). Because of a serious famine in the land of Canaan, the descendants of Abraham migrated to Egypt, which had escaped famine. There the Hebrews remained for about 430 years, part of this time serving as slaves under the pharaohs. The Exodus from Egypt under the leadership of Moses was marked by the giving of the Ten Commandments (revealed to him on Mount Sinai), or moral law of the Hebrews. This exodus is remembered in the celebration of Passover, the most important holiday in the Jewish faith. Returning to the land of Canaan, or Palestine, they established a theocracy, or a government ruled directly by God. After years of observing the governments of neighboring kingdoms, the Hebrews established the kingdom of Israel about 1000 B.C.E. under Saul. During the rule of Saul's successor, David, Jerusalem became the capital of Israel. Many of the religious songs known collectively as the Psalms are attributed to him. Solomon (David’s son) increased Israel’s prosperity by taking advantage of its location at the crossroads of Middle Eastern trade routes. In Jerusalem, Solomon dedicated to YHWH the great Temple, the heart of Jewish religious life for centuries (the temple was destroyed twice – first by the Babylonians and later by the Romans). After Solomon’s death, the Hebrew kingdom split into two lands: Israel and Judah. The northern kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians in 722 B.C.E. Its inhabitants were scattered throughout the far reaches of the Assyrian empire, constituting the first Jewish diaspora, or exile. The southern kingdom, called Judah, endured until 586 B.C.E... Conquered by the Chaldeans (from approximately the same territory as the Babylonian Empire), the people of Judah were carried off into captivity in Babylon. When Cyrus conquered the Chaldeans and allowed the Jews to return to Palestine 70 years later, Palestine remained under Persian rule until it became the province of Judea under the Roman Empire in 63 C.E. In 132 C.E., after they rebelled against Roman rule, the Jews were spread throughout the Roman Empire in a second diaspora. In the face of their conquerors, all of whom were polytheistic, the Jews, guided by prophets and rabbis (“teachers”), remained true to their monotheistic worship. They also came to believe that a savior, or Messiah (“anointed one”), would someday appear to free them from oppression. Unlike other religions of the period, notably Buddhism and Christianity, Judaism was not a missionary religion. Although the Jews had lived in Babylon for seventy years, with some Jews remaining after most of the former captives returned to Babylon, they did little to attempt to convert non‐Jews. From the Jewish faith, however, would come another major world religion: Christianity. In addition to its emphasis on worshipping a single god, Hebrew scripture outlines a strict code of conduct and places a high premium on righteous behavior. The same can be said about the Talmud (“Instruction”), the main collection of Jewish laws. Among the ancient Hebrews, legal practices operated on a retributive principle – an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth – that was common throughout the ancient Middle East. Dietary restrictions were strict, as were rules governing sexual practice. Although women were respected in the home, Hebrew society as a whole was patriarchal. As did most people of the eastern Mediterranean, the Hebrews practiced slavery on a limited basis, but Jewish scripture also insisted upon charity, social responsibility, and concern for the poor. Hinduism
Hinduism is a belief system that originated in India from the literature, traditions, and class system of the Aryan invaders. In contrast to other world religions, Hinduism did not have a single founder. As a result, the precepts and values of Hinduism developed gradually and embraced a variety of forms of worship. From this mixture emerged the tradition of Vedism, the foundation of Hinduism. At the core of Vedism are four Aryan scriptures called Vedas, meaning “knowledge.” The Vedas began to appear in written form after 1500 B.C.E. but are thought to have existed in oral form as far back as 4500 B.C.E. The oldest is the Rig‐Veda, which includes over 1,000 hymns and stories about the gods. Hinduism itself began to take shape after 900 B.C.E. New texts appeared, particularly the Upanishads (written between 900 and 500 B.C.E.), essays and poems outlining Hinduism’s basic concepts. Also influential was the Law of Manu (compiled between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E.), best known for its support of the caste system. Along with new scripture, literary texts with religious themes appeared. One such story was the Ramayana (ca. 350 B.C.E., a tale describing the adventures of Rama, the seventh incarnation of the god Vishnu. Equally important is the Mahabharata (composed between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E.), a grand epic of 90,000 stanzas, making it perhaps the longest poem in the world. The Mahabharata depicts a great war between two royal houses. Its most famous section is the Bhagavad‐Gita (“Song of the Lord”), a poetic dialogue between the young prince Arjuna and the demigod Krishna, who lectures Arjuna on the concept of moral duty. The basic concepts of classical Hinduism were in place no later than 200s B.C.E., after the Vedic and Upanishads traditions merged and spread throughout India. At the center of time and space is the World Soul, or Brahman. All things that exist are reflections of the Brahman’s perfections. Every living creature has its own soul, known as atman. However, the material world is an illusion (maya). It causes suffering and prevents the individual soul from perceiving or being connected with the World Soul. The goal of existence is to rejoin one’s atman with the Brahman, allowing ones self to be absorbed into perfection. Union with the Braham is accomplished by undergoing a cycle of life, death and rebirth called the wheel of life (samsara). Two forms of the Hindu deity are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. A meaningful life is one that has found union with the divine soul. Hinduism holds that this union is achieved through reincarnation, or the concept that after death the soul enters another human or an animal. The person's good or evil deeds in his or her personal life is that person's karma and those deeds will have consequences in a future life. Those who die with good karma may be reincarnated into a higher caste, whereas those with evil karma might descend to a lower caste or become an animal. If the soul lives a number of good lives, it is united with the soul of Brahma. Upon achieving this unification, or moksha, the soul no longer experiences worldly suffering. Hinduism goes beyond a mystical emphasis to effect the everyday conduct of its followers. The moral law, or dharma, serves as a guide to actions in this world. Dharma emphasizes that human actions produce consequences and that each person has obligations to the family and community. The Hindu religion reinforced the Indian caste system, offering hope for an improved lifestyle, especially for members of the lower castes. Those of the upper castes were encouraged by the prospect of achieving moksha. Acceptance of one’s social caste was considered virtuous. Performance of caste duties was an essential part of dharma, or moral duty. Hinduism also extended the Aryan custom of venerating cattle by considering cattle as sacred and forbidding the consumption of beef. In time, Hinduism became the principal religion of India. Carried by merchants through the waters of the Indian Ocean, Hindu beliefs also spread to Southeast Asia, where they attracted large numbers of followers. During the first century C.E., there were already signs of Indian influence in the societies of the islands of the Indian Ocean and in the Malay Peninsula. Some rulers in present‐day Vietnam and Cambodia adopted the Sanskrit language of India as a form of written communication. Buddhism
The second major faith to originate in India was Buddhism. In its earliest form, Buddhism was less a religion than a philosophy. In contrast to Hinduism, Buddhism had a founder in an Indian prince named Gautama, born about 563 B.C.E. Troubled by the suffering in the world, Gautama spent six years fasting and meditating on its cause. After he determined that suffering was the consequence of human desire, he began traveling to spread his beliefs. At this time Gautama became known as the "Buddha," or the "enlightened one." Although later followers would consider Buddha a god, Buddha did not see himself as a deity. Rather, he stressed the existence of a divine essence. Buddhism sought self‐control and stressed the equal treatment of peoples from all walks of life. The Buddhist faith, therefore, rejected the caste system and argued that any person could achieve liberation, without the aid of priests or rituals. All that was necessary to attain enlightenment was to realize the Four Noble Truths and to follow the Eightfold Path of good conduct (as well as the Five Moral Rules). Four Noble Truths: • All life is suffering. • Suffering is caused by desire. • One can be freed of this desire. • One is freed of desire by following the Eightfold Path ƒ The Eightfold Path is made up of right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right endeavor, right mindfulness and right meditation. Buddhism shared with Hinduism the concept of reincarnation but in a different perspective. Buddhist belief held that a series of reincarnations would lead the faithful follower to ever higher levels toward the ultimate goal, which was nirvana, or a union with the divine essence. According to the original teachings of the Buddha, the result of nirvana is not a union of the individual soul with the World Soul. Instead nirvana leads to a state of superconsciousness, in which one’s self is dissolved into the all‐encompassing life spirit that transcends place and time. After the death of Buddha in 483 B.C.E., Buddhism split into two large movements, Theraveada (Hinayan) and Mahayana. Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism emphasizes meditation, simplicity, and an interpretation of nirvana as the renunciation of human consciousness and o the self. In Theravada Buddhism, Buddha himself is not considered a god, and other gods and goddesses have very little significance. (Theravada means “the Way of the Elders”; Hinayana means “the Lesser Vehicle”). Mahayan Buddhism (“The Greater Vehicle”) is a more complicated form of Buddhism, involving greater ritual than Buddha specified. Mahayana Buddhism appealed to more people who believed that the original teachings of Buddha did not offer enough spiritual comfort; therefore, they began to hypothesize that other forms of salvation were possible. In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha himself became a godlike deity. Moreover, other deities appear, including bodhisattvas, those who have achieved nirvana but choose to remain on Earth. Mahayana Buddhists also relied more on priests and scriptures. Detractors of this form of Buddhism view these additions as being too similar to the Hinduism that Buddha disapproved of. The popularity of Buddhism emerged from its acceptance of men and women from all ranks of society. At first Buddhism spread through the efforts of monks and nuns who established religious communities in northern India. Located along trade routes, Buddhist monasteries served as lodging for traders, who learned of the teachings of Buddhism through contact with Buddhist monks and nuns. In time, merchants carried the doctrines of Buddhism along the Silk Roads and other trade routes. Initially, Buddhist popularity was strengthened when the Mauryan emperor Ashoka adopted its beliefs. The faith, however, did not enjoy a long‐term period of popularity in India because of opposition from Hindu Brahmins and the later promotion of Hinduism by Gupta emperors. Buddhism spread along the trade routes to become popular in Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in Sri Lanka, Japan, Korea, and China. In China, Buddhism blended with Confucianism to reinforce the concept of patriarchal families. As it spread to other locales, Buddhism developed the belief of bodhisattvas, which held that, through meditation, ordinary people could reach nirvana. Confucianism
Out of the disorder of the Era of Warring States after the fall of the Zhou dynasty came a number of philosophies designed to create order in China. Among these philosophies was Confucianism, named after its founder Confucius, or Kung Fu‐tse (551‐478 B.C.E.). The son of an aristocratic family from northern China, Confucius spent most of his life trying to gain a high poison in government. But he was very strong‐
willed, and often his thinking was at odds with state policy. As a result, he never achieved his goal. Instead, he served as an educator and political advisor, and in this role he had a tremendous influence on China. He attracted many followers, some of whom helped share his teachings and others who collected his thoughts and sayings in the Analects, which would come to have a profound influence on Chinese thinking, both politically and culturally. Confucius believed that the source of good government was in the maintenance of tradition; tradition, in turn, was maintained by personal standards of virtue. These included respect for the patriarchal family (filial piety) and veneration of one's ancestors. Confucius also believed that governmental stability depended on well‐educated officials. To this end, he required his followers to study history and literature from the Zhou dynasty to determine the value of these subjects for government officials. The Han dynasty appreciated Confucian philosophy because it supported order and submission to the government. The civil service examination that developed during the Han dynasty was based on the Analects and the course of study developed by Confucius. The Confucian values of veneration of one's ancestors and respect for the patriarchal family, as well as good government staffed by a responsible, well‐educated bureaucracy, became basic traditions that defined Chinese culture. Confucianism’s founders believed in the existence of gods and spirits but gave little place for them in their philosophical system. They argued that a morally concerned person should be interested in how he or she acted in the material world. What happened beyond one’s physical life was of less importance. Confucianism proposes that a harmonious society can be created by a combination of benevolent rulership from above and good behavior from below. The well‐being of the group comes before that of the individual. Order and hierarchy are paramount. Good government is the responsibility of the ruler, and as long as the ruler performs his duties well, his people have an obligation to obey him. Meng‐tzu (Mencius, 371‐289 B.C.E.) taught that a just ruler possess the Mandate of Heaven, a moral justification for his authority. Unjust rulers who abuse their power lose the Mandate of Heaven, and can therefore be removed by their people. Ideally, society operates as a model family, with junior members paying respect to their elders. If the home is blessed by filial piety (Xiao), society at large is healthy. This vision is reflected in the five relationships Confucius described as most important to social tranquility: The ruler should be just, those who are ruled should be loyal; the father should be loving, the son respectful; the husband should be righteous, the wife obedient; the older brother should be genteel, the younger brother humble; the older friend should be considerate, the younger friend deferent. These relationships are supported with the values of Ren (a sense of humanity, kindness and benevolence), Li (a sense of propriety, courtesy, respect and deference to elders), and Xiao (a respect for family obligation). Confucianism also established the female as the subservient sex. Men ruled society, fought wars, and acted as scholars and ministers. They could keep more than one wife and divorce any wife who failed to produce a male heir. Women were exclusively homemakers and mothers. Lows prohibited women from owning property, and they were not provided financial security through a dowry system. However, Confucianism allowed women to have a limited education. Implicit in these relationships are the concepts for reciprocity and mutual respect. Confucianism concentrates on the formation of junzi, individuals considered superior because they are educated, conscientious, and able to put aside personal ambition for the good of the state. Confucius believed that individuals who possessed these traits would be not only good administrators but also influential in the larger society because they would lead by example. He also was convinced that to restore political and social order, morally strong individuals were required to exercise enlightened leadership. This is why Confucius did not support a particular political system, but rather favored good people running whatever system was in place. Central to Confucian thought is a “golden rule” similar to the one found in Christianity: in the Analects, Confucius declares “Never do to others what you would not like them to do to you.” Confucianism’s assumption that people are inherently good contrasted with the logic behind a rival doctrine, Legalism, which viewed people as innately immoral, and advocated harsh punishments as the only way to control them. Confucianism coexisted with and at times competed with Daoism and Buddhism. Several times, it gained, lost and regained its status as an official, imperially sanctioned code of conduct. By the 600s C.E., a newer version of the creed, called Neo‐Confucianism, appeared. Even when it was not in official favor, Confucianism’s influence persisted. China’s traditional emphasis on filial piety, social hierarchy, and respect for authority stems in large part from Confucianism and has persisted into the modern era, even under the Communist regime.
Daoism
Another philosophy that developed in response to the Era of Warring States was Daoism (sometimes referred to Taoism). Like Buddhism (in its original form), Daoism was less a religion and more a philosophical system, whose founding figure made no claim to divinity. Its founder was Lao‐zi (or Lao‐tsu), who is believed to have lived during the fifth century B.C.E. He is referred to as the “Old Master” who may or may not be an actual historical figure. He is also said to have written Daoism’s central text, the Two‐te Ching, although most scholars believe this collection was compiled in the 300s or 200s B.C.E. Another figure associated with Daoism is Zhuangzi (Chuang‐tse), known to have lived approximately from 369 to 268 B.C.E. The philosophy adapted traditional Chinese concepts of balance in nature, or yin (male, assertive) and yang (female, submissive). According to Daoist philosophy, human understanding comes from following "The Way" or “The Path”, a life force which exists in nature. Daoist belief maintains that the universe is governed by an invisible, yet irresistible force that can be sensed intuitively. Daoism is deliberately antirational, using parables to train the worshipper to perceive the world in nonlogical ways. (The most famous Daoist paradox is found in the writings of Zhuangzi, who asks himself if he is a man who has just awoken from a dream that he was a butterfly, or a butterfly still dreaming that he is a man.). According to Daoism, all life is interdependent, and human beings should exist in harmony. Its advice is to relax and get in harmony with the Dao. In order to solve the problems of the day, Daoists taught the concept of wu wei, which means act by not acting. A Daoist seeks wisdom in nature, poetry, and spontaneous behavior. He or she is not concerned with politics, money or material possessions, because all of these are illusory or meaningless. Daoism places an emphasis on individuality, since each person pursues the dao in his or her own unique way. Daoists believed it was useless to try to build institutions to govern men, because institutions (or anything that rewarded knowledge) were dangerous. Institutions lead to competitions and eventually to fighting. The less government the better; the ideal state is a small, self‐sufficient town. The ultimate goal should be cultivate the virtues of patience, selflessness, and concern for all. How could a philosophy like this bring an end to the Era of Warring States? In reality, it couldn’t, but the idea of it was a rejection of some strict guidelines in society, and a way to find an alternative way of life. In Chinese society, it provided an escape from the proper behavior of Confucianism – it encouraged people to take time off, relax, just let things happen. It allowed the Chinese to be Confucian at work and Daoist while not at work. Daoism’s attitude toward war was that it should be used only for defensive purposes. The Han followed this idea by stationing its troops along the Great Wall to maintain the safety of trade routes. After a time, Daoism became associated with mystical and magical practices, such as alchemy and fortune‐telling. The I‐
Ching, or “Book of Changes,” is a Daoist text used in reading the future. Daoism’s most famous symbol is the yin‐yang, a circle whose black and white halves are divided by a double‐curved line, serving to illustrate that nothing is absolute, and that opposites flow into each other. As an advocate of harmony with nature, Daoism promoted scientific discoveries. Daoists became great astronomers, chemists, and botanists. A flexible religion, Daoism has traditionally coexisted with other faiths. It is not uncommon for a worshipper to blend Daoist worship with Buddhism and Confucianism. Since Daoism and Confucianism arose in China at approximately the same time, the relationship between the two has generally been a tight one, even though their outlooks are, for the most part, diametrically opposed. Chinese thought and practice gradually blended both Confucianism and Daoism to include a concern for responsibility for the community and time for personal reflection. Daoism spread throughout its native China. Certain elements were transported to parts of Asia where China had a strong cultural influence, especially Japan and Korea. Christianity
Historically and philosophically, Christianity is a child of Judaism. The relationship between the two faiths has often been troubled, but always intimate. Both religions, in the form of the Judeo‐Christian tradition, have formed the bedrock of Western culture for two millennia. A key element of Judaism was the belief that God had promised to send the Jews a Messiah, or a savior from their sins. Some of the early Jews felt that that promise was fulfilled when Jesus was born in the Roman province of Judea about 4 to 6 B.C.E. As an adult, Jesus and his 12 disciples, or followers, went throughout the land of Judea, preaching the forgiveness of sins. Jesus taught devotion to God and love for fellow human beings. He earned a reputation of wisdom and the power to perform miracles, i.e., heal the sick. He maintained that charity, compassion, and forgiveness were of paramount importance. He reinforced this message in the Sermon on the Mount (“Blessed are the poor in spirit…) and in what came to be known as the Golden Rule (“Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”). Jesus was also called Christ, meaning "anointed." When Jesus' teachings were feared as a threat to Roman and Jewish authority, cooperation between both Jewish and Roman leaders led to his trial (he was charged with blasphemy and treason) and death by crucifixion. Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension into heaven fueled the zeal of his early followers. Christ’s Crucifixion and Resurrection are told in the Four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) written by his apostles. The network of Roman roads facilitated the spread of Christianity throughout the empire. Missionaries, traders, and other travelers carried the Christian message of forgiveness of sins and an afterlife in heaven for those who believed in Jesus as their savior from sin. The greatest missionary of the early Christian church was Paul of Tarsus. A Roman citizen, he undertook three missionary journeys throughout the Roman Empire in the first century C.E. Accounts of Jesus’ life in addition to the missionary efforts of Paul and other followers of Jesus are found in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Several Roman emperors considered Christianity a threat to their rule. Although some, such as Diocletian, persecuted the Christian church, it continued to grow. Christians, much like the Jews, refused to honor the state cults or to worship the emperor as a god, and as a result, were often subject to campaigns of persecution. In 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine changed the position of earlier Roman emperors regarding Christianity. In the Edict of Milan he permitted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in 381 under the Emperor Theodosius. After its adoption as the state church of Rome, Christianity in the west began developing an organization under the leadership of the bishop of Rome, or pope. In addition to priests who served local churches, monks and nuns withdrew from society to devote their time to prayer and meditation. As it spread throughout the Roman world, Christianity gained popularity because of its appeal to all social classes, especially the poor. Jesus had been concerned with the growing cosmopolitan nature of Jewish society and preached a simple message of love and compassion. These ideas appealed to the lower class, the urban population and women. Women received new status as Christianity taught that men and women were equal in matters of faith. After the fall of the western Roman Empire, Christianity spread to northern Europe, the Balkans, and Russia. However, doctrinal disagreements, geographic separation and the passage of time cause the Western and Easter churches to grow apart after the 500s C.E.. In the Great Schism of 1054 C.E., the Western and Eastern churches broke with each other formally. Eastern Orthodoxy remained the faith of the Byzantine Empire, and was adopted by most Christians in the Middle East, Russia, Ukraine, and much of Eastern Europe. Roman Catholicism remained the favored form of Christianity in western Europe. During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church provided Europeans with a sense of religious unity, preserved Latin manuscripts from the Roman era, and exerted a tremendous sway over secular and political affairs. Christianity also spread to Mesopotamia, Iran, and even parts of India. Over time, the Southwest Asian Christians and the Western (or Roman) Christians grew apart. Southwest Asian Christians followed a form of the religion called Nestorian Christianity. The form continued to spread across the Silk Roads into Central Asia, Indian and China. Another form of Christianity developed in Northern Africa and is called Coptic Christianity based on the Coptic language they use. Coptic Christian kingdoms existed in Ethiopia since the sixth century and the religion still thrives in Egypt and Ethiopia today. Islam
The youngest of the world’s major religions, Islam transformed itself with amazing speed from a local faith into a cultural and political force of global dimensions. A monotheistic form of worship that originated in the Middle East, Islam is linked with Judaism and Christianity in many ways, and their relationships have frequently been stormy, even tragic. Nonetheless, the three faiths contain many similarities and possess an eventful shared history. Prior to the introduction of Islam, Arabs lived in separate, loyal, tribal groups, and were often involved in overland and maritime trade. The city of Mecca was an important religious site with a large influx of traders and pilgrims. The Kaaba, a black meteorite placed in the Great Mosque by Abraham, was in the center of the city. Most people practiced an animist type of religion that involved the worship of idols. Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula during the 600s C.E., a time when Arabia was sparsely populated and its desert interior largely unexplored. Arabia’s few major settlements were built up around oases and coastal towns serving as centers of the caravan trade that linked the region with the rest of the Middle East. From Arabia, the new religion spread rapidly throughout the eastern Mediterranean. By 1000 C.E., its influence stretched from Spain and Africa’s Atlantic coast to the borderlands of India to the east. The founder of Islam was Mohammed (also Muhammad), a merchant from the Arabian town of Mecca. Born in 570 C.E., Mohammed began to meditate in the mountains near Mecca when he turned forty. IN 610 C.E., he experienced a profound vision. According to Mohammed, the archangel Jobril (“Gabriel” to Jews and Christians) appeared to him, delivering the word of Allah (Arabic for “God”). Muhammad, who claimed to have no supernatural powers himself, was to be God’s messenger. With the help of family members such as Ali (his cousin and son‐in‐law), Aisha (his favorite wife), and Abu Bakr (Aisha’s father), Mohammed preached and gathered a religious community. IN 622, he and his followers were forced out of Mecca by local religious authorities, fleeing to the city of Medina. This flight – the Hegira – remains a key event in the early history of Islam, and it marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Mohammed’s community flourished in Medina, and by 630, he and his followers returned to Mecca, captured the city, destroyed the idols and converted the city. IN 632, Mohammed died, but his religion he had founded grew. Mohammed’s faith drew directly upon Judeo‐Christian images and concepts. He taught that there is one god, Allah. He believed in an afterlife and a final judgment in which believers go to heaven and nonbelievers to hell. Islam pays respect to figures from Jewish and Christian faith. Arabs, like the Hebrews, consider Abraham their patriarch and Abraham’s son Ismail (Ishmael) their direct ancestor. Prophets of Allah include Adam, Noah, Moses, David, Solomon, John the Baptist, and Jesus. Islam instructs Muslims to respect Jews and Christians as “people of the book.” Still, Mohammed formulated his own tradition. He claimed to be the last of twenty‐eight prophets sent by Allah to reveal His teachings to humankind, and the only one to receive Allah’s full and perfect message. The name of the religion itself, Islam, comes from the Arabic phrase “to submit to God.” Likewise the term Muslim means “servant of God,” or “one who has submitted to the will of God.” Submission to Allah involves living by the five Pillars of Faith described by Mohammed. 1) Statement of faith: “There is not god but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet” 2) Pray five times daily facing in the direction of Mecca 3) Fast during the holy month of Ramadan 4) Give alms (charity) to the poor 5) Make a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca at least once in one’s lifetime. Other Islamic traditions include abstinence from alcohol and pork, avoiding the portrayal of human and animal figures in art; and polygamy (Muslim men are allowed to take up to four wives). There are also restrictions on how women are allowed to dress or appear; a strictly observant Muslim woman is to guard her modesty and veil herself in public. Many modern Muslims have become more secular and allow a less stringent observance of these practices. Even in earlier times, male domination of women in Islamic societies was offset by the command that men treat women with respect. Women also enjoyed the right to inherit, have dowries, and own property. The teachings of Mohammed are contained in the Qur’an (Koran), or “Recitation.” Muslims consider the Qur’an to be the word of Allah, transmitted directly by Mohammed, so every work is considered sacred. The Arabic spoken by Mohammed is the holy language of Islam. Other important texts are the Hadith, a collection of proverbs of Mohammed, and the Sharia, a codification of traditional Islamic law. Islam is a universal religion that is open to everyone. It promises salvation to all who believe and follow the rules, which are easy to understand. Like Christianity, Islam appealed to the poor and powerless, and it gave the community a strong sense of brotherhood. By the time of Muhammad’s death in 634 C.E., almost all of Arabia was under Islamic control. There was disagreement, however, over his successor. One group, the Shia, believed that the leader should be a descendant of Muhammad. The other group, the Sunni, preferred that it be the wisest member of the strongest tribe. The leader of the Muslims, the caliph, was the political and spiritual leader. We will get into more detail on the political and cultural history of Islam in our next unit.