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ETHICS
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:

To introduce the core terms and ideas of morality, distinguish morality from other closely
related areas and then move towards a basic working definition of morality.

To begin to build a "picture" of philosophical ethics for themselves by carefully organizing
and presenting the given material.
Definition/Overview:
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I
.
E
The overview of this topic is to introduce the core terms and ideas of morality, distinguish
morality from other closely related areas and then move towards a basic working definition of
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S
morality. Most students will have had little real exposure to these concepts so carefully
organizing and presenting the material here will enable students to begin to build a picture of
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.B
philosophical ethics for themselves.
Morality: a working definition:Morality deals with humans and how they relate to others
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and the world around them. It deals with how we treat one another so as to promote what is
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good and right. In order to further define morality we need to say how it is similar to and
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different from other areas and non moral uses of key terms.
Aesthetics: Ethics like aesthetics is a part of philosophy concerned with values. Ethics differs
from aesthetics in that it is concerned with moral value although moral value and aesthetic
value connect and overlap.
Non-moral uses of key terms:Good, bad, right and wrong are often used in a non-moral
sense, e.g., good meal, bad tooth, etc. These uses often refer to function. Aristotle argued that
morality is tied to the function of a human being. This should not be confused with any idea
that meals or teeth are directly linked to the moral.
Manners or etiquette:Manners and etiquette are forms of socially acceptable and
unacceptable behavior. For example, swearing or use of foul language is in most contexts
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considered unacceptable. However there is no necessary connection between this and
immorality. Of course manners and morals overlap but care is required to distinguish them
when there is no obvious connection.
Philosophy and Ethics' relationship to Philosophy: Philosophy - philia/sophia - means
"love" or "friend" of wisdom. Philosophers try to be a friend of wisdom by asking questions
and studying why something is the case. Ethics seeks wisdom by asking about right and
wrong, good and bad.
Key Points:
1. Terms and characteristics of Ethics
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.
E
Ethics comes from the Greek ethos meaning character. Morality derives from the Latin
moralismeaning customs or manners. Commonly we speak of people being ethical or moral
to mean good or right and unethical and immoral to mean wrong or bad. Philosophical ethics
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is the study of what makes something moral or ethical, good or right, and unethical or
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immoral bad or wrong.
Philosophers have considered what makes something morally good or bad, right or wrong in
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relation to a range of characteristics. For example, does moral goodness involve some
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relation to happiness or pleasure? Does the good involve excellence of some sort? Or
harmony and creativity? Is it possible to be amoral - of being indifferent to right and wrong?
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What things are non moral? For example, my pen that I write with appears neither moral nor
immoral in itself but if I use it as a weapon it enters the domain of morality.
2. Approaches to the study of morality
There are two major approaches to the study of morality:
2.1 Scientific Approach: The scientific or descriptive approach emphasizes the
observation of human behavior and the positing of conclusions based on those
observations. Psychologists, for example, have claimed that human beings are basically
selfish based on observations of conduct. This approach is descriptive in that it is "valuefree" making no judgments about the rightness or wrongness of the behavior.
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2.2 Philosophical Approach: A second approach is more properly philosophical and has two
parts.
o The first part is normative or prescriptive. How should or ought we to
act?
o The second part is meta-ethical. A meta-ethicist is committed to the
analysis of the language, concepts reasons and foundational structure
of ethical systems. Thiroux's text is committed to synthesizing all of
these approaches.
3. Morality and its applications
3.1. What is morality?
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E
In order to further define morality we need to say how it is similar to and different
from other areas and non moral uses of key terms.
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S
3.2. Aesthetics
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Ethics like aesthetics is a part of philosophy concerned with values. Ethics differs
from aesthetics in that it is concerned with moral value although moral value and
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aesthetic value connect and overlap.
W
3.3. Non-moral uses of key terms
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Good, bad, right and wrong are often used in a non-moral sense, e.g., good meal, bad
tooth, etc. These uses often refer to function. Aristotle argued that morality is tied to
the function of a human being. This should not be confused with any idea that meals
or teeth are directly linked to the moral.
3.4. Manners or etiquette
Manners and etiquette are forms of socially acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
For example, swearing or use of foul language is in most contexts considered
unacceptable. However there is no necessary connection between this and immorality.
Of course manners and morals overlap but care is required to distinguish them when
there is no obvious connection.
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3.5. To whom or what does morality apply?
Morality may be applied to four areas:
o Religion. Morality determined by relation between human being and
supernatural being.
o Nature.Morality determined by relation between human being and nature.
o Individuality.Morality determined by relation the individual has to him or
herself.
o Society.Morality determined by relation between human being and society.
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Most moral systems involve all four of these areas with one being primary. Who is
morally responsible? Should only human beings be held morally responsible? Are all
animals non-moral?
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4. Where does morality come from?
Morality can be considered as having a subjective or objective origin. As objective there are
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three possibilities for the origin of value:
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o
Values are given by a supernatural being.
o
Values are part of the fabric of nature.
o
Values are part of the furniture of the world, independently of human beings.
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These possible explanations of the origin of values are expressed in the supernatural
theory, the theory of natural law and objectivism.
As subjective, the origin of value is related to human beings. Without human beings,
subjectivist theorists argue, there would be no value.
4.1. Evaluation of objective and subjective positions
o Supernatural theories: Belief based on faith. Diversity of traditions makes it
unclear what values are best and why.
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o Natural law theories: So called laws of nature are descriptive Are there natural
moral laws, i.e., laws that are prescriptive?
o Objectivism:Can something have a value if there is no one there to value it?
o Subjectivism:Are values entirely subjective? Would the world have value
without the presence of humans?
4.2. Synthesis
Values perhaps best viewed as subjective, objective and emerging out of a context.
Thus three variables:
o Object value thing of value or thing valued
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o Subject value a conscious being that values
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o Situational value context in which valuing is situated.
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4.3. Where do values come from?
Values might be thought of then as originating in a complex relation among the three
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variables: an interaction between conscious human beings, things (variously material,
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emotional, and mental) and a specific context.
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4.4. Customary or traditional and reflective morality
We can separate morality into two forms:
o Customary or traditional morality: Traditional morality refers to the moral
systems handed down through custom from generation to generation. We
might call this static morality
o Reflective morality: Reflective morality requires that moral ideas are carefully
examined and tested. Traditional morality can become reflective and dynamic
when those moral ideas that are simply handed down and accepted are
subjected to analysis and criticism.
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4.5. Morality, Law and Religion
Morality also overlaps with Law and Religion but shouldnt be confused with them.
o Morality and law. Morality and law are not the same although of course they
overlap. Law might be thought of as a public codification of morality for a
culture, although certain laws in that system, or even the system itself, might
be deemed immoral, e.g., apartheid. Law is not a necessary attribute of
morality although morality may well be thought to be a necessary attribute of
law.
o Morality and religion. Is morality dependent upon religion? Can you be moral
and non-religious?
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E
4.6. Morality and Religion
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Morality need not be based exclusively on religion for five reasons:
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o Supernatural existence cannot be proven.
o Non religious people can be moral.
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o Religious foundation for ethics is difficult to establish.
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o Which religion would be best ethically?
o How could it be shown that one religion is best?
Therefore, no necessary connection between ethics and religion
4.7. Why should human beings be moral?
Why should human beings do what is right?
o Enlightened self-interest I will be better off.
o Tradition and law best to do because some authority says so.
o Shared human needs, goals, desires and objectives.
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4.8. Morality a working definition
Morality deals with humans and how they relate to others and the world around them.
It deals with how we treat one another so as to promote what is good and right.
Topic : Consequentialist (Teleological) Theories Of Morality
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:

philosophical morality.

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E
Understand and be familiar with one of the broad and most important group of theories in
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Understand and be familiar with Consequentialist theories which raise challenging questions
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about the role, use and function of consequences in moral reasoning and in living the moral
life.
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o Should we only consider the consequences of our actions?
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o Should we consider consequences only for ourselves?
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o Should we consider consequences for others?
o Which others?
o Should we consider short-term consequences or long term, etc.
These questions will be extended, in the context of the specific moral problems that
are dealt with later in the course.
Definition/Overview:
The overview of this topic is to introduce students to one of the broad and most important
group of theories in philosophical morality. Consequentialist theories raise challenging
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questions about the role, use and function of consequences in moral reasoning and in living
the moral life. Should we only consider the consequences of our actions? Should we consider
consequences only for ourselves? Should we consider consequences for others? Which
others? Should we consider short-term consequences or long term, etc.This range of
questions can be extended, and this is perhaps best done in the context of the specific moral
problems that are dealt with later in the course.

Ethics divides into two major views:
o Consequentialism:It refers to those moral theories which hold that the
consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral
judgment about that action. Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a
morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence.
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E
o Non-Consequentialism:It says that some kinds of action (such as breaking
promises or killing the innocent) are wrong in themselves, and not just
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wrong because they have bad consequences. Such things may be
exceptionlesslywrong, or may just have some independent moral weight
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against them.
Consequentialismdivides also into two major views:
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o Ethical egoism: It is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought
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to do what is in their self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, in
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that psychological egoism is the claim that people can only act in their
self-interest, while ethical egoism is a claim that they ought to act this
way. Ethical egoism differs from rational egoism, which holds that it is
rational to act in one's self-interest, and individualism, neither of which
claim that acting in one's self-interest is necessarily right.
o Utilitarianism: It is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely
determined by its contribution to overall utility, that is, its contribution to
happiness or pleasure as summed among all persons. It is thus a form of
consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined
by its outcomethe ends justify the means. Utility; the good to be
maximized; has been defined by various thinkers as happiness or pleasure.
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Key Points:
1. Psychological egoism (Pe)

Pe is not to be confused with Ethical egoism (Ee).

Pe is a scientific, descriptive theory.

Ee is a normative theory.

Pe has both a strong version (sPe) and a weak version (wPe).
o Strong version: Always act out of self -interest.
o Weak version: Often, but not always, act out of self-interest.
1.1. Problems with Psychological egoism
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o Some use sPe as a basis for Ee. Redundancy: why tell people to do what
they cannot help doing?
o Some use wPe as a basis for Ee: Is /ought fallacy: The way I often may act
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has little to do with how I should act.
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2. Ethical egoism (Ee)
Ee has three main forms:
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Individual ethical egoism (iEe): Everyone ought to act in my self-interest.
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Personal ethical egoism (pEe): I ought to act in my own self-interest.
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Universal ethical egoism (uEe): Everyone should act in their own self-interest.
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2.1. Problems with individual and personal egoism
o Lack of general applicability
o Egoists may need to conceal their egoism out of self -interest
o Is egoism consistent?
o Egoists do not consider how their actions may affect others
3. Universal ethical egoism (uEe)
Most common version of egoist theory: Everyone should act in their own self-interest.
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3.1. Problems:
o Inconsistency
o What is meant by everyone?
o Difficulty in giving moral advice
o Blurring the moral and nonmoraluse of "ought" and "should"
o Inconsistent with helping professions
3.2. Advantages of uEe
o Easier to determine self-interest
o Encourages individual freedom and responsibility
3.3. UEe overall
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Works plausibly when individuals are isolated.Conflicts arise when interests overlap.
Communities are now increasingly interconnected socially, politically, economically,
etc., so egoism less plausible.
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4. AynRand's rational ethical egoism
Ayn Rand (1905-1982) is the most prominent modern universal ethical egoist. Rand argued
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that conflicts wouldn't arise between individuals if they were "rational." But conflicts do arise
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amongst rational individuals. Thus, in conclusion Ee can only work if you advocate some
other theory and don't tell anyone.
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5. Utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism derives from "utility" or usefulness. Morality is or ought to be useful. Most
prominent philosophers of utilitarianism were Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart
Mill (1806-1873).
5.1. Two kinds of utilitarianism:
o Act utilitarianism: Everyone should perform that act that will bring about the
greatest good for everyone.
o Rule utilitarianism: Everyone should follow that rule that will bring about
the greatest good for everyone.
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5.2. Act Utilitarianism (AU).
Perform that act that will bring about the most good for everyone affected by that act.
AUs believe that each situation is different. Each individual must try to bring about
the greatest amount of good consequences for all involved in this situation at this
time.
5.3. Criticisms of AU
o Difficulty of determining consequences for others.
o Impracticality of beginning anew: Are all acts and situations completely
different?
o Difficulty of educating young or uninitiated if there are no rules or
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guidelines
5.4. Rule Utilitarianism RU
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RU emerges out of criticisms of AU. Rather than acts RU believes that everyone
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should establish and follow that rule that will bring about the greatest good for all
concerned. Human motives, beliefs, actions and situations are sufficiently similar to
justify setting up rules to generate the greatest good.
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5.5. Criticisms of RU
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o Difficulty of determining consequences for others.
o Are there any rules that are exception-less?
5.6. Cost- benefit analysis or end justifies the means - a problem for
utilitarianism
o Is the utility criterion understood as the "greatest good for the greatest
number" always the right thing to strive for?
o Are individuals "ends in themselves" such that the "cost-benefit" type of
analysis treats individuals merely as means?
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5.7. Conclusion
Although utilitarianism, unlike egoism, tries to consider others it runs into difficulty
determining what would be good for others. In AU there are no rules as such. In RU,
which rules cover all situations? Does the end always justify the means?
6. Difficulty with consequentialist theories in general
Can we discover all the consequences of our decisions in the present? This is especially
difficult for utilitarians because they are concerned with the effects of their decisions on
others.
7. Care Ethics
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Primarily consequentialist.Most prominent exponent is Carol Gilligan (1936-).
7.1. Men and women are different when it comes to ethical decision making
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Men and women think differently but unequally when it comes to morality
(Kohlberg). For Kohlberg women's moral reasoning is inferior. Gilligan women's
moral reasoning is different but equal. Different answers to moral dilemmas explained
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not by inferior moral development by women but by tendency for men to focus on
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"justice" and women on "care." For Gilligan we need both justice and care.
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7.2. Criticisms of Gilligan
Is it a woman's "nature" to be caring? This could be divisive socially, politically, etc.
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Topic : Nonconsequentialist (Deontological) Theories Of Morality
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:

To understand, describe and analyze non-consequentialist theories of ethics as well as virtue
ethics. This includes distinguishing act and rule versions of non-consequentialism such as
Intuitionism, Divine Command Theory, Kant's Duty Ethics, and Ross' Prima Facie Duties.
Definition/Overview:
The overview of this topic is to describe and analyze nonconsequentialist theories of ethics as
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E
well as virtue ethics. This includes distinguishing act and rule versions of
nonconsequentialism such as Intuitionism, Divine Command Theory, Kants Duty Ethics, and
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Ross Prima Facie Duties.
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Non-consequentialistTheories: Nonconsequentialist theories claim that consequences
should not enter into our moral judgments. Actions are to be judged right or good in
accordance with other criteria (intuitions, divine command, etc.).
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Act Non-consequentialistTheories (anc): Only individual acts and situations count morally.
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Cannot generalize from rules or principles since every situation is different. Appeal to
"intuition" and "emotions" to arrive at moral conclusions.
Key Points:
1. Intuitionism
It is also known as moral intuitionism and it is usually understood as a meta-ethical theory
that embraces the following theses i .e. Moral realism, the view that there are objective facts
of morality; Ethical non-naturalism, the view that these evaluative facts cannot be reduced to
natural fact; and, the thesis that we sometimes have intuitive awareness of value, or intuitive
knowledge of evaluative facts, which forms the foundation of our ethical knowledge.
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1.1. In support of Intuitionism:
o Immediate sense of right and wrong
o Humans had moral ideas before the existence of philosophers. These ideas
were intuitions.
o Reasoning in morals is only used to confirm our intuitions.
o Reasoning on its own too often goes awry. Fall back on what feels right.
1.2. Arguments against Intuitionism:
o Intuitions are wild guesses
o No proof that we have innate moral sense
o Intuitions cant be critiqued
o Absence of intuitions in some suggests either lack of morals or morals based
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on other grounds
1.3. Criticisms of Act Nonconsequentialism
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o If we all have different intuitions then there is no way to resolve conflicts.
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o How do we know that our intuitions are good moral guides?
o How can we know when we have sufficient evidence to support our
intuitions?
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o How can our intuitions be good for all?
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o How do we justify our intuitions?
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o Are our momentary intuitions all we have to make moral decisions?
1.4. More generally
o Are all acts completely unalike?
o Is one individuals intuition sufficient?
2. Rule NonconsequentialistTheories (rnc)
Rncsbelieve that there are or can be rules to guide our moral judgments independently of
their consequences. How these theories differ is in terms of how they establish the rules to be
followed.
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3. Divine Command
Must follow the commands (rules) of an all good being
3.1. Criticisms
o Lack of rational foundation
o Even if we could show that the rules were morally valid we could not justify
them in a satisfactory way.
o How do we interpret the rules correctly? Wide divergence of interpretation
amongst religious believers.
4. Kants Duty Ethics
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Another prominent rnc is Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
4.1. The Good Will
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Only the good will acts in accordance with rules regardless of consequences.
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4.2. Morality by Reasoning Alone
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Moral rules for Kant are established by reasoning alone, not God, according to
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o Logical consistency
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o Universalizability
Kant thought that one could deduce moral absolutes, in accordance with the above,
through the Categorical Imperative.
4.3. The Categorical Imperative (CI)
An act is immoral if the maxim (rule to follow) cannot be universalized.
Kant thought that the CI only authorized absolute rules with no exceptions.
4.4. Practical Imperative
Another version of CI says that one must never treat another as a means to an end.
Individuals are ends in themselves.
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4.5. Duty rather than Inclination
One should obey absolute rules out of a sense of duty not inclination. Someone who is
only inclined to be generous rather than generous out of duty- is not fully moral.
4.6. Summary and Illustration
Absolute moral rules are established with certainty by reason and one should obey
these rules out of a sense of duty. All persons are ends in themselves. Illustrate this
with Kants example of a suicide.
4.7. Criticisms of Kants Duty Ethics.
o Conflicting duties how to choose?
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o Many questionable values can be universalized without contradiction or
inconsistency.
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o Reversibility criterion (in relation to 2 above, Kant would reverse the question
and ask would you want it done to you?) may be implicitly consequentialist.
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I.e. would you want someone to help you in need because the consequences
are better than someone not helping you when you need help?
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o Qualifying a rule versus making exceptions to it. One may object to exceptions
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to the rule but qualifying the rule may still be consistent with CI.
o Duties versus inclinations. If duties and inclinations coincide, what is the
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difference morally?
5. Rosss Prima Facie Duties
Sir William David Ross (1877-1940) agreed with Kants rnc but not with the absolutism that
Kant derived from it.
5.1. Prima Facie Duties
Prima facie duties literally are duties at first glance. They are those duties all human
beings must obey unless other considerations enter the picture. Such considerations
may outweigh our otherwise prima facie duties. With this Ross thought Kants
absolutism and thereby conflicting duties could be avoided.
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5.2. Criticisms
o Intuitionist: what criteria determine prima facie duties?
o When is one duty stronger than another?
5.3. General Criticisms of Non-consequentialist Theories
o Why follow rules if consequences are bad?
o If rules are absolute how do we avoid conflict?
o Can a rule be exceptionless?
o Is it possible to avoid consideration of consequences in all moral judgments?
5.4. Conclusion
Non-consequentialist theories of morality have advantages and disadvantages overall:
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5.4.1 Advantages:
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o Do not have to compute consequences
o Provide strong guidance in rules
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o Ground systems on something other than consequences and avoid
cost-benefit analysis
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5.4.2 Disadvantages:
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o Ignores consequences of acts or rules
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o Divided over which rules are best to follow and why
o Unclear how to resolve conflict between rules
o Seems to close down moral discussion
Topic : Virtue Ethics
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:
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
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To understand and describe and analyze virtue ethics, from both Western and Eastern
perspectives. This will involve distinguishing the ways in which virtue ethics differs from
both consequentialist and nonconsequentialist approaches.

To understand the demonstrated investigation of the Aristotelian "good life" and the
Confucian notion of "self-cultivation."
Definition/Overview:
The overview of this topic is to describe and analyze virtue ethics, from both Western and
Eastern perspectives. This will involve distinguishing the ways in which virtue ethics differes
from both consequentialistand nonconsequentialist approaches. Central to this discussion will
be the investigation of the Aristotelian good life and the Confucian notion of self-cultivation.
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Virtue Ethics: Virtue Ethics, among the oldest of all ethical theories, has experienced
considerable resurgence in popularity over the last several decades. Rather than focus on
consequences, rules, and/or intuitions, virtue ethics focuses on the development of human
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character, the shaping or molding of a good or "virtuous" person. It is also the locus of
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fruitful comparative philosophical discussions between West and East, with particularly
striking similarities to the views of Confucius. Aristotle is regarded as main virtue ethicist.
Virtue ethics focuses on "character" and developing this character in accordance with the
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virtues.
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Virtue: that state that enables a thing to perform its function well.
Aristotle Views: Ethics is teleological and aims at some end. For Aristotle that end is
happiness. To achieve happiness for Aristotle one must live in accordance with reason, which
prescribes a virtuous life.
Goodness of Character:Natural ethical tendencies in human beings. Following these
tendencies with consistency and proportion will lead to goodness of character and aid in
living the ethical life.
Development of the Good or Virtuous Human Being: Goodness of character must be
developed by practice and habit. Practicing telling the truth, for example, will make us
truthful.
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Virtue and Vice: Virtue is mean between the extremes of vice - excess and deficiency.
Mean Determination: The mean is determined as "relative to us": too little courage is
cowardice, too much is foolhardy. Note that "relative to us" does not mean "relative" in the
sense of "relativism." There is, on Aristotle's view, an objective fact about the universe that
dictates where the mean is for any particular individual. For example, a very large adult man
would need more calories each day than a very small adult man would. The range may not be
significant, but it is distinct and "relative to the individual."
Key Points:
1. Confucian Moral Self-Cultivation
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I
.
E
The concept of virtue, de, is central to Chinese theories of moral development and the
cultivation of the self. The notion that the life of a virtuous person would have a powerful
influence on the lives of others. De is seen as the stable and guiding character from which
V
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flows good conduct, respect and loyalty, and positive power.
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.B
2. The Confucian Analects
Human beings are fundamentally social and thus defined, in part, by the relationships into
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which a person is born, into which he/she grows, and within which he/she lives.
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3. The Five Confucian Cardinal Relationships
There is a significant difference between being a good person and doing the right thing. A
bad person, for example, might well do "the right thing." Confucian relationships are a matter
of reciprocity or shu. The notion of Confucian friendship is a profitable comparison to the
Aristotelian notion. The Five Cardinal Relationships are:
o
Ruler and subject
o
Father and son
o
Husband and wife
o
Elder and younger brother
o
Between friends
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4. Confucian Harmony
Much as Aristotelian ethics is a matter of achieving a sort of balance within the soul, so one
sees in Chinese thought an aim at a grand harmony, both individual and cosmic. Two virtues
are particularly meaningful here - ren which is a matter of fellow-feeling or benevolence and
liwhich is a matter of ritual propriety and appropriateness.
5. Contemporary versions of virtue ethics
Alasdair Macintyre is the best-known proponent of contemporary virtue ethics. Human
beings must know what they are doing when they judge and act virtuously, and they should
do what is virtuous because it is so.
N
I
.
E
5.1. Advantages
o Attempts to create good human beings rather than good acts or rules
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o Virtue ethics unifies reason and emotion. Anc and Kant separate
reason/emotion
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o Emphasizes moderation and situatednessrather than absolutes or grossly
relativistic principles
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5.2. Disadvantages
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o Do humans have a telos, an end or purpose?
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o Are morals naturally implanted?
o What is virtue and what constitutes the virtues?
6. Who is the ideal virtuous person?
We all have our favorite but there is no agreement of ideal traits. Virtue ethics seems to
suggest that we merely educate the virtues creating virtuous people and moral problems are
solved.
In Section 2 of this course you will cover these topics:
Absolutism Versus Relativism
Freedom Versus Determinism
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Reward And Punishment
Topic : Absolutism Versus Relativism
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to understand:

To become familiarized with the concepts and questions that pertains to one of the most
perplexing meta-ethical issues: is morality absolute or relative?

To presents an opportunity to think about the important relationship between facts and values.
N
I
.
E
Are any facts devoid of value?

To justify how they should be, especially in the topics on sexuality, nature, animals,
V
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environment, etc., so a preparatory discussion of it now might be useful.
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.B
Definition/Overview:
The overview of this topic is to acquaint students with the concepts and questions that pertain
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to one of the most perplexing metaethical issues: is morality absolute or relative? This is
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potentially a confusing topic for students and the either/or form of the question could be one
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of the problems here. Thirouxs text does help in breaking out of this. This topic also presents
an opportunity for instructors to get students to think about the important relationship
between facts and values. Are any facts devoid of value? Students will often appeal to the
way things are to justify how they should be, especially in the later chapters on sexuality,
nature, animals, environment, etc., so a preparatory discussion of it now might be useful.
The meanings of absolute:Absolute means variously perfect, complete, certain. However
difficult to prove an absolute supernatural being exists or the presence of absolutes (laws) in
nature, let alone "natural moral laws."
The meaning of relation: Values are relative to time, place, person, situation, etc.; no values
are absolute or independent of cultures and peoples.
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Key Points:
1. Cultural relativism and cultural absolutism
1.1. Cultural relativism
o Studies by anthropologists reveal wide variation in customs, more, practices,
etc.
o Moral beliefs derive from culture.
o Different cultures believe that their morality is the one true morality.
1.2. Cultural absolutism
o Similar moral principles exist in all societies,e.g,. prohibitionon murder,
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I
.
E
truth telling, etc.
o All peoples have similar needs.
o Similarities in situations and relationships across cultures, e.g., families,
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brothers and sisters
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.B
o Similarities in sentiment, jealousy, emotion, love, need for respect, etc.
2. Evaluation of these theories
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2.1. Moral relativism
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Because cultures disagree does not mean that a particular belief cannot be right or
wrong.
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2.2. Moral absolutism
Similarities in societies does not suggest the existence of absolutes. Because people
and situations exist or behave in certain ways tells us little about what should or ought
to be the case. It appears that if absolutism is true then relativism is false and vice
versa. If absolutism is true how do we resolve the issue of conflict between them?
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3. Propositions and truth
3.1. Propositions and states of affairs
Propositions are true or false statements regarding states of affairs. States of affairs
are occurrences, events or happenings that either occurs or not. They cannot be true or
false.
3.2. Are there any absolute truths?
Truth is not dependent or contingent upon our ability to know at a given time. Truth is
based on whether state of affairs occurs.
3.3. Types of propositions
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I
.
E
3.3.1. Analytic propositions
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Logical truths - law of non-contradiction, excluded middle, identity, etc. True
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.B
by definition of terms.
3.3.2. Internal sense propositions
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Propositions that assert something of our internal state. True by experience.
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3.3.3. Empirical propositions
State of affairs that occur in the external world. True by evidence of the
senses.
3.3.4. Moral propositions
Propositions that have moral import, e.g., abortion is evil. Generally, but not
always, these propositions contain words like should, ought, right, good, etc.
3.4. Emotive Theory
If some propositions are absolutely true by virtue of logic or experience, are moral
propositions ever absolute?
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Some claim that morals are non-cognitive or "emotional" having no basis in fact.
3.4.1. Problems with the emotive theory
John Hospers has pointed out discrepancies. Moral propositions can have:
o Purpose or intention
o Effects on hearers
o Actual meaning
If a moral proposition can have these attributes then not all moral propositions
are solely emotive. Emotivist theory exaggerates its claims.
3.5. Moore's naturalistic fallacy
N
I
.
E
If we say moral propositions are not any different from empirical propositions we are
committing the "naturalistic fallacy. trying to set an "ought" from an "is." However,
V
S
some moral propositions can be clearly and logically inferred from empirical
propositions (example of AIDS).
S
.B
3.6. Moral proposition as types of empirical proposition
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Perhaps moral propositions are empirical propositions with value judgments
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3.6.1. Normative moral statements
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Some possibility that "he is a good man" could be thought similar to "that is a
green table"?
3.6.2. Prescriptive moral statements
Can prescriptive moral claims be thought true or false? Some prescriptive nonmoral statements (chess example) appear to assert something about reality,
i.e., are true or false.
3.6.3. Propositions against killing human beings
Could we make some case for moral propositions? Perhaps proposition against
killing human beings is "best case scenario."
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3.6.4. Problems with moral propositions
Tension between true propositions and human action and between
propositions that conflict. But perhaps all moral theories require some
absolute.
3.6.5. Near or almost absolutes
Perhaps the best to aim for are near or almost absolutes making sure we justify
all the exceptions.
4. Conclusion
4.1. Relativism
N
I
.
E
Are people relativists in real situations? Most will qualify this statement. What does
the need to supply or add rules to relativism tell us? Our practical lives seem to
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conflict with our relativist theories.
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.B
4.2. Absolutism
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There are absolutes in the sense of absolutely true propositions. From some of these
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we may derive "near or almost absolutes" that are moral principles "don't kill another
human being" that provide basic foundations. Each exception must be carefully
justified
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Topic : Freedom Versus Determinism
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to understand:
To become familiar with the concept that free will and determinism go to the heart of
many philosophical, sociological, psychological, economic and cultural theories and
worldviews and are certainly central to any conception of morality.
To become familiar with the concept that free will appears to separate us from nature, and
yet much recent science tells us that this not so.
To become familiar with the concept of causality is central here and instructors will need
N
I
.
E
to carefully address the perplexities and confusions that surround this notion.
Definition/Overview:
V
S
Free will and determinism go to the heart of many philosophical, sociological, psychological,
S
.B
economic and cultural theories and worldviews and are certainly central to any conception of
morality. Free will appears to separate us from nature, and yet much recent science tells us
that this not so. The concept of causality is central here and instructors will need to carefully
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address the perplexities and confusions that surround this notion. Also, the author clearly opts
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for a particular view, you will need to make decisions assuming that such a thing exists or
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that they havent been made already about whether to run with the author or not.
The meaning of determinism:Are human beings "free" to make moral decisions or are they
"determined" by forces outside of them? Determinism means universal causation. For
everything that occurs there is a corresponding cause. If this is true, how could we hold
people responsible for what they cannot help doing?
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Key Points:
1. Types and theories of determinism
1.1. Religious determinism - predestination
Religious determinism derives from attributes of God or Allah: all knowing, allpowerful being. God determines the course of events. This raises - apart from huge
issues of proof - the problem of evil and the problem of salvation.
1.2. Scientific determinism
Science is founded on universal causation and such causation means that there is no
freedom.
N
I
.
E
1.3. Physical science and physical determinism
V
S
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is greatest exponent of physical determinism. Universe
S
.B
is governed by mechanical laws. Human beings are parts of that universe. Some argue
that humans are not just physical and question physics that suggests a "freedom" even
at the most basic non-conscious level of the universe (atoms, molecules).
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1.4. Biological and genetic determinism
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Charles Darwin (1809-1882) argued that species evolve through "selection" of the
"fittest." Modern genetics complements this theory. Both physical and biological
determinism leave no room for a "mental" or "spiritual" side to our existence.
1.5. Social-cultural determinism
Cultural determinism is the belief that the culture in which we are raised determines
who we are at emotional and behavioral levels. This supports the theory that
environmental influences dominate who we are instead of biologically inherited traits.
1.6. Historical or cultural determinism
Hegel (1770-1831). World history is manifestation of "absolute mind" realizing itself.
Character and action are determined by culture.
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o Problems
o Difficult to prove
o Culture may influence but may not fully determine actions.
1.7. Economic or social determinism
Karl Marx (1818-1883). Followed Hegel but argued that history is determined
economically and socially. People are determined by class.
1.8. Psychological determinism
Psychological determinism significantly argues from observed behavior rather than
inner psychical dynamics. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) argues that human behavior is
governed by conditioning and environment, both physical and social.
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E
1.8.1 Problems
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o Conditioning may work for some under certain circumstances but not
for all of the time.
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o Skinner's premise is a totally malleable material that can be shaped with
the appropriate techniques.
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1.9. Fatalism and Hard and Soft Determinism
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1.9.1. Fatalism
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All events are fixed and beyond our control. This is not the same as saying
everything has a cause.
1.9.2. Hard determinism (HD)
Everything is caused so no free will. Humans can change the future but this
will be as a result of their own personal make-up or environment, not a free
choice.
1.9.3. Soft determinism
Everything is caused but some events are caused by humans by means of their
own minds or wills. Thus neither completely free or determined. Freedom is
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strictly limited because humans originate only some causes but are determined
by others.
1.10. Indeterminism
There is freedom and chance in the world especially when we look at human
deliberation and chose especially moral deliberation. William James (1842-1910) is
the most prominent exponent of this view. But if acts are "uncaused" or indeterminate
then nobody could be said to be responsible for them. Thus there may be accidents or
chance but not true human freedom.
1.11. Criticism of hard determinism and arguments for freedom
N
I
.
E
For hard determinists morality is an illusion. Hospers argues that we can free
ourselves of certain desires (alcoholism, smoking, etc.).
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1.12. Inaccurate use of language
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.B
Hospers argues that hard determinists have pushed the meaning of "freedom" to mean
completely free in an unlimited sense, i.e., free of biological or genetic make-up, etc.
this is ultimately self-contradictory.
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1.13. Human complexity
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HD ignores the complexity of human beings and reduces, for example, consciousness
to physical phenomenon.
2. Levels of differences
o
Rocks, plants and animals, and humans
o
The Freedom or choice seems to increase progressing up the evolutionary scale.
2.1. Existentialism and human consciousness
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) argued that humans are confronted by freedom in that
consciousness "intends" and creates experience. We make "choices" in relation
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situations that may be determined. For example, how we choose to live in relation to
those things that may be determined for us.
3. Conclusion: Soft determinism
Soft determinism appears as the best alternative. Freedom is limited by external factors of all
sorts. But we are free to choose or not choose how we react to them, to act or not to act in
relation to them. Thus it makes sense to assign moral responsibility to human beings, to
praise, blame and reward them.
Topic : Reward And Punishment
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I
.
E
V
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Topic Objective:
S
.B
At the end of this topic students will be able:

To understand that when individuals are held morally responsible then apportioning rewards
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and punishments seems appropriate.

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To understand and appreciate different types of rewards or punishments and the kinds and
types of reward and punishment that might be thought of as appropriate.

W
To understand that the concept of justice is crucial and the main forms of justice are
introduced and explicated.
Definition/Overview:
If we can be held morally responsible then apportioning rewards and punishments seems
appropriate. Who rewards or punishes and the kinds and types of reward and punishment that
might be thought appropriate are the concern of this topic. Therefore the concept of justice is
crucial and the main forms of justice are introduced and explicated.
Rewards: Something given or received in recompense for worthy behavior or in retribution
for evil acts.
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Punishments: It is the practice of imposing something unpleasant or aversive on a person,
usually in response to disobedient or morally wrong behavior.
Justice: It refers to the distribution of things and position of people within society. Closely
linked to fairness, views of what constitutes justice vary from society to society (and person
to person), but some concept of justice is one of the key features of social organization. It can
also refer to the administration of law within a society.
Key Points:
1. Elements of justice
Several elements of justice apply to reward and punishment.
N
I
.
E
1.1. What justice involves
How should we distribute justice, i.e. good and bad, right and wrong, reward and
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punishment on a just and fair basis?
S
.B
1.2. Concern with past events
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Justice concerned with the past, what has been done rather than what might or perhaps
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will be done? Rewards and punishments, of course, affect the future.
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2. Punishment to Individuals
Individuals rather than groups are punished or rewarded. Punishing groups can lead to
injustice.
3. Comparative injustice
Deals with comparisons of treatment in terms of rewards and punishment.
4. Reward
Rewards can be distributed in four ways:
o
Equally without regard to ability or merit
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o
According to ability
o
According to merit or desert
o
According to needs
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5. Criteria for rewarding people
5.1. Egalitarian criterion or equal distribution of goods and rewards
Equal distribution without regard to ability or merit. Example of Swedish hospital and
kidney dialysis. How to decide who gets dialysis when need surpasses ability to
provide. What criteria are applicable? Is a lottery the most fair and ethical means of
deciding?
N
I
.
E
5.2. Problems with equality of distribution
Egalitarian method ignores merit, ability, need, etc. Should those with differing
V
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aptitudes, skills, abilities be treated the same? Equality of consideration if they have
other Attributes - race, sex, religion, age, handicap - to what extent are these
S
.B
important factors? Are people really equal?
5.3. Production, or what people produce
W
W
Quality and/or quality production as criteria for reward. Those who produce better or
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more should be rewarded accordingly.
5.4. Effort
Reward effort regardless of quality or quantities of work. How do you reward effort?
5.5. Ability
Natural ability: Should people be rewarded for simply having ability for which they
have had no responsibility for? How should acquired ability be rewarded? Should
those with ability be rewarded even if they choose to not utilize their abilities?
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5.6. Need
Rewards based on need.
o Private need - what individuals need as a result of poverty. What should be
given? Money, jobs, scholarships? Consider the latter. Should the brightest or
the neediest get the scholarship? Does reward in terms of need eliminate
incentive? Is rewarding those in need fair to those who are talented and
hardworking?
o Public need - Reward based on fulfilling public need. Should a basketball player
receive greater rewards than a nurse?
5.7. Other criteria
N
I
.
E
o Long and expensive training including profession
o Job or profession requiring expensive equipment
o Physical danger
V
S
o Unpleasantness of job
S
.B
o Seniority
6. Theories of how to reward
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Two main theories deal with how to reward (and punish).
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6.1. Retributivism (just deserts)
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People deserve rewards (or punishments) for what they have done not for what the
consequences of what they have done may be. What they have done is primarily
assessed in terms of effort.
6.2. Utilitarianism (results)
Utilitarianism is based on good consequences for everyone affected by acts or rules.
Reward only on the basis of bringing this about. Does this tend to reward results, not
hard work or desert? Could reward an undeserving person simply because to do so
may bring good results.
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7. John Rawls and the Theory of Justice
John Rawls (1921-2002) is another prominent nonconsequentialist, especially his "Theory of
Justice."
7.1. Natural rights versus rights of a just society
In the tradition from Locke to Nozick, human rights have been seen as natural rights.
American Declaration of Independence founded on this principle. Where do these
natural rights come from?
7.2. Rawls rights
For Rawls rights are given through a just society. A just society is founded on those
N
I
.
E
principles that we would agree to from behind a veil of ignorance.
7.3. Basic Principles
V
S
S
.B
Two basic principles according to Rawls would be adopted:
o Equality principle - equal rights to maximum liberty;
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o Difference principle - inequality is acceptable if everyone benefits and has
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equal opportunity to receive such benefits.
These principles together would create a just society for Rawls and ought to be
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accepted given that no one will know in advance how the principles will work out for
them.
7.4. Difference between Rawls and Nozick
Rawls is liberal, Nozick is libertarian. For Nozick, liberty is the good that society
ought to protect. For Rawls, society needs to protect a range of goods. For Rawls,
ultimately wealth belongs to society for Nozick, it belongs to individuals.
7.5. Advantages and disadvantages of Rawls
o Fits with ideals of liberal capitalism: individual freedoms, equitable
distribution of wealth.
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o Is a "veil of ignorance" possible?
o Is Rawls' theory any better than its competitors?
8. Punishment
Moral or legal punishment usually involved four elements:
o
It must involve unpleasantness
o
Punishment must be given or done for some thing
o
It should be imposed or given by those with requisite authority
o
It must be imposed according to laws or rules violated by offender
o
Justice perhaps best served by law rather than private individuals for two reasons:
o
Private punishment looks more like vengeance than justice
o
Public punishment more amenable to justice being carried out
N
I
.
E
8.1. Theories of punishment
V
S
o Retributive, or deserts, theory
S
.B
o Punishment only when it is deserved not in order to accomplish anything,
such as deter. Imposed because of a crime committed not a social good to
be achieved.
W
8.2. Why crime requires punishment
Two reasons:
W
W
o Re-establish balance of morality - "scale of justice"
o Eliminate or set right advantages achieved to wrong doers
8.3. Problems with determining desert
8.3.1. How to match crime to punishment
Desert theory need not consider mercy or forgiveness. Should a crime
committed a lifetime ago be punished equally with the same crime committed
yesterday? Should a "mercy killing" be punished equally with a cold-blooded
murder?
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8.3.2. Problem of mercy
Should mercy be shown to criminals? To all, some, none? Should
retributivistsstick solely to idea that punishment is based on desert?
Problem of determining seriousness of offenses and punishment
What are the most serious offenses and punishments? In some cultures
stealing is punished with death or hands are cut off. What offenses deserve
what punishments?
"An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth"
o Mirror-image theory: punishment mirrors crime
N
I
.
E
o Punishment should be suitable, appropriate for the crime
8.3.3. Utilitarian or results theory
V
S
Punishment is future oriented - looks to consequences/results.
S
.B
Two sanctions:
W
o Internal- directed to conscience, guilt, shame
W
o External- laws or penalties imposed.
These sanctions are justified by the good consequences or results they bring
W
about. If punishment rates better than some other practice, then justified.
8.3.4. Consequences for the offender
Should punishment bring about good consequence for offender? Aim at
rehabilitation or reform. Can and should offenders be treated?
8.3.5. Consequences for potential offenders deterrence. Does punishment
deter?
o No real evidence that punishment deters. Not public
o Using criminal as "means to an end"
o If punishment deters then works with innocent as well as guilty
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8.3.6.. Effects on society at large - protection
How effective is punishment in protecting society in the long run? Would
other means serve us better?
9. Problem with justice
o
For the utilitarian punishment is justified by utilizing justice.
o
Aims more at social engineering.
o
Restitution, or compensation for victims theory. Justice is served only if victims are
compensated.
10. Crime against State, not individual
N
I
.
E
Is crime a violation of the individual or State? Compensation necessary for individual to
counteract crime against State. Restitution fits quite well with our other two main theories
V
S
10.1. Problems
S
.B
o How much restitution is sufficient?
o Should rich criminals pay more than poor ones?
W
o Can old or sick criminals be expected to compensate their victims?
W
o Does not distinguish between intentional and unintentional injury or harm
W
11. Is a synthesis possible?
Could a synthesis of the three theories work?
o Retributivism - desert or merit as reward but not exclusively. Innocent
should not be punished and punishment "fit the crime."
o Utilitarianism - modify or moderate rewards or punishments according to
usefulness, especially those that seem harsh or unfair.
o Restitution - compensation can bring about good consequences to the most
deserving of victims.
12. Some other possibilities for the distribution of goods or rewards
Distribute goods equitably in terms of need and moderate according to desert, or merit or
ability or as a result of productivity, effort, etc.
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13. Conclusion
A synthetic approach appears best for both reward and punishment without losing sight of
need and the egalitarian approach.
In Section 3 of this course you will cover these topics:
Setting Up A Moral System: Basic Assumptions And Basic Principles
The Taking Of Human Life
Allowing Someone To Die, Mercy Death And Mercy Killing
N
I
.
E
Topic : Setting Up A Moral System: Basic Assumptions And Basic Principles
Topic Objective:
S
.B
At the end of this topic students will be able:

V
S
W
To understand and appreciate about how to deal with a number of issues that up to this point
W
have been left unresolved. Those issues are:
W
o Consequentialism and Nonconsequentialism
o Self and Other,
o Act and Rule,
o Reason and Emotion,
o Absolute and relative,
o Universal and particular.

To appreciate that with the most basic poles of ethics, there is a lack of closure and this will
no doubt leave some students frustrated and disappointed. To address this, it is proposed to
state and justify basic principles that form the basis for an ethical system that is referred to
here as humanitarian ethics.
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Definition/Overview:
This topic tries to deal with a number of issues that up to this point have been left unresolved.
These includeconsequentialism and nonconsequentialism, self and other, act and rule, reason
and emotion, absolute and relative, universal and particular. These are some of the most basic
poles of ethics and the lack of closure will no doubt have left some of the students frustrated
and disappointed. To address the proposes to state and justify five basic principles that form
the basis for an ethical system that the author calls humanitarian ethics.
Moral System: In ethics, a morality can be defined as having three essential components:
o
A community of responsible agents, for morality concerns our behavior towards others and
their behavior towards us.
o
N
I
.
E
A shared set of nonmaterial values, such as fairness, truth, and compassion, the pursuit of
which constitutes one aim of community life (this distinguishes a morality from an economic
system).
o
V
S
A way of life involving a code of behavior (this distinguishes a morality from, say, a set of
S
.B
aesthetic values).
Key Points:
W
W
This topic aims at synthesizing the various theories and frameworks to move towards a
workable ethical system.
W
1. Consequentialismversus nonconsequentialism
Basic concern for consequences in any moral system but be aware that end does not justify
means.
2. Self versus other - interestedness
Need to bring about best consequences for all including self.
3. Act versus rule
Act approach allows for more freedom, rules for more stability. Try to make both works
together.
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4. Emotion versus reason
System should be based on reason without excluding emotions.
5. Basic assumptions
o
Rationally based
o
Logically consistent
o
Universalizable
o
Should be teachable
o
Have the ability to resolve conflicts
6. Including the rational and emotional aspects
N
I
.
E
6.1. Human nature - rational and emotional
Humans are both rational and emotional. But moral appeals to emotion alone solve
V
S
nothing
S
.B
6.2. Emotion
W
Reason should guide the emotions but recognize the prominent role they play.
W
6.3. Reason
W
Reason is a power and reasoning is the exercise of that power. There are formal rules
for reasoning that all can learn to support decisions we make.
6.3.1 Reasoning implies:
o Logical argument
o Logical consistency
o Detachment from feelings
o A common means to arbitrate differences
6.4. Logical consistency with flexibility
Consistency: Similar claim/obligation/right, etc. in like circumstance but this should
not become an absolutism divorced from complexity of reality.
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7. Including universality and particularity
7.1. Universality
Moral system must be broad based enough to include as many as possible.
7.2. Particularity
Shouldn't be so general as to not apply to particular situations and individuals.
Ability to be taught and promulgated. Moral system must be able to be taught or
disseminated.
7.3. Ability to resolve conflicts
N
I
.
E
If a system cannot decide between interests then not a good theory. If not capable of
resolving conflicts then not much use to people. If these are the assumptions of our
V
S
moral system, what basic principles support them?
S
.B
8. Choosing principles
W
8.1. Golden rule
W
"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."
W
o Cannot be only principle since others must want different things than we do
o Doesn't tell us what to do; only a basis for evaluating what we have chosen to
do
8.2. The value of life principle (all life or just human life?)
"Human beings should revere life and accept death." All ethical systems concern
themselves with the value of some lives.
8.3. Justification of value of life principle
Life is basic without which no good or bad. Individuals have right to life and death,
unless justification can be shown otherwise. Value of life empirically proven.
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8.4. The principle of goodness or rightness
Always try to do good and avoid doing harm. Ethicists argue over how to achieve this
but most agree that this is a sound objective.
8.5. Justification of the principle of goodness
If one accepts morality one is committed to the idea of goodness in one way or
another. Although ethicists differ some agree on the basic goods. Pluralism is the idea
that there are many (more than one) goods. Principle of goodness is logically prior.
8.6. Principles of justice or fairness
Human beings should treat others fairly and justly. Justification: If goods are to be
N
I
.
E
shared they should be shared justly. Each should have an equal opportunity to acquire
the goods of society. Recognize equality of human beings and yet allow for individual
V
S
difference.
S
.B
8.7. Principle of truth-telling or honesty
Moral systems cannot function without this principle, ideas cannot be communicated
W
or agreements made if real doubt about the honesty of those involved.
W
8.7.1. Justification
W
This principle is necessary but perhaps the hardest to comply with. Because of
this vulnerability carefully justified exceptions are allowable but a very strong
attempt must be made to be truthful and honest in all relationships.
8.8. The principle of individual freedom
Principle of autonomy means that individuals must have freedom to choose how to be
moral with the framework of the first four basic principles.
8.8.1. Justification
Each person is unique and each has different needs, abilities, talents, etc. Must
recognize and allow for this. For a moral system to work individuals need
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latitude to make decisions and choices appropriate for their individual
differences.
8.9. Priority of basic principles
Two ways in which priority of principles may be determined:
o General: logical and empirical
o Particular: actual situation or context
9. A general way of determining priority - two categories
9.1. The primary category
Logical priority (goodness) and empirical priority (value of life)
N
I
.
E
9.2. Secondary category
V
S
Covers the other three principles. The principles of goodness and value of life are
S
.B
essential to any moral system, although one may take precedence over the other. The
other three principles are interchangeable among themselves but not with the first two
principles.
W
W
10. Particular way of determining priority
W
The five principles must be applicable in real moral situations and these situations will
determine the priority that one gives to the principles. This is an example of a mixed
deontological approach to ethics. This system is then tested with the examples of marriage
and rape.
11. Conclusion
The five principles together constitute what the author calls "humanitarian ethics" and allows
for diversity and variety in the context of stability and rationality.
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Topic : The Taking Of Human Life
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:

To understand some of the basic arguments for and against the taking of human life in
various contexts (suicide, defense of the innocent, war, terrorism, capital punishment, etc.)
are laid out here and examined.

To understand so-called "seamless garment" position appears consistent since the position
here is an opposition to the taking of human life across the board and in every context.

To understand that for or some this is too "absolutist" and so each situation where life is at
N
I
.
E
stake needs to be carefully examined and to see where exceptions may be justified.
Definition/Overview:
V
S
In this topic some of the basic arguments for and against the taking of human life in various
S
.B
contexts (suicide, defense of the innocent, war, terrorism, capital punishment, etc.) are laid
out here and examined. The so-called seamless garment position appears consistent since the
W
position here is an opposition to the taking of human life across the board and in every
W
context. For some this is too absolutist and so each situation where life is at stake needs to be
carefully examined and to see where exceptions may be justified.
W
This topic examines the different types of situations involving the taking of human life and
explores how basic principles can be applied to them.
Suicide: Suicide is the act of intentionally terminating one's own life.
Killing: To put to death
Murder: Unlawful killing with malice and forethought
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Key Points:
1. Arguments against the morality of suicide
1.1. The irrationality of suicide
Suicides are mentally ill. If not a rational act, then immoral. Evidence that many
suicides are rational, e.g., Socrates.
1.2. Argument for the morality of suicide
o Rights over one's own body and life
o Only the individual knows whether their life is worth living. Do not,
however have absolute rights over our life and freedom if those rights
N
I
.
E
curtail others' rights to life and freedom, etc
1.3. The Religious argument
V
S
Only God has authority to give and take life.
S
.B
o Should not be imposed on non-religious
o Presupposes that God intervenes directly in human affairs as prime cause of
W
life and death. This means that human beings do not ultimately or should
W
not make decisions and take responsibility for direct care of human life.
W
1.4. The Domino argument
o If allow human life to be taken in some then you open the door for its being
taken in other instances.
o The justice argument
o Those who survive a suicide pay an unjust penalty.
2. Defense of the Innocent (the self included)
2.1. Argument against killing in defense of the innocent
o Taking of human life is always wrong. May not kill, not even in selfdefense.
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o Criticism: Does not take into consideration all complexities of situations,
especially where some do not respect the rights of others and can only be
stopped by being killed themselves.
2.2. Argument for killing in defense of the innocent
o Moral obligation to protect innocents when another does not value others
lives
o Good of defending innocent outweighs the bad of killing a person who kills
or threatens to kill innocents.
o Criticism: Violence breeds violence the domino effect. Who decides
innocence and guilt here?
3. War
N
I
.
E
3.1. Arguments against the morality of war
o Direct violation of value of life principle
V
S
o Bad far outweighs good
S
.B
3.2. Arguments for the morality of war
o War as controller of overpopulation
W
o War as the mother of invention
W
o War as boon to economic gain and national unity
W
o War as necessary just war argument
These arguments cannot support nuclear war.
4. Terrorism
War against civilians with the objective of protecting certain ideas, policies, beliefs, etc.
4.1. Argument in support of terrorism
o Only sure-fire way of getting recognition
o Peaceful protest doesn't work - indeed most often gets you beaten or killed
4.2. Argument against terrorism
o Excessive violence against innocent cannot be morally condoned
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o Terrorism leads to more terrorism from the other side
5. Capital Punishment
5.1. Definition
Capital punishment - inflicting death for capital crimes like murder
5.2. Theories of punishment
o Retribution - punish only those who deserve it because of some act.
Punishment should fit crime.
o Utilitarian - punish to advance good of society, if it brings about good
consequences, i.e., deter crime, protect people, etc.
N
I
.
E
o Restitution - compensation for harms done
5.3. Arguments against the morality of capital punishment
V
S
o Violation of value of life principle
o Effect on criminal's victims or on society
S
.B
o Ineffectiveness as a deterrent
o Executing an innocent person
W
o Denial of chance for rehabilitation
W
5.4. Argument for capital punishment
W
o Effective deterrent
o Economic argument - (costs too much to keep in prison)
o Effect upon society's laws - (sanction argument)
o Forfeiture of killer's rights
o Uselessness of rehabilitation
o Revenge
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Topic : Allowing Someone To Die, Mercy Death And Mercy Killing
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:
To understand and to become familiar with the term Euthanasia
To understand about allowing someone to die
To understand, what mercy death and mercy killing mean
Definition/Overview:
N
I
.
E
In this topic the issue of euthanasia is examined. The author uses slightly different
terminology. The standard terminology isnt settled but instructors will have to make up their
V
S
own minds whether the terms used here offer any advantages. In the US the development of
S
.B
hospice appears to have changed the nature of the debate and Jack Kevorkian is behind lock
and key. In any case, this is a complex and fascinating topic and goes right to the heart of the
difficult philosophical question regarding the meaning of life and death
W
W
Euthanasia: "Good death." Author replaces euthanasia with allowing someone to die, mercy
death and mercy killing.
W
Allowing someone to die: The standard terminology isn't settled but instructors will have to
make up their own minds whether the terms used here offer any advantages. In the US the
development of hospice appears to have changed the nature of the debate and Jack Kevorkian
is behind lock and key. In any case, this is a complex and fascinating topic and goes right to
the heart of the difficult philosophical question regarding the meaning of life and death.
Mercy death: Direct action to terminate patient's life upon request - assisted suicide.
Mercy killing: Direct action to terminate a patient's life without the patient requesting it.
Brain death: Medically death now defined as "brain death." Heart and lungs may still
function but little or no brain activity.
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Key Points:
1. Current legal status of mercy death and mercy killing
Thirty-two States specifically prohibit mercy death (assisted suicide) and generally illegal
under homicide statues. Mercy killing is outlawed in all states and most countries.
2. Persistent vegetative state (PVS) or irreversible coma
Distinct from brain death. PVS results from cerebral, cortex, neocortex or "front brain" death.
This controls cognitive functioning. More basic heart and lung systems still function unaided
since controlled by the other parts of the brain. May be awake but no conscious interaction
with environment.
N
I
.
E
3. Allowing someone to die
Die a natural death without interference from medical science. However, many are now aided
V
S
by new technologies that raise issues of quality of life and end of life care, prompting claims
S
.B
that we need new ways of "allowing someone to die."
3.1. Arguments against allowing someone to die
W
W
o Abandonment of patients
o Possibility of finding cures
W
o Impossibility of options for death
o Interference with God's divine plan
3.2. Arguments for allowing someone to die
o Individual rights over bodies and lives
o Shortening of period of suffering
o The right to die with dignity
4. Ordinary and extraordinary means
4.1. Extraordinary or heroic means
Starting or discontinuing rare, unusual, risky or expensive treatment. To what lengths
should doctors go to save lives? In certain situations doctors are justified in using
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extraordinary means to save a patient's life though they are not obligated to use such
means indefinitely.
4.2. Ordinary means
Controlling pain and other symptoms, but rare cases are unclear.
5. Appropriate or inappropriate care
Defined by reference to patient rather than as with ordinary and extraordinary by reference to
patients generally.
5.1. Patient self-determination act (PSDA)
N
I
.
E
Act of Congress (1990) stipulating rights of patients, especially the right to formulate
advance directives.
V
S
5.2. Advance directives
S
.B
Allow patients to state the kind of care they wish to receive if they become too ill to
communicate their wishes to others.
W
5.3. The hospice approach to care for the dying
W
W
Hospice is most prevalent approach to terminally ill in the U.S. Involves seven
elements:
o Comforting and caring for patients
o A team approach
o Pain and symptom control
o Outpatient and home care
o Humanized inpatient care
o Freedom from financial worry
o Bereavement counseling and assistance
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6. Mercy death
Assisted suicide: Direct action taken to terminate life at patients request.
6.1. Arguments against mercy death
o The irrationality of mercy death
o The religious argument
o The Domino argument
o The justice argument
o The possibility of finding cures
o The Hospice alternative
6.2. Arguments for mercy death
N
I
.
E
o Individual freedom and rights
o Human rights versus animal rights
V
S
6.3. Changes in attitude to mercy death
S
.B
Hemlock society and Dr. Jack Kevorkian have both continually advocated for mercy
death.
6.4. Court decision
W
W
W
Death with Dignity act passed in Oregon, 1994.
6.5. Pending legislation
AMA and government have opposed Oregonlaw.
6.6. Lack of autonomy of patients in medical care
Lack of autonomy of patients in medical care because physicians and pharmacists
have control over drugs and technologies.
6.7. Health care personnel have practical forms of assisted suicide
Many doctors and nurses are already assisting in patient suicides.
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6.8. Strong desire for greater autonomy and control over life and death
Patients who have terminal conditions often want autonomy to decide their own
death, including physician assistance.
6.9. Suggested safeguards for mercy death
o Permissive rather than compulsory or mandatory
o A written request
o A waiting period
o Counseling
o More than one doctor
o Abuse of safeguards punishable
N
I
.
E
o Assisted suicide should be painless
6.10. Other safeguards:
V
S
o Judge approval
S
.B
o Bioethics committee
Although these two are restrictive, would make questionable mercy death very difficult.
W
7. Mercy killing
W
Direct action but not at patients request
W
7.1. Arguments against mercy killing
o Direct violation of the value of life principle
o The Domino argument
o The possibility of finding cures
7.2. Arguments for mercy killing
o Mercy for the living dead
o Financial and emotional burdens
o The patients desire to die
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7.3. The possibility of establishing legal safeguards
If mercy death and killing were sanctioned they would be abused. Can establish
safeguards against some but perhaps not all-possible abuse.
In Section 4 of this course you will cover these topics:
Abortion
Lying, Cheating, Breaking Promises, And Stealing
Morality, Marriage, And Human Sexuality
Topic : Abortion
N
I
.
E
Topic Objective:
V
S
At the end of this topic students will be able:
S
.B
To understand and become familiar with the term Abortion
To understand the for and against argument regarding abortion
W
W
To understand, what are the safeties of abortion
W
Definition/Overview:
In this topic issues of when life ends were controversial but have tended to settle medically at
least around establishing brain death. In this topic some of the arguments for and against
abortion revolve around when life, personhood or the ascription of moral value begins. If the
brain is used again as a guide then the development of the brain is crucial. There is a kind of
stalemate affecting each of the positions and currently some of the rights and freedoms
established in Roe v. Wade are being slowly whittled away. Abortion touches on some of the
toughest moral issues of all especially regarding when life begins and the values we give to
lives.
Abortion: An abortion is the removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus,
resulting in or caused by its death. The moral and legal aspects of abortion are subject to
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intense social debate in many parts of the world. Aspects of this debate can include the public
health impact of unsafe or illegal abortion as well as legal abortion's effect upon crime rates,
and the ramifications of sex-selective practices.
Zygote: A zygote (from Greek ζυγωτόςzugōtos "joined" or "yoked", from ζυγοῦνzugoun "to
join" or "to yoke") is a cell that is the result of fertilization. That is, two haploid cellsusually
an ovum from a female and a sperm cell from a malemerge into a single diploid cell called
the zygote (or zygocyte).
Key Points:
1. Value of life principle versus principle of individual freedom
N
I
.
E
When does life begin and when should it be protected? Extreme positions on each side both
support absolute rights.
V
S
1.1. Abortion in American history
S
.B
o In 1800 abortion was tolerated.
o In 1900 abortion was banned in every state.
o In 1973 Roe v. Wade overturned laws against abortion.
W
2. The legal status of abortion in the United States
W
W
Legality of abortion based on "trimester" approach:
o
1st trimester - permitted without exception
o
2nd trimester - permitted with restrictions
o
3rd trimester - prohibited except threat to life or health of woman
3. When does human life begin?
o
Life is present from conception but may be different point at which such a life can be
considered human.
o
The concept passes through various stages of development. The closer to "viability" the more
"human" it becomes.
o
Difficult to state that, in earliest stages, the life is fully human. Equally difficult to state that
after the twelfth week this is not an actual human life.
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3.1. Arguments against abortion
o Genetic view of the beginning of human life
o Sanctity or value of life argument
o The Domino argument
o The dangers of abortion to the mother's life
o Medical
o Psychological
N
I
.
E
o The relative safety of pregnancy
o The existence of viable alternatives
V
S
o The irrelevance of economic considerations
S
.B
o Responsibility for sexual activities
W
o Rape and incest
W
3.2. Arguments for abortion
W
o Rights of women over their bodies
o Birth as the beginning of human life
o Problem of unwanted or deformed children
Adoption as poor solution
Lack of human institutions
o Relative safety of abortion
Medical
Psychological
o Refutation of the Domino argument
o Danger of pregnancy to mother's life
o Rape and incest
o Responsibility for sexual activity
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o Abortion as woman's choice
3.3. The more moderate position on abortion
o Unresolvable conflicts of absolutes
o Problem of when life begins
Topic : Lying, Cheating, Breaking Promises, And Stealing
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:
N
I
.
E
To understand and become familiar with the term Lying and arguments for and against
V
S
on Lying
S
.B
To understand and become familiar with the term cheating and arguments for and
against on Lying
W
To understand and become familiar with the term breaking promises and arguments for
W
and against breaking promises
W
To understand and become familiar with the term stealing and arguments for and against
stealing.
Definition/Overview:
The issues that make up the content of this topic constitute the basic fabric of everyday moral
life cutting across our public and private lives. All of us will have experience with at least one
of these topics.
Lying: A lie is a type of deception in the form of an untruthful statement with the intention to
deceive, often with the further intention to maintain a secret or reputation, protect someone's
feelings or to avoid a punishment. To lie is to state something one believes is false with the
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intention that it be taken for the truth by someone else. Lying is typically used to refer to
deceptions in oral or written communication.
Cheating: It is an act of lying, deception, fraud, trickery, imposture, or imposition. Cheating
characteristically is employed to create an unfair advantage, usually in one's own interest, and
often at the expense of others. Cheating implies the breaking of rules. The term "cheating" is
less applicable to the breaking of laws, as illegal activities are referred to by specific legal
terminology such as fraud or corruption. Cheating is a primordial economic act: getting more
for less often used when referring to marital infidelity.
Breaking Promises: A promise is a psychological contract indicating a transaction between
two persons whereby the first person undertakes in the future to render some service or gift to
the second person or devotes something valuable now and here to his or her use. A promise
N
I
.
E
may also refer to any kind of vow or guarantee and if it is broken then it is known as breaking
promises.
V
S
Stealing: It is the illegal taking of another person's property without that person's freely-
S
.B
given consent.
Key Points:
W
W
1. Non-consequentalistand Consequentialist views
W
1.1. Role non-consequentialists views
Opposed to the four acts: Kant, for example, the acts cannot be universalized
1.2. Consequentialist and act non-consequentialistviews
1.2.1. Act non-consequentialism
If one feels like lying or cheating then its okay.
1.2.2. Consequentialism
The four acts may or may not be justifiable depending upon the perceived
consequences.
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2. Lying
2.1. Arguments against lying
o Dupes and deprives others
o Causes distrust in human relationships
o The Domino argument
o Unfair advantage or power for liars
o Self-destructiveness of lying
o Effect of lying on society
2.2. Arguments for lying
o Defense of the innocent, including self-defense
N
I
.
E
o National security
o Trade secrets in business
o "Little white lies"
V
S
2.3. Moderate position
S
.B
o Lying only acceptable to save life or as last resort
o How you tell the truth - different ways of telling truth
W
3. Cheating
W
3.1. Arguments against
W
o Unfair and unjust to others
o Falsified qualifications
o Effects on the cheater
3.2. Arguments for cheating
o Surviving and winning
o Everybody does it
o As long as you don't get caught
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4. Breaking promises
4.1. Implies certain agreements
o Breaking promises is a form of dishonesty
o A person's word as an indication of person's integrity and reputation
4.2. Arguments against breaking promises
o Destruction of personal relationships
o Domino theory
o Effects on people's life choices
o Destruction of general social trust
o Loss of personal integrity
N
I
.
E
4.3. Arguments for breaking promises
o Changed circumstances
V
S
o When there are moral conflicts
S
.B
o When it's a trivial issue
o Where unusual situations justify it
o No promise is sacred
W
5. Stealing
W
5.1. Arguments against stealing
W
o Property rights
o Breakdown of trust
o Invasion of privacy
o Domino argument
o Material losses to victim
o Effect on thief
o Overall effect on society
5.2. Arguments for stealing
o Corrupt economic system
o Crucial emergency situation
o Thrills and adventure
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o From institutions and organizations
o As long as you don't get caught
o Military and government secrets
Topic : Morality, Marriage, And Human Sexuality
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:
To understand and become familiar with the concept of morality
N
I
.
E
To understand and become familiar with the concept of marriage
V
S
To understand and become familiar with the term human sexuality
S
.B
Definition/Overview:
W
The topics link up with the lying, cheating, breaking promises, and stealing topic and the
topic on abortion since sexuality is behind a good deal of lying, cheating, etc., as well as
W
abortion and numerous other topics. Quite a few of these topics are covered here and the
W
advantage of this approach is that students will come away with a broader sense of concept in
sexual morality than they might otherwise get from studying pornography or prostitution on
their own.
Morality: In its first descriptive usage, morality means a code of conduct held to be
authoritative in matters of right and wrong. Morals are created by and define society,
philosophy, religion, or individual conscience. In its second, normative and universal sense,
morality refers to an ideal code of conduct, one which would be espoused in preference to
alternatives by all rational people, under specified conditions.
Marriage: Marriage is an ordained union of individuals. This union may also be called
matrimony, while the ceremony that marks its beginning is usually called a wedding and the
status created is sometimes called wedlock. Marriage is an institution in which interpersonal
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relationships (usually intimate and sexual) are acknowledged by the state or by religious
authority.
Human Sexuality: Gender identity or human sexuality is a person's own sense of
identification as male or female. The term is intended to distinguish this psychological
association, from physiological and sociological aspects of gender.
Key Points:
1. Human Sexuality
1.1. Major aspects of human sexuality
o Public aspect adversely affects others not directly involved
N
I
.
E
o Private aspect directly affects consenting adults only
1.2. Meaning and purpose of human sexuality
V
S
o Procreation
S
.B
o Pleasure
o Expression of love
o Expression of friendship/liking
W
1.3. Moral issues and the public aspect of human sexuality
W
W
o Rape, child molestation and sadism considered harmful to the public and controlled
by law
o Pornography, homosexuality, sex outside marriage, prostitution, masturbation,
nonmonogamous marriage and unnatural or perverted sex are all activities
considered by some to be against public interest
1.4. Arguments against sexual freedom
o Violation of tradition and family values
o Domino argument
o Offense to public taste
o Social diseases and AIDS
1.5. Arguments for sexual freedom
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o Individual freedom
o Traditions seen as irrelevant
o Refutation of the Domino argument
o Offensive to public taste (dont do, look, buy, etc. of??)
o Social diseases and AIDS promote responsibility without restricting choice
2. Premarital sex
2.1. Arguments against Premarital Sex
o The undermining of traditional morality and family values
o The encouragement of promiscuity
o Social diseases and AIDS
o Fostering of guilt and ostracism
N
I
.
E
o Having children
o The compatibility and experience fallacy
V
S
2.2. Arguments in favor of Premarital Sex
S
.B
o The obsolescence of the old traditions
o Social diseases and AIDS - responsibility without elimination of choice
o The promiscuity fallacy
W
o The guilt and ostracism fallacy
W
o Contraception and responsibility
W
o Sexual experience and compatibility
o Sexual pleasure
o A private, not a public matter
3. Sex in marriage type relationships (including non-legal)
3.1. Purpose of sex in this relationship
o Intimate expression of love
o Procreation
3.2. Various types of marriage relationships
o Monogamy: a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse at any
one time. In current usage monogamy often refers to having one sexual partner
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irrespective of marriage or reproduction. The term is applied also to the social
behavior of some animals, referring to the state of having only one mate at any
one time.
o Polygamy: is a marriage which includes more than two partners.[1] When a man is
married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny, and
there is no marriage bond between the wives; and when a woman is married to
more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry, and there is no marriage
bond between the husbands. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives,
it can be called group marriage.
o Group Marriage: also known as multi-lateral marriage is a form of polyamory in
which more than two persons form a family unit, with all the members of the
group marriage being considered to be married to all the other members of the
N
I
.
E
group marriage, and all members of the marriage share parental responsibility for
any children arising from the marriage. No country legally condones group
marriages, either under the law or as a common law marriage.
V
S
3.3. Arguments against non-monogamous marriages
S
.B
o Bible advocates marriage
o Tradition
W
o Exclusivity required by law
W
o Social diseases and AIDS eliminated (or greatly reduced)
W
o Better for children
3.4. Argument in favor of non-monogamous marriages
o Encourages alternative lifestyles and arrangements where all enter freely and
willingly into
4. Homosexual marriage - Purpose of sex as an expression of love
4.1. Arguments against homosexuality
o "Unnatural" and "perverse"
o Against laws of God
o Sets bad example for children
o Homosexuals regarded as main cause of AIDS
o Offensive to "family values"
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4.2. Arguments for homosexuality
o Non conclusive "proof" of "natural" laws or God's law
o Private issue (recent Supreme Court decision striking down Texas sodomy laws)
o No link between homosexuality and inclination to child abuse
o Non incompatibility between homosexuality and "family values"
5. Adultery
5.1. Arguments against
o Violation of most personal and intimate human contract
o Bad consequences for all affected
5.2. Arguments for
N
I
.
E
o Private sexual freedom
o Need not be bad consequences if affairs conducted discreetly
V
S
6. Masturbation
S
.B
6.1. Arguments against
o Religious - abusing oneself
o Domino argument
W
W
6.2. Arguments for
W
o Natural and harmless and safe
7. Pornography
7.1. Arguments against
o Degrading to human beings
o Criminal - causes harm
o Degrading to women
o Encourages "perversions"
7.2. Arguments for
o Individual discretion
o No proof of degradation
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o Help to eliminate repression
o Crimes covered by other laws
o "Exploitation" is matter of opinion
8. Prostitution
8.1. Arguments against
o Extramarital and commercialized sex is immoral
o Causes crime
o Social diseases and AIDS
8.2. Arguments for prostitution
o Safe sexual release
N
I
.
E
o Victimless crime
o Social acceptance and governmental control
8.3. Sexual perversion or "unnatural" sexual activity
V
S
S
.B
o Conservative view: All bad
o Liberal view: Varies, some bad, some okay, so long as consenting adults is okay.
W
W
In Section 5 of this course you will cover these topics:
Bioethics Ethical Issues In Medicine
W
Business And Media Ethics
Environmental Ethics
Topic : Bioethics Ethical Issues In Medicine
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able:
To understand and become familiar with the concept of Bio ethics
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To become familiar with the rights and obligations of bio ethics
To become familiar with the ethical issues in medicine
Definition/Overview:
This topic engages a range of issues that revolve around the rights and obligations of those
involved in health care either as patient, a member of the patients family, or health care
professional and associates. The topics of truth, confidentiality, informed consent, research
and experimentation are broad- but here explored specifically in the context of medicine - and
apply to many areas of professional concern including education, law and other fields.
Bioethics: Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by
N
I
.
E
advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that
arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law,
philosophy, and theology.
V
S
Paternalism: Paternalism refers usually to an attitude or a policy stemming from the
S
.B
hierarchic pattern of a family based on patriarchy, that is, there is a figurehead (the father,
pater in Latin) that makes decisions on behalf of others (the "children") for their own good,
W
even if this is contrary to their wishes.
W
Key Points:
W
1. Health care professionals and patients and the families rights and obligations
1.1. Paternalism
Relation between doctors and patients is like parent and child.
1.2. Engineering model
Value-free or purely technical approach to patients.
1.3. Priestly model
Opposite of engineering model doctor-priest does what is considered best by avoiding
harm.
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1.4. Radical individualism
Patients have absolute rights over their bodies.
1.5. Reciprocal view
Patients, families and health workers make decisions together as part of a team
approach. This can develop into two models:
o Collegial model patient and doctor as colleagues
o Contractual model covenant between doctor and patient
2. Truth letting and informed consent
Two issues:
N
I
.
E
o To what extent should patients be told the truth?
o Informed consent as formalized procedure for patient to accede to treatment.
V
S
2.1. Paternalistic view of truth telling
S
.B
Patients have a right to know the truth about their condition even if it will affect them
adversely.
W
W
2.2. Moderate position
W
In between- telling patients what they want to know when they want to know it.
Requires careful judgments about patients and their capacity to deal with the truth.
2.3. Informed consent
Now necessary because of complexity of medical procedures. In order to fully and
intelligently consent to such procedures the patients must be thoroughly informed
about the details, effects, complications etc.?
2.4. Doctors reactions to truth telling and informed consent
o Patient doesnt need to be fully informed
o Patients often dont want to hear complicated explanations
o Risks shouldnt frighten patients
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o Risk may deter patients from agreeing to necessary procedures
o Psychosomatic risks
2.5. Patients and families reactions to truth telling
Patients may deny existence of their conditions but may want to know the truth.
Patients and families should be kept as fully informed as possible, especially when it
is clear they do want to know.
3. Confidentiality
o Confidentiality problematic in relation to STDs.
o Positive HIV tests and AIDS
o Spouses and partners
N
I
.
E
Should spouses or partners of HIV positive patients be told if the patient is unwilling
to tell them? HIV positive patients are protected by confidentiality procedures.
V
S
3.1. Health caregivers with HIV/AIDS
S
.B
Should caregivers have the same protection/confidentiality, etc. as patients?
3.2. Guilt and innocence in treating patients
W
W
Do judgments regarding the extent to which patients are responsible for their
W
condition affect the quality of care they receive? Should this be the case?
4. Ethical issues in medicine
4.1. Ethics and behavior control
Should behaviors considered socially unacceptable be controlled by medical
technologies?
4.2. Problems with behavior control
What is normal behavior? Who decides and on what basis?
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5. Human experimentation
5.1. In favor:
o Justified if it advances human knowledge
o Prisoners or mentally ill who are capable of consent
5.2. Against:
o Human beings shouldnt be treated as means to end (e.g., Nazi experiments)
o Should not be performed on mentally incompetent or those not free to consent
6. Genetics and stem cell research
6.1. Arguments for experimentation
N
I
.
E
Scientific knowledge should proceed without hindrance.
6.2. Arguments against
V
S
S
.B
Experimenting with Gods or natures plan, especially artificially creating life, should
not be allowed.
W
7. Stem cell research
W
Stem cells are capable of developing into many different kinds of cells
W
7.1. The moral issue
Stem cells can be developed into tissues which could potentially cure diseases like
Parkinsons, Alzheimers diabetes, etc. Extracting stem cells from 5 to 7 day old
embryos kills them.
7.2. Government limits
To receive federal funds, George Bush decided that stem cell lines that were derived
o With the consent of the donor
o From excess embryos (created for reproductive purposes)
o Without any financial inducement to the donors
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7.3. No federal funds for:
o Stem cell lines derived from newly destroyed embryos
o The creation of human embryos for research
o The cloning of human embryos
Could the use of adult stem cells resolve this dilemma?
Topic : Business And Media Ethics
Topic Objective:
N
I
.
E
At the end of this topic students will be able:
V
S
To understand and become familiar with the concept of Business Ethics
S
.B
To understand and become familiar with the concept of Media Ethics
W
Definition/Overview:
W
As with this topic rights and obligations are explored but this time in relation to business and
W
the media. The basic dispute with respect to business is whether making profits is the only
obligation it has or whether it has other obligations to the consumer, the employee, the
environment, etc. Business might, for example, be obligated to make positions available to
certain groups because they have been discriminated against. In media ethics the topic of
advertising is problematic since pressure to sell the product might offend against truth,
responsibility and other values. The basic moral issue in journalism often boils down to a
contest between the publics right to know and the individual right to privacy.
Business Ethics: Business ethics is a form of applied ethics that examines ethical principles
and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment.
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Media Ethics: Media ethics is the subdivision of applied ethics dealing with the specific
ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts,
print media and the internet.
Key Points:
1. Rights and Obligations
Rights and obligations are explored in relation to business and the media. The basic dispute
with respect to business is whether making profits is the only obligation it has or whether it
has other obligations to the consumer, the employee, the environment, etc. Business might,
for example, be obligated to make positions available to certain groups because they have
been discriminated against. In media ethics the topic of advertising is problematic since
N
I
.
E
pressure to sell the product might offend against truth, responsibility and other values. The
basic moral issue in journalism often boils down to a contest between the "public's right to
know" and the "individual right to privacy."
V
S
S
.B
Both general and specific rights and obligations are involved in business, e.g., right to pursue
opportunities for employment as well as right to fairness, honesty and truth in business
dealings.
W
W
1.1. Two ways of approaching rights and obligations in business
W
o Competitive approach - "Dog eat dog" or "free enterprise" winner makes biggest
profits, losers go out of business
o Government control - State ownership of business enterprises
o Moderate position - Free enterprise with some government controls, as system of
checks and balances to overcome the excesses of the other approaches
2. Justice, truth telling and honesty in business
2.1 Justice
Three types in business:
o Exchange justice
o Distributive justice
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o Social justice
3. Honesty and truth telling
Honesty and truth telling important in a range of activities especially advertising and safety
4. Ethical issues in business
4.1. Advertising
Two main approaches:
o Anything goes approach
o The truthful approach
4.2. Business and the environment
N
I
.
E
Three positions:
V
S
o Primacy of business - Business gives consumers what they want. This is their
S
.B
only responsibility.
o Primacy of environment - Businesses must take responsibility for their part in
maintaining the environment or putting right any damage it causes.
W
o Moderate position - All to blame, not just business. Must work together to
W
safeguard environment.
W
5. Affirmative action and reverse discrimination
5.1. Argument for discrimination
o Business practices are the employer's own affairs.
o Business should not be singled out to make amends for practices that occurred
everywhere.
o Businesses should not be prevented from hiring the employees they prefer.
5.2. Argument against
o Discrimination in employment is one of the worst kinds of discrimination since
its effects are so far reaching.
o Owed recompenses for actions committed against them
o Affirmative action will right the wrongs of the past.
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5.3. Moderate position
o Affirmative action should be implemented but not by hiring less qualified
workers.
6. Sexual harassment
Unwanted, sexual advances, or unwanted visual, verbal or physical conducts of a sexual
nature.
6.1. Arguments that sexual harassment is not immoral
o Enlivening the workplace
o Women and men are naturally sexually attracted to one another
N
I
.
E
o Positions of power imply certain rights
o Often those being harassed ask for or cause sexual harassment
6.2. Arguments that sexual harassment is immoral
o Unfairness of treatment
V
S
S
.B
o Creation of a hostile or offensive working environment
o Positions of authority do not imply power over personal lives
W
o Attraction does not imply involvement
W
o Harassed often "ask for it" is false.
7. Media ethics
W
7.1. Journalism's ideal
The "pursuit of truth." Does the pursuit of the ideal legitimate any method of
acquiring information? Is lying to get the truth acceptable?
7.2. Public right to know versus individual right to privacy
Perhaps the most significant moral problem. Test problem in relation to examples,
e.g., Princess Diana, President Clinton, etc. Where should the lines be drawn?
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8. Corporate greed - Enron
o Lied about profits
o Conflict of interest with auditors (Arthur Anderson)
o AA's shredding of evidence
How to prevent this from happening again?
Topic : Environmental Ethics
Topic Objective:
N
I
.
E
At the end of this topic students will be able:
V
S
S
.B

To understand and become familiar with the concept of Environmental ethics

To understand and become familiar with the Environmental obligations
W
W
Definition/Overview:
W
In this topic, the obligations to the larger non-human community and the rights that that
community may have are explored, especially practices involving animals whether it be for
food, sport, amusement, etc. What justifies our treatment of animals in this regard since many
of our practices involve inflicting pain, injury and death? Are animals simply inferior to
humans like sticks and stones as Plato said, or soulless machines according to Descartessuch that the pain we inflict requires little or no justification? How important is the
possession of reason? Are we separate from and superior to nature or inextricably bound to
it? Appropriately, this final chapter raises again some of the hardest questions of moral
philosophy.
Environmental ethics: It is the part of environmental philosophy which considers the ethical
relationship between human beings and the natural environment. It exerts influence on a large
range of disciplines including law, sociology, theology, economics, ecology and geography.
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Key Points:
1. Environmental ethical issues
There are a number of issues of concern:
Waste and destruction of natural resources
Exploiting, misusing and polluting the environment
Exploiting, abusing and destroying animals
o Hunting and destroying animals for food and body parts
o Raising animals for food
N
I
.
E
o Using animals for scientific experimentation
o Endangerment, decimation and extinction of animal species
1.1. Our attitudes toward nature and what lies behind it
V
S
S
.B
o Native Americans one with nature
o Eastern religions also see nature and humans as unified.
o Western view more dualistic. Two sources of dualism.
W
Platonic dualism
W
Judeo-Christian
W
1.2. Rise of science and scientific progress
Sources of dualism also give rise to science, technology, industrialization and the
encroachment of nature by civilization.
1.3. Arguments for use and exploitation of natural environment
o Dominance over nature
Religious basis
Natural order/evolution
o Human reasoning versus nature as blind and non-reasoning
o Civilization more important than nature
o Moral rights and obligations humans more important
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1.4. Arguments against the use and exploitation of nature
o Monistic wholismversus dominance and domination?
o Reasoning should not separate humans from nature and nature should not be
subordinated to civilization.
1.5. Moderate position
Treat nature with respect but still (carefully) use nature for human good.
1.6. Criteria for animal rights
o Life and being alive
o Having interests
N
I
.
E
o Attributes of soul, mind and feelings
o Reason
1.7. Ways of dealing with animal rights
o Vegetarianism
V
S
S
.B
o Sentimentalism
o Wholism
W
2. Use of animals for food
W
2.1. Ways of raising animals for food
W
o Factory farming
o Free range
2.2. Vegetarianism opposed to 1.
o Carnivores whichever method delivers best quality meat
o Moderate position condone animals as food, except by clearly cruel methods like
factory farming
3. Use of animals for experimentation
3.1. Arguments for
Scientific and medical purposes.
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3.2. Arguments against
Not justified in making an animal suffer for human benefit
3.3. Moderate position
Not opposed to experiments but they must be absolutely necessary
4. Killing animals for sport
4.1. It should be allowed
o An ancient activity of man
o Controlling animal population
N
I
.
E
o Desire for animal meat and other body parts
4.2. It should not be allowed
V
S
o An ancient activity no longer required
S
.B
o The animal population will control itself
o No further need for wild game or body parts
4.3. Moderate position
W
W
o Killing for sport allowed on a limited basis
o No reason to kill wild animals for meat
W
o No killing animals for body parts and skins
4.4. Protection of endangered species
o Irreverence for segment of life is irreverence for all life
o Species are beautiful and should be preserved for all
o All animals contribute to balance of nature
5. Conclusion
Is it possible to achieve a balance between the progress of civilization and natural
environment?
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N
I
.
E
V
S
S
.B
W
W
W
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