1
© Joy Goodwin
‘How to be Top’
English Work Book
CHAPTER 14
Language awareness

Register

Connotation / denotation

Bias, emotive language, subjective/objective

Generalization / stereotyping

Clichés

Intention, style

Fact and opinion

Propaganda
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REGISTER
Good speakers/writers know that their language/writing must be appropriate to the
situation/context they want to use it in. These different ways of expressing the same idea
occupy different levels of formality or informality.
Formal/Standard English
Informal English
No abbreviations in writing.
No slang.
No colloquialisms.
Correct use of language.
Language usually complex
Abbreviations may be used.
Slang is common.
Colloquialisms often used.
Language use often incorrect.
Language usually more simple
Jargon may be used in both registers.
Jargon = specialized language/vocabulary associated with a particular activity,
profession or group of people, and is often full of technical terms that are unlikely to be
understood by those unfamiliar with the activity. [Soccer jargon - open goals, good ball,
front runners, the right flank, their back four, his low cross, the off-side trap, a pin-point
cross] Jargon should be avoided in general conversation. It is considered discourteous
outside the group whose special language it is.
e.g. A garage mechanic explaining car trouble:
“The trouble is in the sprigget-buffer, which got twisted round the rear-shock tweeter.
We’ll have to strip down the front dipps, remove the set of grease glippers and see if we
can rebuff the mag shafts. It’ll take about four hours, as long as the mechanic has a
nitch-wragler that fits.”
Slang there are 4 types:

words used to mean something other than they are supposed to. bread, brass,
dough = money; chick = girlfriend; doing porridge = prison time; tune =
speak to; check = look at

a foreign word not adopted into formal English: vamoose = go (Mexican)

Cockney rhyming slang plates of meat = feet; trouble and strife = wife

A new word made by combining two existing words. Gorilla /baboon = goon
They fall in and out of fashion and are different in different parts of the world.
Colloquial language = relaxed, informal language. [“Are you doing anything tomorrow
night?” rather than: “Have you an engagement for tomorrow evening?”] Also includes
vocabulary that is specific to geographic areas such as Americanism, South Africanisms,
Australian English, Scottish English etc. and careless use of grammar, inclusion of slang
terms and, in writing, abbreviations. Note – when speaking one may use formal English
and still say things like “I don’t…”
AVOID
Journalese, Officialese and Commercialese. These are terms relating to the longwinded, vague, wordy, ornate and often incomprehensible style of writing often used by
writers in the press; by government officials and by many writers of business letters and
documents. Their use is not considered good STYLE.
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e.g. at this point in time instead of now; juvenile members of the community instead of
children; will be made the recipient of instead will be given etc.
Exercise 1 Say whether the following are formal or informal, then turn them into the
1.
2.
3.
4.
opposite:
Hey, look here, see what I’ve got!
Will you please inform John that he has a detention on Saturday?
To whom may I send this letter?
Swear you won’t tell Becca I’m having a party this Saturday?
/8/
Exercise 2 Here are some Americanisms. Rewrite them in Standard English.
1.
2.
3.
4.
His hair was squared off in back.
I make good grades in school.
He feels things differently than you do.
The three of us get to stay together only as long as we behave.
/4/
Exercise 3 The following are some of the words that have been accepted into
South African English. Rewrite them in Standard English.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
veldskoen
stoep
braaivleis
riempie
voetsek
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
skelm
bundu
bonsella
dassie
indaba
[10]
Exercise 4 Write the following slang expressions in Standard English:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Hang on girl!
That’s for sure.
I didn’t have a clue.
The bridal couple’s nerves are really shot.
Out on the jol…
John is keen on a bird up the road.
Mom has flipped her lid because Bill has pushed off without telling her.
Dad went round the bend when I told him to get lost.
I’m fed up with this job. I’m going to pack it in.
Tim’s father is in the nick because someone grassed on him.
Exercise 5 Write down 10 slang expressions of your generation and give the Standard
English equivalents.
[10]
Exercise 6 From the jargon used, identify the sport involved in each sentence:
1.
2.
Derek Warwick managed to claim yet another pole position for this, the sixth
round of the championship.
He’s deadly at the net; nobody can block his spike.
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3.
4.
5.
It was probably her greater control in the sit-spin that made the difference in
the end.
The Bedfordview couple scored an easy win in the pairs, and Harlequins upset
the more fancied Corinthians to walk away with the fours trophy.
By tacking skillfully, they were able to make the most of poor conditions.
[5]
DENOTATION AND CONOTATION
Denotation is the straightforward dictionary definition. A dog is a four-legged, canine,
domesticated, mammal. home – a built structure usually made of bricks and cement with
a roof, in which people live.
Connotation is the suggestion of something more than the literal meaning – a deeper
meaning not found in the dictionary. Meaning comes from the reader’s understanding of
the cultural ways in which the word can be used to have different meanings. It provides
an implied attitude. mongrel or cur rather than dog. home – is associated with warmth,
intimacy, love, coziness, safety etc.
Emily Dickinson reveals the discomfort that she feels at even the thought of a snake by
the connotations of the words with which her poem opens:
A narrow fellow in the grass…
John Masefield, in his poem Cargoes, evokes a strong atmosphere of place and time by
creating vivid pictures in the mind of the reader, through associations connected to the
cargoes that he lists:
With a cargo of ivory,
And apes and peacocks,
Sandalwood, cedarwood, and sweet white wine.
…with a cargo of diamonds,
Emeralds, amethysts,
Topazes, and cinnamon, and gold moidores.
…with a cargo of Tyne coal,
Road-rail, pig-lead,
Firewood, ironware, and cheap tin trays.
Many words have a positive connotation. e.g. home, mother, fireside, Christmas
The English associated black (colour of night) with things that scared them. Thus the
following words have negative connotations:
blackguard, black hole, blacklist, blackmail, black magic, black mark, black market,
black sheep.
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Exercise 7 Would you rather:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
be seen with a companion who is tanned or sun burnt?
be called wise or cunning?
be called sparkling or unusually talkative / drunk?
be called firm or obstinate / pig-headed?
be called carefree or irresponsible?
your office were raided or searched?
be fired or retrenched?
be alone or lonely?
be ruled by a ruler or a dictator?
be fat or well-built?
[10]
Connotation is based on the use of EMOTIVE WORDS – words that elicit an emotional
response. e.g. raided They are sometimes called loaded words.
Emotive words are used in order to persuade. They appeal to a strong feeling, fear or
prejudice, rather than to rational thought.
The denotation of all these words is more or less the same:
thin, skinny, slender, emaciated, lean, scrawny - thin
The connotations are quite different.
thin
neutral (no connotation)
skinny
negative – too thin, almost bony.
slender
positive – such a person is attractive
emaciated
negative – starving, skeletal
lean
positive – fit, strong, energetic
scrawny
negative – scruffy, bony, small
Exercise 8 Read each list of words below. Each word has a different connotation but
a)
b)
the same general denotation.
Decide what the general denotation is for each group – one word for what all the
words actually mean and write it down.
Arrange each word in the group in order from the most positive connotation to the
most negative connotation.
Example thin, bony, slim, anorexic, slender
order = slim, slender, thin, bony, anorexic
general denotation = thin
Re-arranged
Group 1
uprising, riot, demonstration, unlawful gathering, protest, disturbance.
Group 2
guerilla, freedom fighter, mercenary, soldier, terrorist.
Group 3
imprison, relocate, incarcerate, intern, detain, lock-up, confine
Group 4
prisoner, evacuee, internee, detainee, inmate
Group 5
internment camp, detention camp, assembly centre, concentration camp,
prison camp, relocation centre, temporary detention centre.
[15]
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Words with a positive connotation are sometimes called purr words, and those with a
negative connotation are called scratch words.
Exercise 9 Look at the columns below. Which word would you put in the purr
column and which in the scratch column? Make purr and scratch
columns in your notebook.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
daring, reckless
stench, perfume
thrifty, stingy
ingenious, cunning
dignity, arrogance
emaciated, slender
monstrous, mighty
notorious, famous
petite, puny
home, hovel
senile, venerable
obsolete, antique
childish, youthful
schemer, strategist
chore, career
neutral
confident
smell
economical
smart
self-respect
thin
big
well-known
little
house
old
old
young
planner
work
purr
scratch
Exercise 10 Read the texts below and answer the questions:
Text A
This is the third time that youths have defaced my garden wall with graffiti. It’s not right
I tell you! The expense of repainting that section is enormous. It seems as though these
hooligans wait just until the wall is clean before they scrawl their initials once more. I am
sick of this! Police should take a more active role in stopping this mindless vandalism.
Text B
What do I think of graffiti? I love it! I mean the good stuff – the pieces – not the mindless
attempts of pre-teens on garden walls. There are some magic pieces in the city. Vibrant
and complex. So much better than a dirty concrete wall.
Text C
I didn’t like it when the bus stop had graffiti on. It looked messy and ugly. We painted
over it and everyone says it looks much nicer.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Which text uses the most formal language? Give a reason for your choice.
Which text uses the most informal language? Give a reason for your choice.
All the texts use emotive language. Which text is the most negative? Pick
out 3 words that express this negative connotation.
Which is the most positive text? Pick out 3 words with positive connotations.
Is the tone of text A angry, frustrated, prejudiced or all three?
Explain your choice for 5.
/3/
/3/
/4/
/4/
/1/
/2/
7
7.
/1/
8.
Is the tone of text B relaxed, positive or both.?
Give a reason for your answer in 7.
/2/
[20]
BIAS
Biased writing / speech is subjective. The speaker / writer expresses personal
attitudes.
Unbiased writing / speech is objective. The speaker / writer merely presents the
facts/situation/characters with no interference from him. This is called factual /
reporting style and should be the style of news reporters.
Exercise 11 Are the following examples of objective or subjective writing?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
You cannot bear being told what to do.
Emotional intelligence is the lifeblood of happy working situations.
This term has to do with the awareness and acceptance of positive and
negative feelings.
She also read Daniel Coleman’s book: Emotional Intelligence.
Those who came to South Africa in the 17th century were pioneers.
[5]
Exercise 12 Give the following sentences a bias by replacing the words in heavy
type with words from the list that are similar in meaning.
gloom, snarling, fastidious, cur, gullible, unadventurous, exploiting, inexperienced,
raided, fat, bluntly, gang, interrogated, flabby, capitalists.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The dog was growling in the darkness.
The boy was overweight and his body soft from lack of exercise.
He expressed his viewpoint frankly.
The police questioned the group of teenagers.
Overseas investors are developing our mineral resources.
The new teacher was trusting.
The police searched his office.
He is a very tidy person.
He is such a careful person.
[15]
Exercise 13 Read the following passages.
1a
West of the small village of Bergville is a wide, flat plain, on which there are a few
clusters of huts and some groups of animals in the distance. At the far side of this plain
the foothills of the mountains gradually begin to rise. In winter the peaks are covered
with snow, and a cold wind blows across the plain, driving the few inhabitants of the area
into their homes, where they gather around fires for warmth.
1b
The empty plain stretches bleakly westward, abandoning the lonely village of Bergville,
rolling reluctantly past dismal clusters of huts and straggling herds of forlorn cattle. The
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cowering swells of the foothills cringe beneath the crags of the great buttresses that
loom menacingly behind them, cloaked icy white in winter, the malevolent source of the
bitter gales that sweep spitefully across the huddling plain, searching out the wretched
peasants clustered miserably around their pathetic little heaps of flickering twigs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Which account of the Bergville region would entice you to visit it? 1a or 1b?
/1/
Which writer obviously dislikes the region he is describing? 1a or 1b?
/1/
What do we call words that reveal his negative attitude?
A
purr words
B scratch words
C
words with positive connotations
D
words with negative connotations
E
bias words
F
emotive words
G
all of the above
H
all of the above except A and C
/1/
Write down 17 words that makes us realize that the writer does not like the
Bergville region.
/17/
[20]
Biased writing is frequently seen in advertisements. The advertiser wishes to
persuade the reader to buy his product. Attributes are generally given a more positive
slant than they are strictly entitled to.
Exercise 14
Look at the advertisements advertising the same property.
A
9 Rustenburg Road is a semi-detached brick home of surprisingly good proportions. The
property offers tremendous potential and is set in an exceptionally good area –
Rondebosch is considered by many to be the finest suburb in Cape Town. This friendly
home has the added advantage of being a few minutes’ walk away from any services that
could possibly be desired. The distinguished building has a unique lay-out which will
capture the heart of most casual viewers. So come and see this not-to-be-missed gem
today! Viewing by special appointment with the agents.
B
9 Rustenburg Road is a small semi-detached house on a property requiring attention in
Rondebosch. There are shops and a school nearby. It should be noted that the house has
an unusual lay-out owing to the fact that it was rebuilt after a flood some decades ago.
Viewing by appointment with the agents.
1.
Write the advertisement the school governing body would write to promote
Wynberg Boys’ High school buildings and grounds. Try to present the property in
the best possible light without lying.
/5/
2.
Write the same advertisement giving a more realistic view of the property. /5/
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3.
Find an advertisement in an old magazine. Paste it into your notebook then show
how it is biased.
[15]
/5/
Exercise 15
Refer to the top advertisement Natrodale:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In your own words give the medical statement in this advertisement.
/1/
What appeal does the name Natrodale have for the consumer?
/1/
How does the advertiser entice the reader to buy its product?
/1/
Which patriotic device is employed to ensure a positive response?
/1/
Get the right fats this summer. How is this message portrayed in the illustration
Refer to the bottom advertisement – Sureslim
6a.
b.
To whom is this advertisement likely to appeal?
Give a reason for your answer in a.
/2/
/2/
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7.
Although not glamorous or glossy, this advertisement still has the power to attract
the reader. Explain one device which is used to do so.
/2/
Comment on the pun in Massive Rewards as used in this context.
/2/
8.
Generalizations/Stereotyping
When generalizing or making a generalization, the particular is extended to the general.
e.g. Some Scotsmen play the bagpipes. It is untrue to say that all Scotsmen play the
bagpipes. Some Germans hated Jews. This does not mean that all Germans hated Jews.
Some teachers are lazy and leave classes unattended. This does not mean that all teachers
do etc.
Stereotyping people places them into groups or types. So a stereotypical science master
might be depicted as being elderly and eccentric. He is the stereotype – the general mould
of what people imagine all science masters to be like. Of course they are not like this at
all.
Exercise 16
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Write down 3 adjectives that would describe for you the
stereotypical:
rugby player
computer games fanatic
headmaster
chef
weight-lifter
[15]
Stereotypes in advertising.
A
B
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Exercise 17
1.
2.
3.
What stereotypes have been created in these two advertisements?
Why would these stereotypes be attractive to young men?
Do you think these stereotypes give a realistic view of young men?
Explain your answer.
[8]
/2/
/4/
/2/
Clichés
‘Another thing, Christy,’ he said one night. ‘You use too many clichés. Do you know
what a cliché is?
I didn’t; it sounded like some kind of foreign animal or insect. But I found out that it was
something everybody said …something that has been said over and over again until it
has become hackneyed/stereotyped and its original meaning lost. When I found this
out I knew I was frightfully guilty of this sin. Only yesterday I sat by a roaring fire, heard
the wind howling, waited in an agony of suspense, saw her full, inviting lips and swanlike
neck, had a lump in my throat and heard someone swearing like a trooper. I found, on
looking back, that the number of clichés I had used in my manuscript must have run into
hundreds.
[Adapted from My Left Foot by Christy Brown]
Clichés that I dislike intensely are: in this day and age; at this point in time; last but
not least; each and every; thanks must go (Please say, I thank… instead; everyone out
there.
Exercise 18 Write down all the clichés between the two robbers, Jack and Bill.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Jack: I could hardly believe my eyes. I was almost at the end of my tether
when I realized that we could get into the jeweller’s through an air-vent.
Do you want to have a finger in the pie, Bill?
/3/
Bill: Well, we can’t let a chance like that slip through our fingers, can we? /1/
Jack: You’ve hit the nail on the head. If we strike while the iron is hot, we
can grab the chance of a lifetime.
/3/
Bill: I’ll leave no stone unturned in planning a safe getaway. We’ll be out
of there in the twinkling of an eye.
/3/
Jack: Are you sure that you’ve considered all the angles?
/1/
Bill: I’ll tell you man-to-man. We’re both in the same boat and I’ll make
sure we don’t get our fingers burnt this time.
/3/
[14]
Intention/style
Simplicity adds grace and dignity to style. Clumsy words, superlatives, journalese,
jargon, fashionable and hackneyed words (clichés) detract from quality in writing.
*
*
*
*
simple direct style
terse style
elegant style
graphic style
clear and straightforward expression.
compact, to the point, economy of words
grace and beauty of language
vivid and picturesque
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*
*
*
vigorous style
sublime style
clichéd style
forceful argument, strong expression
sincere, elevated in thought, treatment
verbose and stereotyped
Everything that is written is written for a purpose – to persuade, record, advertise,
inform, tell a story, give instructions, communicate a message; grab attention etc.
Exercise 19 What is the intention of the following types of writing? Choose from the
list above.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
a school time-table.
a note excusing a boy from rugby practice.
a newspaper headline.
a notice concerning puppies for sale.
a biography.
a recipe.
a book of fiction.
a description of an exotic holiday resort.
a dictionary
a diary
[10]
Exercise 20 Suggest the source (where each extract could come from) and then
choose the adjective from those listed, which best describes its style.
A
In what may prove a ground-breaking case, five farm workers are to take Iscor to court
for allegedly polluting the land they live on and trying, illegally, to evict them reports
Celean Jacobson.
1.
Scource? Style? (scientific, journalistic, humorous, emotive)
/2/
B
The F-16 can withstand up to nine G’s – nine times the force of gravity – with internal
fuel tanks. No other fighter aircraft can match that capability. Special design features
enhance the pilot’s ability to withstand those extreme forces.
2.
Source?
Style? (journalistic, scientific, humorous, sensational)
/2/
C
He and his father were traveling from Stellenbosch to Klapmuts to buy boerewors for a
braai. The innocuous expedition turned into a nightmare when they were hijacked by
murderers who had already embarked on a weekend killing spree that would leave four
innocent people dead in two days.
3.
Source? Style? (humorous, scientific, sensational/emotive, journalistic)
/2/
D
Terns are a kind of bird with webbed feet. They are, therefore, waterfowl like ducks and
penguins and so may be found in the same books as albatrosses and eagles but probably
not in the same books as wrens and wrobins. This is because waterbird watchers are
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snobbish about dick-birds. Terns won’t eat anything but fish, so it’s no use putting out
suet and bits of coconut for them in winter; all you’ll get are dicky-birds, and you’ll have
to buy a new book. Anyway, terns don’t stick around in the winter.
4.
Source? Style? (sensational, humorous, journalistic, scientific)
/2/
[8]
Exercise 21 Read the paragraph by Jenni Baxter and answer the questions based on it.
1.
The words set, closing out and back door are examples of surfing jargon,
whereas he word radical is an example of slang. Explain briefly the difference
between the two (slang and jargon) as used in this context.
/2/
2.
Change the colloquial use of like in … you hit the water like it’s a tarred highway,
to standard English.
/2/
3.
These are the first two paragraphs of an article on surfing. Why has the writer
used the second person (you / your) throughout?
/2/
4.
4 of the following 5 adjectives describe the sport of surfing as it is portrayed by
the writer. Write down the inappropriate one.
/1/
heroic, menacing, adventurous, exciting, challenging
[7]
Exercise 22 Improve the style of these sentences. Avoid slang. Should the use of
there be omitted or added? Use more appropriate words than those in
italics. Avoid clichés. Consider word order.
1.
2.
3.
There is a lot of rubbish lying on the pavement.
A vase of flowers was on every table.
There will come a day when you regret this.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Is anybody at home?
We were so many, they did not stand a chance.
At this point in time global warming is what everyone is talking about.
The Boskop dam gives water to the town.
My father and I were at the rugby match that day.
We have to discuss several things.
He left his things at the station.
We never go camping without taking the right things.
None of us likes that guy.
Each and every one of them sure meant what they said.
Everybody could have cold drinks for free.
I asked my old man to wait for us.
I can’t come cause I am ill.
It beats me why she speaks like that.
Some people always moan about the youth.
It was lucky that we were only five.
What are the things you appreciate in a woman?
/20/
FACT and OPINION
A fact is indisputably true. An opinion is merely what one person believes to be true.
It is important to be able to distinguish between the two, otherwise one might believe
everything one reads or is told.
Exercise 23 Say whether the following statements are fact or opinion:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
The last time we went there was six weeks ago.
Ask him. He will help you.
You will never be able to persuade him.
Treasure Island was written by Robert Louis Stevenson.
It is the best book he wrote.
Peters is our best player.
You should take Ajax for your health. It is most invigorating.
The minister’s speech was long but interesting.
So far they have won all their matches.
He will not pass his examination. He does not work hard enough.
The two sides could not reach an agreement.
He is both untidy and unwashed. It is clear that he has not had a bath for a
week.
They crept stealthily down wind..
Do not discuss it with him. He is too prejudiced.
The train arrived at 10 o’clock, eighteen minutes late.
We have heard nothing since then.
Look for the trade name Maxwell. You then know that you are buying the best
that money can buy.
I don’t like that book. It is badly written and the story is unconvincing.
The speaker was much too long-winded.
Fishing is relaxing.
[20]
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PROPAGANDA
Propaganda is any organized scheme which deliberately promotes a one-sided view to
gain support for a particular view-point, creed or belief.
Techniques:








It appeals to emotions not reason by playing on feelings of fear, pride etc.;
using loaded, emotive language.
It conceals selfish motives.
It uses name-calling and character assassination - Reds for communists – Yids
for Jews. This makes it easier to adopt a hostile attitude towards a particular
race or group.
It uses rhetorical questions to draw in the audience.
It appeals to group identity – uses words like we not I.
It avoids being complicated.
It uses repetition and stereotyped slogans.
It often distorts the truth.
Exercise 24
A
1.
2.
B
Who is the target audience in each poster?
What emotions are being appealed to in each poster?
/2/
/2/
[4]