SKATING IN ICE HOCKEY
KALLE VÄLIAHO
Haaga University of Applied Sciences
Vierumäki Sports Institute
Degree Programme in Sports and Leisure
Management
Autumn 2006
ABSTRACT
Vierumäki Sports Institute
1.12.2006
Degree Programme in Sports and Leisure Management
Team and racket sports coaching
Author
Kalle Väliaho
The title of the thesis
SKATING IN ICE HOCKEY
Group
DP II
Number of pages
and appendices
52 + 22
Supervisor(s)
Jukka Tiikkaja
The first goal of the Skating in Ice Hockey – Bachelor Thesis was to produce a skating booklet
for ice hockey coaches and skating instructors. The booklet is in a DVD form and it is divided
into two main chapters: forward skating and backward skating. These two main chapters are
comprised of different subsections that demonstrate the right skating techniques and introduce
different drills to improve skating. The second goal was to collect different skating material to
find details about the skating fundamentals and biomechanical aspects to produce a kinematic
analyze of skating. The report is divided into smaller chapters than the DVD to make it clearer
to follow and read the Thesis’ report. The chapters on the report are a straight forward and
backward skating, forward and backward crossovers and turning maneuvers, there is also one
chapter concentrating on the DVD project. During the process some similarities between the
techniques were found and these findings were determined the full and the powerful stride.
These findings were the full leg extension, the low heel recovery, the deep knee bend of the
gliding leg and starting the stride under the center of gravity. Deep and stable skating position is
also one important factor of the powerful stride, because only from that position the skater is
able to propel to the back-side and full extends the pushing leg. The stable and the balanced
skating position is a fundamental for all the skating. Player will lose some speed and power
from the propulsion if he or she has to concentrate all the time of maintaining the balance. Two
feet gliding position is found the most common skating technique during the ice hockey game
among the forwards. Players always start and end skating from the two feet gliding position.
Understanding the fundamentals and biomechanical aspects of skating will help the players,
coaches and instructors to improve skating abilities. The drills on the DVD have been chosen
according the “Skating in Ice Hockey” -Bachelor Thesis’ report. All the drills include the key
factors and proper demonstrations from the different camera angles.
Key words
skating, stride, ice hockey, full leg extension, skating position, DVD
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
2 FORWARD SKATING ...................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Forward Skating Position ........................................................................................... 4
2.2 Forward Skating Starts............................................................................................... 6
2.3 Pushing Phase of the Forward Stride ........................................................................ 9
2.4 Gliding Phase of the Forward Stride ........................................................................ 11
2.5 Recovery Phase of the Forward Stride .................................................................... 12
2.6 Forward Stops.......................................................................................................... 14
3 BACKWARD SKATING .................................................................................................. 17
3.1 Backward Skating Position....................................................................................... 17
3.2 Backward Skating Starts .......................................................................................... 18
3.3 Pushing Phase of the Backward Stride.................................................................... 20
3.4 Gliding Phase of the Backward Stride...................................................................... 21
3.5 Recovery Phase of the Backward Stride.................................................................. 22
3.6 Backward Stops ....................................................................................................... 23
4 FORWARD CROSSOVERS........................................................................................... 25
4.1 Forward Crossover Skating Position........................................................................ 25
4.2 Forward Crossover Start .......................................................................................... 26
4.3 Pushing Phase of the Forward Crossover Stride ..................................................... 26
4.4 Gliding Phase of the Forward Crossover Stride ....................................................... 28
4.5 Recovery Phase of the Forward Crossover Stride................................................... 29
5 BACKWARD CROSSOVERS ........................................................................................ 30
5.1 Backward Crossover Skating Position ..................................................................... 30
5.2 Backward Crossover Start ....................................................................................... 31
5.3 Pushing Phase of the Backward Crossover Stride .................................................. 31
5.4 Gliding Phase of the Backward Crossover Stride .................................................... 32
5.5 Recovery Phase of the Backward Crossover Stride ................................................ 33
6 TURNING MANEUVERS ............................................................................................... 34
6.1 Forward Two Feet Parallel Turns............................................................................. 34
6.2 From Forward to Forward Special Turns ................................................................. 35
6.3 From Forward to Backward Turns............................................................................ 36
6.4 From Backward to Forward Turns............................................................................ 37
7 MAKING THE SKATING IN ICE HOCKEY –DVD .......................................................... 40
7.1 Making the Script ..................................................................................................... 40
7.2 Video Taping the DVD ............................................................................................. 42
7.3 Editing the DVD........................................................................................................ 43
8 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................. 45
8.1 Some Aspects When Teaching Skating................................................................... 46
8.2 The Usage of the DVD and the Analyze of the DVD Process.................................. 47
8.3 Thoughts for the Future Research ........................................................................... 48
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1……………………………………………………………………………………………..7
The skate angles during the forward front start
Table 1…………………………………………………………………………………………….10
The difference between the elite and the trained skaters in knee angles and knee angular
velocity
Figure 2……………………………………………………………………………………………11
Gliding phase of the forward stride
Figure 3……………………………………………………………………………………………13
A wide tracking stride
Figure 4……………………………………………………………………………………………19
Backward crossover start
Figure 5……………………………………………………………………………………………21
Backward skating stride
1 INTRODUCTION
Skating plays a big role in ice hockey. It is a way of moving on the ice and the skating
style always depends on the certain game situation. The players have to react fast to
different game situation by changing their way of skating. All the changes have to be done
quickly in a small space to win the situation and to be successful. Agility and
explosiveness are characteristics for all the good skaters. All the players however are not
fast skaters even though they seemed to move their legs fast. Some players do not
seemed to move their legs at all but they go faster than the others. The difference
between the fast and slow skaters comes from the individual differences in techniques
and physical qualities. This study’s objective is to introduce the biomechanical aspects of
skating and clarify the technique by cutting skating techniques in small pieces.
The knowledge, which is provided in this thesis, is collected from the different study
articles, books, skating -seminars and on the home pages of the leading skating
instructors. Material is from the ice hockey and speed skating. Speed skating was chosen
because many research articles are studying the power of the stride and the differences
between the elite and professional skaters. Speed skating differs from the ice hockey
skating in two ways: speed skaters have to take care of the wind resistance because of
the long dashes and the outside environment, and the speed is more constant than in ice
hockey where the technique and speed is related to the game situation. The Speed
skating skaters are always skating counter-clockwise executing only a right over left
crossing over technique. Figure skating is also close to ice hockey skating but it was hard
to find any good research articles about figure skating stride and powers in figure skating.
Many research articles were concentrating on the power and biomechanics of the jumps
than actual skating. I decided not to have any information about the Inline hockey skating
because the surface is different and skating is slower. Inline hockey is close to ice hockey
but because of the longer time to turn and having wheels instead of the steel blades
makes the sport different.
There are five chapters on this study concentrating on skating techniques: forward
skating, backward skating, forward crossovers, backward crossovers and turning
maneuvers. After those will be one chapter from the DVD process and the discussion part.
The chapter division was decided to have in this way to make it easier to follow and
clearer to read the thesis. The first plan was to have two big chapters: forward and
backward skating. In this way there would be too many subsections and the size of the
chapters would differ too much from each other. Now the chapter division is in smaller
1
pieces according the characteristic of skating; skating in straights and skating in the
curves have divided in their own chapters.
There is more information available about forward skating than backward skating. This
can be explained in two reasons: speed skating is only executed forward and forward
skating is more common during the ice hockey game than backward skating. This same
reason appears also in ice hockey skating books: the forward skating chapters are
superior comparing to backward skating chapters. In this study forward skating chapter is
also superior to the other chapters of the study because of the previous reasons, but also
because some terms and force productions are already explained in this chapter to avoid
repeating and having irrelevant information.
Besides of collecting the information together the project of the thesis was to make a
skating DVD according to this information. The aim of the DVD is to provide skating
knowledge and drills for the people working in ice hockey. It might be a coach, a player, a
skating instructor or a parent who is watching the Skating in Ice Hockey -DVD and the
goal is to provide information for all of them. The DVD was produced by the Hungarian Ice
Hockey Federation with the co-operation the Hungarian national sport section NUPI.
First reading the study report and then watching the DVD will help all the coaches and
players to understand more about skating in ice hockey. It is really important to
understand the underlying forces and demands of the skating techniques to be a master
in skating. Players who can maintain the speed and use less energy for skating can spend
longer times on the ice during one shift without getting fatigue. Players who understand
the different parts of the stride and the way of improving their skating skills will be
successful on the game situations where they have to get rid of the opponent or add the
next gear to go for a goal. The only way of improving skating is to really understand the
fundamentals and biomechanical aspects of it and to practice skating on the ice. This
study report will provide the information of the skating techniques and drills to improve
your skating technique.
2
2 FORWARD SKATING
Forward skating is the most common technique in ice hockey. A player can either skate
straight forward or sideways, or combine these two ways of moving and do several
different maneuvers. In today’s ice hockey, during one game, a player changes quickly the
way of moving. He or she does not spend long times in one skating characteristic and
continually changes the speed and the direction of travel. (Bracko, Fellingham, Hall,
Fisher & Cryer 1998, 258-261)
The skate’s blade has two edges: an Inside edge and an outside edge. The inside edge
points inward and the outside edge points outward when standing on the ice. Between the
edges is the hollow, which determines how deeply the edges cut into the ice. The area
between the edges is called a flat of the blade. When a player glides on the inside edges
he or she turns inward whereas gliding on the outside edge turns a player outward. In
straight forward skating a player uses both edges by moving from the outside edge to the
inside edge when executing straight forward skating stride. (Stamm 2001, 5-7)
Forward skating can be divided in single- and double-support phases. Single-support
phase means a period when a skater is being supported on one leg. It starts when one
skate leaves the ice after the push-off and ends when the skate is placed back on the ice
after the recovery phase. Double-support phase is a period where both skates are in
contact with the ice at the same time. One skate is ready to propel the speed whereas the
other one is ready for gliding. This phase is also known as a propulsion phase or a pushoff phase. (Drouin 1998, 4; McCaw & Hoshizaki 1985, 637)
Single-support phase can be divided in two categories: a gliding and a propulsion phase.
The single-support gliding phase starts immediately when the pushing leg leaves the ice
and ends when the both skates are on the ice. The single-support propulsion phase starts
in the middle of a recovery phase. The recovery phase is a period when the propelled leg
is brought under the body in the air after the push-off.
The double-support phase starts after the recovery phase when both skates are on the
ice. Returned leg is preparing to start a gliding phase and the other leg prepares to propel
(the leg which was gliding). Propulsion phase starts in the middle of the recovery phase
and ends when the pushing leg leaves the ice. (Alatalo & Lumela 1987, 43; McCaw &
Hoshizaki 1985, 637)
The single-support phase is used more during one stride than the double-support phase.
The single-support phase comprises more than 80% of the total time whereas the double3
support phase comprises the rest of the time. When a skater gets tired, becomes fatigued,
the time spent in single-support phase decreases and at the same time the doublesupport time increases. When a player gets fatigued he or she spends more time with two
skates on the ice than in non-fatigued time. (Marino & Drouin 2000, 268-269)
2.1 Forward Skating Position
The quality factors of good forward skating position are a deep knee bend, a stable and
balanced posture and a good forward lean. The skates are creating a letter V (the angle
between the skates is approximately 45 degrees) and the hip is facing straight forward. A
good and balanced skating position helps a player to stay inside the game situations and
reach fast the maximum speed. (Roy 2003; Stamm 2001, 30 & 36)
The knee bend of the forward skating position should be close to 90 degrees, in maximum
speed even lower. This angle is not the point where you get the most powerful push; it is
an angle where the pushing phase starts. A skater reaches the most powerful push from
the angle of 120°. To reach this angle a player has to open up the knees before he or she
starts to drive the leg forward. This “open up” period will increase the knee angle. If the
player starts to drive the legs forward from the angle of 120°, he or she will easily miss the
most powerful point and lose some speed. (Roy 2003)
A skater should bring the knees forward when bending those and the knees should be
approximately three to five centimeters in front of the toes (Glantz). The ankle angle,
watching from the side and comparing tibia bone and a skate, should be between 70 and
80 degrees (Vesalainen 2004). This allows a player to open up his or her knees and have
a full leg extension after each stride when skating straight forward (Glantz).
A low knee bent helps a player to keep the center of gravity down. This sustains the
balance and maintains a stable skating position. The player is more ready for the
demands of the game: changing the direction and reaching the maximum speed is faster
because the player is already in a low position. All the skating drills are good to execute
with using a low knee bend. (Roy 2003)
The center of gravity is located in a lower part of the midsection of the human body,
around the navel area. Stamm defines it (2001, 221) as a segment or part of the body
under which the feet must be situated in order to maintain balance or generate power. It
means that every stride should start and end under the center of gravity, in this case
under the body, to provide a powerful push. (Stamm 2001, 36)
4
The bodyweight should be kept equally on both skates in the middle part of the blades
and in full contact with the ice to maintain the balanced position. The player can lose the
balance if he or she places the bodyweight too much on one skate or leans too much front
or back. Some young ice hockey players, usually beginners, are using a stick to provide a
balance. This habit should be avoided because it will cause some skating problems and it
delays the development time. (Savolainen & Kaarela 2004; Stamm 2001, 12)
Good upper body forward lean is also an important factor in forward skating. It provides a
full leg extension of the stride and helps a player to maintain a deep knee bend. The body
angle between thighs and upper body is around 50 degrees. Smaller angle, a stronger
forward lean, hinders the length of the stride because the heel will leave the ice too early.
In speed skating the longer straight part of the blade and shape of the skate allows speed
skaters to lean strongly forward, almost parallel to the ice. The straight part of the ice
hockey skate’s blade is shorter comparing to the speed skate’s blade. The straight part of
the blade of the hockey skate usually varies from three to seven centimeters.
Speed skaters are leaning almost parallel to the ice to minimize the wind resistance. In ice
hockey the wind resistance does not play any role because of the small skating area, the
rink, and usually ice rinks are covered. Such a strong lean is not useful in ice hockey
game situations because the players have to be able to see the whole rink: they have to
be ready to change the direction quickly and take or give body contacts. (Roy 2003)
A restrictive factor, which inhibits the skating position, is the lack of range of motion
(ROM) in ankles. The reason for the weak mobility of the ankle is the tightness of the
Achilles tendon. It occurs when muscle care is inadequate comparing to heavy loading of
the muscles. If heels rise up when executing a squad, it is a sign of weak mobility of the
ankles, weak ROM in the ankles. Maintaining the right skating position will demand more
energy and maintaining the balance is more challenging when having a weak ROM in the
ankles. One way to improve the situation is to make squads with full ROM; forcing the
heels to stay on the ground during the entire time of the squad movement. (Vesalainen
2004)
On the DVD the forward skating position is illustrated as its own chapter. A few main
factors have been demonstrated and mentioned such as: legs are in shoulder width apart,
back straight and head up and facing forward. The drills to improve the skating position on
the DVD are: leg lifts forward, two feet forward gliding in a skating position and in a deep
squad position, and one leg forward gliding. The descriptions of the drills are explained in
Appendix 1.
5
2.2 Forward Skating Starts
The speed and the direction of skating change many times during an ice hockey game.
Players have to quickly react and act those changes. Players who react fastest usually
win the situations and are successful to their team. Skillful players are able to start quickly
and accelerate from any position with or without the puck. (Stamm 2001, 107)
The first three to four strides of the start are running like. This action can be compared to
the start of the sprinters when they leave from the starting blocks. The strides are running
like because the skates only touch on the ice, they do not glide on the ice. At the same
time the strides have to be quick and full. A common error is not to have a full leg
extension when moving legs rapidly and not to have a full blade contact with the ice. (Roy
2003; Stamm 2001, 107)
The full blade contact is important in starts. Some players only use their balls of the feet
when executing starting strides. These players lose some of the explosive extension
movement because their heels are already up and the ankles are partly extended. Players
will have a more explosive start if they first contact with the full blade on the ice and then
kick off with the ball of the foot. They will get the full ankle and knee extension, which are
important moments in forward striding. (Roy 2003)
The most common forward starts in ice hockey are a front start and a crossover start
(Stamm 2001, 108). These two starts have been found the most effective way to start
from the standing point with straight legs (Roy 1977, 139). The so called “thrust and glide”
start was found the fastest way to continue skating after the hockey stop (Naud 1980, 96).
T-start is the easiest way to start with and it is mostly taught to beginners (Hockey Canada
2005, 3.01).
In a T-start a player places his or her skates in a T-position. The back leg will push and
the front leg will glide. A player has to lean slightly forward to be able to have a full
extension of the pushing leg. The gliding is done on the flat of the blade to guarantee the
straight forward motion. It is important to have a deep knee bend and to push hard
towards the ice to provide a powerful start. (Hockey Canada 2005, 3.01; IIHF 2000, A-7)
Front forward start is used when a player is facing straight forward of the line of travel.
The start is done when a player either starts from straight legs (face-off situation) or after
the stop to change the direction. The bodyweight has to be placed equally on both skates,
6
but this time more on the front side of the blade than in the middle or the back side of the
blade. (Stamm 2001, 108)
The skates are turned 80-85 degrees outward to the line of travel (Stamm 2001, 108). The
leaning body angle is approximately 60 degrees when a player starts the motion (Hache
2002, 46). Knees are bent to 90 degrees and the pushing leg creates an about 45-degree
angle to the ice to have a better grip (Stamm 2001, 109).
A player has to remember to lean strongly forward throughout the whole start. If he or she
places the bodyweight more on the back side of the blade than the front, he or she will
easily start to glide. Gliding hinders the starting time and if a player wants to have a quick
start, he or she has to move the legs rapidly forward with a quick blade contact, full length
of the blade, on the ice on the inside edges of the skates. (Stamm 2001, 109)
A player only uses the inside edges during the first 3-4 strides of the start, not outside
edges at all (Glantz). After the first strides the skating continues normally and the angle
between the skate and line of travel decreases (IIHF 2000, B-12; Stamm 2001, 112). All
the strides are lateral pushes, which will give a skater the fastest speed (Hache 2002, 44).
The different skate angles of forward front start, the angles between the skate and the line
of travel, are demonstrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The skate angles during the forward front start (according to Stamm 2001, 112)
In a crossover start a player is facing sideways to the line of travel. The skates are parallel
to each other and approximately in shoulder width apart. A player can go both ways from
this position: to the right or to the left, depending on the game situation. A crossover start
7
is also known as a side start and it is a fast way to change the direction after a quick stop.
(Stamm 2001, 113)
The name of the crossover start comes from the technique. Both legs, the front and the
back leg, have to dig into the ice before the start: The front leg to its outside edge and the
back leg to its inside edge. The back leg, depending on the line of travel, starts the
motion: it crosses over the front leg. The front leg pushes second, driving itself under the
body. The following strides are executed by using the same technique as in the forward
front start. All the strides have to be full and the start has to be fast to be able to generate
the maximum speed. (Stamm 2001, 114)
Thrust and glide start is a technique used when a player returns towards the starting point
after a hockey stop (skates parallel to each other). In this thrust and glide technique the
last stopping motion is done with the back leg, while the front leg is turned towards the
new line of travel (the way the player was coming from). After the stop the back leg is
moved under the body to front while the front leg is gliding forward. This kind of skating
start technique has been found superior to a crossover start after the two feet hockey
stop. (Naud 1980, 94-96)
The techniques of different starting styles can only be practiced on the ice but starting can
also be trained off-ice. The players can look that they are working hard during the ice
when practicing starts but sometimes it is hard to have the mental toughness to execute
several starts in 100% attitude on the ice. Through off-ice training it is possible to improve
the start and acceleration, and sometimes it gives better results than working on the ice.
(Hermiston 1976, 234)
Arm swing is as big part of forward starts as it is of straight forward skating. If a player is
able to execute a proper arm swing during the starts and forward skating, he or she will be
faster on the ice compared with a player with an inactivity of the arms. Arm swing should
go naturally along the skating and with the same tempo as the strides. (Roy 2003)
Bracko (2003 & 2004) explains the importance of the arm swing through the Newton’s
Third Law of Motion by explaining that the arms have to follow the same line as the legs
are pushing. This motion is abducting and adducting the arms and the hips. The
movement is always the same: stick with one hand or with two hands on the ice or off the
ice. If the arm swing is done properly, a player creates a better momentum and rhythm
and is able to go faster.
8
The T-start, the front start and the crossover start are demonstrated on the DVD. There
are three different drills to practice forward starting: front and crossover starts over the ice
hockey sticks and a resistance drill with a pair. The explanations and the key factors of the
drills are shown in Appendix 1.
2.3 Pushing Phase of the Forward Stride
The pushing phase of the forward stride is also known as a push-off-, propulsion- or a
release- phase (Adams 2001, 24; Hache 2002, 44; Humble 2003, 50; Stamm 2001, 37).
Forward stride or a forward stroke has been used to explain the whole movement of
forward skating: push-off, glide and recovery phases (de Boer, Schermehorn, Gademan,
de Groot & van Ingen Schenau 1986, 175; Glantz). The forward stride is also used to
explain the period when a skater pushes himself into a motion (Glantz).
The propulsion phase, including a double-support and single-support propulsion phases,
starts in the middle of the recovery phase and ends when the pushing leg leaves from the
ice. When the pushing leg is brought under the body for starting a gliding phase, the other
leg, which was gliding, will prepare for the new push. The double-support phase starts
when the both skates are touching the ice and ends when the pushing leg leaves the ice.
(Alatalo & Lumela 1987, 43)
The power of the push primarily comes from the following three lower body joints: the
ankle, the knee and the hip joints. To complete a single push you have to fully extend and
open these three joints. The muscles, which are used the most, are the calf muscles, the
quadriceps and the buttocks. (Hache 2002, 40; Roy 2003)
The edge of the pushing skate has to be dig into the ice to provide a good grip for the
pushing skate (Stamm 2001, 7). The push has to be pointed to the side, to be able to
generate speed (Bracko 2003; de Boer et al. 1986, 176; Roy 1977, 139). It is impossible
to speed up if the skates are pointing straight ahead because the blades cannot grip into
the ice and they are slipping away more than pushing against the ice (Glantz; Hache
2002, 41; Stamm 2001, 37).
The push has to come from the inside edge of the entire blade: to start at the back half of
the blade and to finish to the balls of the foot. The push has to be directed straight to the
back-side from the line of travel and in top speed the angle, between the line of travel and
the skate, is approximately 45 degrees. The purpose of the push is to drive the whole
bodyweight against the pushing edge, even though the whole leg executes the actual
9
push. The push is completed when the whole leg, including the ankle, is fully extended
before leaving the ice. There should be a straight line from the pushing leg to the head
after the full leg extension to provide an optimal and maximal push-off force. (Stamm
2001, 37-40)
In ice hockey skating, the full extension of the ankle guarantees the full leg extension and
it increases the speed significantly comparing to a poor ankle extension (Roy 2003). In
speed skating the knee angle, when the skate leaves the ice, is closer to 170 degrees
than to 180 degrees (de Boer et al. 1986, 183). De Boer et al (1986, 183) are explaining
the difference because of the characteristic of speed skating when using conventional
skates (absence of the ankle extension). Today the Klapskates (heel is separate from the
blade) are providing the ankle extension in speed skating and many world records have
been broken (Duncan; Kuper & Sterken 2003, 294).
One difference between the elite and the professional skaters, the difference between the
best and good skaters, comes from the knee angular velocity. Knee angular velocity is the
time between the start of the push-off and the end of the push-off: the velocity of the knee
extension of the pushing leg. Knee angular velocity is also called push-off time or better
push-off time, especially when there is no difference in stroke frequency, it can be referred
to as better push-off. Among the elite skaters the push-off force does not vary in different
velocities. The most effective knee angle for the push, for the most effective muscle
contraction, runs from 119° to 149°. The difference between the knee angles and the knee
angular velocity between the elite and trained skaters is shown in Table 1. (de Boer et al.
1986, 175-184)
Table 1: The Differences between the elite and the trained skaters in knee angles and
knee angular velocity. (According to de Boer et al 1986, 181)
Elite
Trained
Knee angle (Start)
117,5
120,3
Knee Angle (End)
169,6
170,7
0,21
0,25
Time S-E
(seconds)
One restrictive skating factor is a poor leg extension. This is mostly caused by the
tightness of the hip flexors, the tightness of the iliopsoas muscle. The iliopsoas muscle is
10
comprised of three smaller muscles: the iliacus muscle and the psoas minor and major
muscles (Hervonen 2001, 213). In this case there is no full extension of the hip joint. A
player has to use more power and energy to execute the full leg extension, which will
cause weaker power production of the push-off. The problem can be solved, for example,
by executing different combinations of squads and steps and stretching hip flexor
muscles. (Vesalainen 2004)
2.4 Gliding Phase of the Forward Stride
Gliding phase of the forward stride is a single support phase. It starts after the recovery
phase of the forward stride (the leg is brought under the body after the push-off) and ends
when the leg is ready to propel the speed. It is as an important phase as the striding and
the recovery phases and its function is to show the direction of skating. (Alatalo & Lumela
1987, 43; Stamm 2001, 29 & 38-43)
All the three parts of the blade are used during the gliding phase of the forward stride: the
inside edge, the outside edge and the flat of the blade. The gliding starts from the outside
edge and turns to its inside edge through the flat of the blade. The next push starts from
the inside edge. The illustration of the gliding phase of the forward stride is shown in
Figure 2. The skating is executed from down to up in Figure 2. (Stamm 2001, 43)
Figure 2: Gliding phase of the forward stride (According to Stamm 2001, 43). IE = Inside
edge, F = Flat of the blade, OE = Outside edge.
The skate has to go through the center of gravity to reach the outside edge at the
beginning of the gliding phase (Stamm 2001, 43). The whole skating motion has to be
11
smooth and constant and that is why the leg has to continue to glide forward after the
push-off and the recovery phase (de Boer et al. 1986, 176). The leg has to drive through
under the body and contact the ice slightly ahead of the other leg to generate more speed
(Stamm 2001, 43-44).
It is important to have the gliding leg well bended to keep the center of gravity low. Deep
knee bent helps a skater to push wide and long. The skater is able to go into a position
where there is a straight line from the pushing leg to the head when having a full leg
extension. The knee angle of the gliding leg should be close to 90 degrees and the gliding
knee should be in front of the toes. It is important move the whole bodyweight on the
gliding leg by placing the chest over the gliding knee. If a player leans too much forward
and does not keep his or her back straight and head up, he or she easily puts too much
pressure on the toe part of the blade and loses the balance: the pushing leg has risen too
early from the ice and a player is out of balance when he or she executes a full leg
extension. (Stamm 2001, 38-43)
When a player gets tired, the gliding time increases. The velocity decreases because of
lack of energy causing the striding rate to reduce. To be able to maintain the speed and to
move forward, a player starts to increase the gliding phase. Increasing the gliding phase is
only way to keep the strides long and efficient because the time of the recovery phase
decreases and the power of the push-off weakens. (Marino & Drouin 2000, 268-269)
2.5 Recovery Phase of the Forward Stride
The recovery phase of the forward stride is a period when the pushing leg is brought
under the body to start a new gliding phase of the forward stride (Stamm 2001, 33). The
recovery leg should neither cross the line of travel nor hit the gliding skate causing a
decrease in velocity when skating in high speed (Bracko 2003). The leg should be brought
under the body low and fast immediately after the push-off (Glantz). The center of gravity,
in forward skating, locates under the navel and a straight line from the navel to the ice is a
point where the skates should be retracted (Roy 2003).
Wide track or wide tracking is a term, which is used to define the action when a player
does not recover his or her leg through the center of gravity and keeps his or her skates
wide, separate from each other. Skaters, who are wide tracking, lose some speed
because they are not able to catch the outside edge to provide a good gliding motion and
they lose a lot of energy because the body is pulling itself in two different directions at the
12
same time. In a wide track the gliding is executed from the flat of the blade to the inside
edge.
Players have a shorter stride if they are tracking wide. However, they have a better
balance in this position. A stable and balanced position is very important when there is a
contact in a game situation (players need to stay in their skates). When the speed is a
factor, then the players should recover their legs underneath their body through the center
of gravity. North American players tend to wide track more, when compared to European
players, because the smaller rink is causing more emphasis on physical game. Wide
tracking stride is demonstrated in Figure 3. (Roy 2003)
Figure 3: A wide tracking stride (According to Stamm 2001, 43)
One difference between fast and slow skaters is the recovery time of the pushing leg
(Bracko 2003). Low heel recovery helps players to retract their legs faster and players
who propel more to the back than to the side or lean too much forward usually kick their
heels up (Roy 2003). Fast skaters, more skilled skaters, are able to achieve a better
touchdown position and a knee angle of the recovery skate (Marino & Drouin 2000, 268).
When a player gets fatigued the recovery time decreases and he or she spends more time
on two skates (Marino & Drouin 2000, 268-269).
Stride tempos (the number of the strides in certain time) are related to the recovery time of
the pushing leg and there is also a difference in stride tempos between the elite and the
beginner skaters. However, just instructing skaters to move their legs faster may cause
some problems in the technique. Even though the players are moving their legs fast, they
have to keep the technique the same: long glides, full extension of the pushing leg and the
fast recovery through the center of gravity. (McCaw & Hoshizaki 1985, 638-641)
13
The forward stride has its own chapter on the DVD. The chapter is comprised of all the
three phases (push-off, glide and recovery) and these phases are explained and
demonstrated on the DVD. The forward skating drills on the DVD are: forward C-cuts (one
leg at time, alternating and both legs at the same time), scratching the ice, skating with a
pair, edge to edge drills, one leg skating, wide tracking, heel turning, exaggerated strides
and skating in different velocities. The review of the phases and the explanations of the
drills are seen in Appendix 1.
2.6 Forward Stops
Forward stops are used to stop or slow down the speed. The goal is to decrease or stop
the speed as fast as possible. In a game situation stopping is used for example in the
following situations: to stop and change the direction quickly and to stop to avoid body
checks. The most common stop, which is used in a game situation, is a two feet parallel
stop. The other forward stops are one leg inside- and outside edge stops and one and two
foot snowplow stops. (Cady & Stenlund 1998, 86-91; Hockey Canada 2005, 3.06-3.09;
IIHF 2000, A-12; IIHF 2002, 16.7-16.9; SJL & Avset 1986; Stamm 2001, 133-138)
Forward one skate snowplow stop is also known as a “one o’clock – eleven o’clock” stop.
The name comes from the direction towards the skate is stopping to: the right skate
pushes towards one o’clock and the left skate towards eleven o’clock. The name
snowplow comes from the characteristic of the stop: it scrapes the ice as the real
snowplow cleans the road. The technique is usually taught to beginners first by using two
skates and then with one skate. (Hockey Canada 2005, 3.06; IIHF 2000, A-12; Stamm
2001, 134)
One leg snowplow stop technique is used in a game situation when a player executes a
turn from forward to backward skating and returns towards the point he or she started at.
In this turning action the technique is more breaking the speed than actually stopping the
speed. The stopping technique is used rarely during the games by the skaters. The
goalkeepers are executing this stop more often when they move forward from the net. The
stop is executed by turning a skate into a position where the heel is pointing outward and
the toes are pointing inward from the two feet gliding position. A player has to scrape the
ice, push towards the ice, with his or her inside edge by keeping the weight on the balls of
the foot. If the stop is executed with the right skate, the push has to be pointed towards
one o’clock and if with the left skate, towards eleven o’clock. (IIHF 2000, A-12; Stamm
2001, 134)
14
Two feet snowplow stop follows the same principles than the one foot snowplow stop, but
now the both skates are turned simultaneously to stop the speed: the heels outward and
the toes inward. The skates form a letter-V when stopping. A player has to maintain a
deep knee bend and to keep his or her back straight during the entire stop. The push has
to be strong towards the ice to make some snow by using the inside edges of the blades.
It is important to keep the bodyweight on the balls of the feet. If the weight is kept more on
the heels, the blades might cut the ice too deep making the stopping motion difficult.
(Stamm 2001, 133-134)
One leg outside edge stop with the inside leg is also known as a T-stop. It is mainly used
to practice the outside edge work in a two feet hockey stop. It is not often used during the
games because it leaves a player in an unbalanced position. It is sometimes seen when
the players are entering the face-offs.
It is easy to start with gliding on one skate and then placing the other leg behind gliding
skate. The back leg is kept off the ice to form a letter-T. Then the back leg is placed on the
ice and the bodyweight is added to the outside edge of the skate by leaning backwards.
The front skate is lifted up to get the entire bodyweight on the back skate. More skilled
players execute this stop from the normal forward skating motion by strongly turning their
back leg to its outside edge. It requires more strength from the lower body. (Hockey
Canada 2005, 3.09; IIHF 2002, 16.9; Stamm 2001, 135 & 138)
One leg inside edge stop is a very common technique practiced among the beginners.
The technique follows the same principles as the outside edge stop, but now the whole
bodyweight is added on the inside edge of the stopping skate. From the gliding position
the stopping skate is turned 90 degrees to the line of travel by turning the heel outward.
The free leg should be held close to the ice to start a new stride. It is easy to return
towards the direction the player was coming from by using this technique. (Hockey
Canada 2005, 3.09; IIHF 2002, 16.8).
Executing these one leg stops in high speed demands a lot of strength and good edge
control from the players. A player has to place the whole bodyweight quickly either to the
inside or to the outside edge of the stopping skate and rapidly change the direction. Inside
edge braking technique (“thrust and glide”) is found to be the fastest way to continue
skating towards the starting direction after the two feet parallel stop. (Cady & Stenlund
1998, 88-91; Naud & Holt 1980, 94-96)
Two feet parallel stop is also known as a hockey stop. It is the most used stopping
technique in ice hockey and in the same time one of the most difficult skills to teach to
15
young ice hockey players. It is also the most effective way to stop from fast speed and, if
properly executed, the most stable stop. (Cady & Stenlund 1998, 86-88; Hockey Institute;
Stamm 2001, 136).
When executing a hockey stop from the two feet gliding, the both skates are turned 90
degrees to the side. The bodyweight has to be kept on both skates where the inside skate
stops on its outside edge and the outside skate on its inside edge. The inside skate in this
case is the skate which is closer to the point the player was coming from. Strong
backward lean and deep knee bend help the player to stop faster. The head has to be
kept up and shoulders parallel to the ice to provide a balance and stable stance. One of
the common problems is to spread the legs too much because it is hard to continue
skating from that position. (Cady & Stenlund 1998, 86-88, Hockey Institute; Glantz)
One and two leg snowplow stops and the hockey stop are demonstrated on the DVD.
There are two separate drills to practice stopping. The drills are one leg stops and a “stop
and go” drill. The forward stops end the forward skating chapter on the DVD. The key
factors of the techniques and the drills are explained in Appendix 1.
16
3 BACKWARD SKATING
Backward skating is more used among the defenders than the forwards in ice hockey. It
is, however, important for both positions to learn this properly because players are often
skating backwards when playing defence (Stamm 2001, 65). NHL forwards are spending
as much time skating backwards as skating forwards in high intensity (Bracko et al. 1998,
254-259). The team is giving an advance for the opponent if the players are not able to
skate fast straight backward (Stamm 2001, 65).
Backward crossover technique is used more among the players than the straight
backward skating. The crossing over technique is a faster way to accelerate and gain up
the speed, but it is more difficult to angle and keep the gap to opponent and to take the
space away from him or her. When a player is using crossing over technique, he or she is
moving sideways: either to the right or to the left. (Aidelbaum; Stamm 2001, 65-66)
Straight backward skating stride is also divided in three different phases. These phases
are the pushing, the gliding and the recovery phase. They are also known as the release,
the follow through and the return. Straight backward skating mainly differs from the
straight forward skating in two ways: different skating direction and the skates are kept on
the ice almost the entire stride. (Aidelbaum; Stamm 2001, 65-73)
3.1 Backward Skating Position
Backward skating position differs from the forward skating position basically in one way. In
backward skating position a player does not lean so much forward than in forward skating
position. The back is almost in a vertical position and the knees are well bent. The player
is in a sitting position when skating. However, the upper body is slightly leaning forward.
(Aidelbaum; IIHF 2000, A-18; Stamm 2001, 66)
It is important to have the bodyweight equally on both skates approximately in the middle
of the blade (Aidelbaum; IIHF 2000, A-18). If a player has his or her bodyweight too much
on the front, by leaning too much forward or placing the bodyweight too front, he or she
can easily lose the balance or the rhythm when skating (Suburban Hockey). When having
a low knee bend, with bodyweight equally on both skates, the center of gravity stays low
and a player has a more stable position and he or she is able to skate without a fear of
losing the balance (IIHF 2000, A-18).
17
It is really important to keep the back straight by keeping the shoulders back. This helps a
player to keep his or her head up and eyes on the game. The legs should be kept in
shoulder width apart and the knees in front of the toes to guarantee a stable skating
position and good power of the strides. The stick should be kept on the ice in one hand to
be ready to react to the game situations. (Aidelbaum; IIHF 2000, A-18; IIHF 2002, 16.13;
Suburban Hockey)
Backward skating position and the difference between forward and backward skating
positions is demonstrated on the DVD. The same drills are used to practice backward
skating position as to practice forward skating position, but now the drills are done
backwards. The drills are seen in Appendix 1.
3.2 Backward Skating Starts
There are two techniques to start to skate backward: a straight backward start and a
backward crossover start (IIHF 2002, 16.13; Stamm 2001, 117-120). In some situation the
player has to accelerate forward first and then turn to backward skating (Hache 2002, 47;
Stamm 2001, 118). It is important to learn to start skating backward from the straight legs
because only in this way a player is able to see the opponent at all times (IIHF 2002,
16.13; Stamm 2001, 117).
Backward skating starts are slower to execute than forward skating starts because of the
characteristics of the skating style. A player can not lean as much backward as forward in
forward skating. If a player leans too much backward, he or she will lose the balance
forcing the player to fall down. (Stamm 2001, 117)
The straight backward start is executed almost in the same way as skating straight
backward by using C-cuts but when starting the first strides are short. The name of the Ccut comes from the figure which the blade makes on the ice during the stride. The start
has to be done like all the other starts: first fast strides to gain quickly the maximum
speed. The gliding skate should glide less than during the straight backward skating.
(Stamm 2001, 118)
From the backward skating position, the legs under the body, the pushing skate is turned
outward almost 90 degrees to the line of travel. The blade of the skate is on its inside
edge. The whole bodyweight is placed over the pushing leg and the hip is extended. A
fast knee and ankle extensions are providing a full leg extension. The bodyweight is
moved rapidly to the other leg after the recovery. Players should gain the top speed after
18
few strides. The hip should kept all the time facing straight to the line of travel to prevent a
swinging motion from side to side. (IIHF 2002, 16.13-16.14; Stamm 2001, 118-120)
Backward crossover start is an effective way to start from the standing position (Hockey
Institute; IIHF 2002, 16.14). It starts with a normal C-cut followed by crossovers and
skating continues either on straight backward skating or backward crossovers, chosen by
the player (IIHF 2000, C-57; IIHF 2002, 16.14; Stamm 2001, 120-121). The technique is
demonstrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Backward crossover start (According to Stamm 2001, 121)
Backward crossover start might be fast to execute from the straight leg -position but it
gives a disadvantage to a player because he or she is forced to stay only in one side at
time. This is crucial when playing one against one situation. Straight backward start is
superior to a crossover start (when playing one to one situation during the game) because
the defencing player is able to stay in front of the offensive player all the time. (Stamm
2001, 117-118)
An arm swing gives the rhythm and helps to be explosive during the starts and during the
backward skating. The principle is the same as in forward skating: the arms have to follow
and move by using the same pattern than the legs. The arm swing has to be natural and
the arms should never cross the center of the body because that creates too much side to
side motion, which will decrease the speed. (Stamm 2001, 43-46; Suburban Hockey)
19
Straight backward start and the backward crossover start are demonstrated on the DVD.
The clips contain a proper demonstration and some written key points. There is one
resistance drill with a pair to practice backward starting on the DVD. The key factors of the
techniques and the drill are seen in Appendix 1.
3.3 Pushing Phase of the Backward Stride
The technique, which is used in straight backward skating, is called a C-cut (Hockey
Institute; Stamm 2001, 66). The other name for this push-off technique is a half-moon cut
(Glantz). The technique is the same as used in straight backward start; the skate cuts the
ice and creates a letter C.
The power of the push is produced in the same way as in straight forward skating: to fully
extend the hip-, the knee- and the ankle joint to create a straight line from the skate to the
head (Stamm 2001, 66-71). The difference between the techniques is that in straight
backward skating both skates are basically staying on the ice all the time (Aidelbaum).
The other important fundamentals are a good edge grip, weight distribution from one leg
to the other leg and a low knee bend (Stamm 2001, 66).
The stride starts straight under the body (Glantz; Stamm 2001, 66). The pushing leg is
angled outward and the angle between the skate blade and the ice is approximately 45
degrees on top speed (Aidelbaum; Stamm 2001, 66). By keeping the whole blade on the
ice and powerfully thrusting the skate to the front and then to the side will move the player
backward (Suburban Hockey). The bodyweight is on the pushing leg and the push starts
from the middle of the blade ending to the balls of the foot, which can be referred as a toe
push-off (Stamm 2001; 66-68). The whole leg has to be extended to create a maximal
force and a speed generation (Stamm 2001, 66-68; Suburban Hockey).
The whole C-cut sequence is demonstrated in Figure 5. The difference of Figure 5 and
straight backward skating is in the gliding leg. The gliding leg does not glide straight
backward as it is shown in Figure 5. The purpose of Figure 5 is to illustrate the skating
direction. The gliding leg and the skate are gone through under the next chapter: the
gliding phase of the backward stride.
20
Figure 5: Backward skating stride (According to Stamm 2001, 70)
The knee bend has to be low. A deep knee bend guarantees the low center of gravity,
which provides a stable and a balanced skating position when pushing-off. If the player
skates with straight legs, he or she can not produce power to a push because the optimal
angle of the knees for power production is close to 120 degrees (Roy 2003).
A player has to remember to keep his or her hip pointed straight backward to eliminate a
swinging motion from side to side. A player moves to the direction the hip is facing to.
Swinging hip sideways affects negatively skating: a player uses more energy to go
sideways and is unable to skate straight backward. (Aidelbaum; Stamm 2001, 66-72)
3.4 Gliding Phase of the Backward Stride
Gliding phase of the straight backward stride follows the same principles as the straight
forward stride. The blade of the gliding skate moves from the outside edge (beginning of
the gliding phase) to the inside edge (propulsion phase) and between the edges on the
flat of the blade. The aim of the backward skating is to go straight as much as possible
(not sideways) and that is why many drills are concentrating on keeping the gliding leg on
the flat of the blade to move straight backward. (Stamm 2001, 65-72)
As in the forward skating, when one leg is pushing (in backward skating executing the Ccut) the other skate is gliding. In backward skating the gliding leg stays all the time on the
ice and under the body (Aidelbaum; Glantz). The total shape of the combination of the
pushing leg and the gliding leg is close to a letter D (Aidelbaum). Having a big
21
concentration on executing a letter C might cause a player to move sideways rather
straight backwards (Aidelbaum; Stamm 2001, 70-72; Suburban Hockey).
The gliding leg should start to glide a little bit earlier than the other skate starts to push. It
means that the gliding leg should be ahead of the pushing leg and the distance is
approximately three quarters of the skate blade. A player should really bring the leg
backward (in forward skating forward) to be able to go fast. (Stamm 2001, 70-72).
The gliding knee should be kept well bended to provide a full thrust of the pushing leg
(IIHF 2002, 16.13). The deeper the knee bend, the more sideways a player is able to push
(Suburban Hockey). The knee angle should be close to 90 degrees (Aidelbaum). This
deep knee bend provides a player a better and more balanced position and provides more
speed because of the full strides (Suburban Hockey).
3.5 Recovery Phase of the Backward Stride
Recovery phase is a period when the pushing leg is brought under the body. The phase
starts in the middle of the C-cut (in the middle of the letter C) and ends when the both
skates are under the center of gravity. After the recovery phase the skate starts to glide.
The leg return is a fast movement. It is executed by turning the heel of the pushing leg
inward and pull it under the body by forming the rest of the letter C (pushing period is the
first half and the recovery period is the second half). The whole blade has to be in contact
with the ice during the procedure. If a player lifts up the heel, he or she will move the
bodyweight more on front and the toe of the blade cuts more the ice causing a falling
moment.
Even though the recovery phase is a pull, it is also a glide. If the player cuts the ice too
much during the recovery, he or she is attempted to move more sideways than straight
backward. Moving sideways takes more energy causing a faster exhaustion of a player
and a longer skating time.
It is important to have a full recovery. The optimal power production is created when the
push starts straight under the body. By starting at the point, where the center of gravity
locates, the player is able to put his or her bodyweight 100% over the pushing leg.
Incomplete recovery forces the hip to move sideways causing a swinging hip (Stamm
2001, 68-71)
Stride tempos are as big part of backward skating as they are in forward skating. Stride
tempo has to be fast but in the same time all the strides have to be full. A player can not
take anything off from the three phases mentioned earlier, if he or she wants to skate fast.
22
The same principle occurs in backward skating: stride tempo is high if the recovery time is
fast. (Stamm 2001, 73)
Backward skating stride is demonstrated on the DVD as its own chapter under the
backward skating chapter. All the three phases are demonstrated in writing as well. The
backward skating drills on the DVD are: backward C-cuts, “hit the skates”, backward edge
to edge drills, backward slalom, one leg skating backward and “follow the line”. All the
drills are explained in Appendix 1.
3.6 Backward Stops
Backward stops are as initial part of the game as forward stops. The player has to react
quickly to the changes of the game and to be ready to stop fast. There is not always the
time to use the technique known best. There are three different backward stopping
techniques used in ice hockey: one foot and two feet snowplow stops and a backward
hockey stop. (IIHF 2000, A-22, B-28 & D-56; IIHF 2002, 16.14-16.15; Stamm 2001, 138140)
Backward two feet snowplow stop is also called as a V-stop because the skates form a
letter V when a player stops (IIHF 2000, A-22). This technique is mostly used when
skating backward during the game, because it gives the best resistance against ice
providing a quick stop (IIHF 2002, 16.14). From this position it is easy to continue skating
(IIHF 2000, A-22; Stamm 2001, 139). In most of the skating manuals the two feet
snowplow stop is taught before the one leg snowplow stop (IIHF 2000, A-22; IIHF 2002,
16.14; Stamm 2001, 138-139).
In V-stop (two feet snowplow) the both skates are turned simultaneously to point outward:
toes point outward and heels inward. The legs should be approximately in shoulder width
apart when stopping. First a player has to get a contact with the ice, scrape the ice (a
slide), before he or she starts to push hard against the ice. The knees have to be well
bended to be able to stop fast. The more the knees are bent (lowered the bodyweight),
the faster the stop is done. The bodyweight has to be equally on the both skates. The stop
is more effective if a player uses his or her balls of the feet instead of the heels. The snow
should come out from the front half of the blades when stopping (Snowplow action). It is
easy to extend the legs and to continue skating after the stop. (Glantz; IIHF 2000, A-22,
Stamm 2001, 138-139).
23
One leg snowplow stop is executed in the same way as the two feet snowplow stop but
now just using one skate (Stamm 2001, 139). It is commonly used by professional players
because it is easy to quickly gain the speed after the stop (Hockey Institute). As in the two
feet snowplow stop, it is also important in one leg snowplow stop to lean forward when
executing the stop (IIHF 2002, 16.15).
One leg snowplow stop is executed by using the back leg and the actual stopping motion
is done with the inside edge of the blade. As in the two feet V-stop, the stopping skate has
to rotate in a way that the toes are pointing outward and the heel is pointing inward. Deep
knee bend with the whole bodyweight over the stopping leg guarantees a fast stop. From
that position it is easy to continue skating in every direction because the free leg is already
under the body to start a new stride. (Stamm 2001, 139-140)
Backward two feet hockey stop is used when the player has to stop quickly sideways from
the backward skating (IIHF 2000, D-56). There are two ways to stop: feet parallel to each
other or wide apart (Glantz; IIHF 2000, D-56). No differences between these two stopping
techniques have been found when thinking of the effectiveness of the stop (Naud & Holt
1980, 96).
The hockey stop is executed from the backward skating by turning the hip sideways. The
skates and the body are following the hip. A player has to turn the whole lower body 90
degrees to be able to stop. Placing the bodyweight on both skates and on the balls of the
feet helps a player to dig into the ice. The front skate will be on the outside edge and the
back skate will be on the inside edge when stopping. A player should be in a sitting
position when stopping and to remember to keep the inside shoulder parallel to the ice to
maintain the balance. (Glantz; IIHF 2000, D-56)
The one foot and two feet backward snowplow stops and the backward hockey stop are
demonstrated and explained on the DVD. Slow motion is used to clarify the proper
technique. Any additional stopping drills are not seen on the DVD. The reviews of the
backward stopping techniques are seen in Appendix 1.
24
4 FORWARD CROSSOVERS
Crossovers are the fastest way to skate a curve-shaped distance (Aidelbaum). The name
of the crossover indicates a leg-over technique used in ice hockey and speed skating: the
outside leg always crosses over the inside leg (de Boer, Ettema, van Gorkum, de Groot &
van Ingen Schenau 1987, 78; Stamm 2001, 77). This technique is used in ice hockey for
example when accelerating on curves or moving sideways (Hache 2002, 49; Stamm
2001, 77).
In speed skating the skaters are only skating counter clockwise; the right skate always
goes over the left skate (de Boer et al. 1987, 78). In ice hockey the players are skating in
both directions because of the characteristics of the game (Stamm 2001, 77). However,
turning to the left is more common among the NHL forwards than turning to the right
(Bracko et al. 1998, 260). Bracko et al. (1998, 260) explained this result by the shooting
side of the player: it is easier to turn to the direction of your lower hand.
There are two forces, besides the center of gravity, which involve the skater during the
crossovers: the centrifugal and the centripetal force (Blatherwick 1992, 26-27: Stamm).
Stamm (2001, 221) defines the centrifugal force as a force which pushes the skater away
from the circle and the centripetal force as a force which pushes the skater inward to the
circle. The torque by these two forces is reduced by lowering the center of gravity of the
player by bending the knees more (Blatherwick 1992, 27). A balanced position is found
when the forces are equalized (Stamm).
In forward crossovers the inside and the outside leg have their own pushing, gliding and
recovery technique. A player is always using the edges when skating crossovers: the flat
of the blades are rarely used. When the player is moving on the flats, he or she is going
straight forward or backward. The edge of the blade and the leg determine the way of
travel (Stamm; Stamm 2001, 77-82).
4.1 Forward Crossover Skating Position
The skating position of forward crossovers follows the same principles as the skating
position of the straight forward skating: low knee bent (about 90 degrees), back straight
and head up. Because of the centripetal and the centrifugal forces the upper body plays a
bigger role than in straight forward skating. A player has to balance between these two
forces by moving the upper body, and maintain the speed at the same time. (Stamm;
Stamm 2001. 77-82)
25
A player has to lean towards the center of the curve down from the waist (Aidelbaum; IIHF
2000, B-21). The shoulders have to stay parallel to the ice and the easiest way to do this
is to keep the inside shoulder up (IIHF 2000, B-21, Stamm). The upper body can either
face towards or away from the center of the circle, depending on the certain game
situation: skating clockwise and accelerating without the puck or protecting the puck when
the opponent is on the right side (Stamm).
The bodyweight is concentrated on the working skate, and at the same time the center of
gravity has to stay low and in the middle of the blades. The velocity will decrease and the
player will lose the balance, if he or she moves the bodyweight from forward to backward,
from down to up or from side to side. The change of the bodyweight occurs in the middle:
when the skates are close to each other. The skates have to be pointed towards the line
of travel during the entire curve and a change will alter the direction of skating. The lean
down from the waist has to be strong to achieve a good grip between the blade and the
ice: the angle between the blade and the ice is approximately 45 degrees. A too excessive
shoulder movement affects negatively to the balance and the agility. (Stamm)
4.2 Forward Crossover Start
The technique of the forward crossover start is discussed in Chapter 2.2 (forward skating
starts). Forward crossover start is a fast way to continue skating in any direction after the
stop (Stamm 2001, 113). However, players usually start to skate crossovers after the two
feet gliding position and return into the same position during the game (Bracko et al. 1998,
261).
Lateral crossovers, also known as weaving crossovers, are one technique to skate
forward. The player executes a normal crossover start and continues skating forward by
executing three crossovers strides (two first ones are crossover strides and the third one
is a neutralizing step) to one direction and change the way after a neutralizing step. This
neutralizing step is wider than the two other ones. Lateral crossovers are the base of
deking, which is used in ice hockey when you want to go around the opponent. (Stamm
2001, 102-103)
4.3 Pushing Phase of the Forward Crossover Stride
There are two different push-off techniques used in forward crossovers: the inside leg and
the outside leg push (comparing to straight forward skating where the both skates are
using the same technique) (de Boer et al. 1987, 70, Glantz; Stamm, 2001, 77-83). These
26
two pushes are also known as a stride push (outside leg) and an X-push (inside leg)
(Stamm 2001, 78-81). The inside leg push is found more powerful than the outside leg
push (de Boer et al. 1987, 77-78).
The both strides have partly the same fundamentals as in straight forward skating, such
as a deep knee bend and a full leg and an ankle extension (Aidelbaum). The
simultaneous extension of the hip, the knee and the ankle produce the power of the push
in all the skating (Hache 2002, 40; Roy 2003). Every stride should start straight under the
center of gravity to provide the most powerful push-off (Stamm 2001, 78). The gliding
skate should be bent close to 90 degrees and the knee should be in front of the toes
(Aidelbaum).
The technique of an outside leg push is almost the same as in straight forward skating
and the name stride push comes from this characteristic. The push starts from the inside
edge and lands also on the inside edge; in straight forward skating stride the skate lands
on the outside edge. The whole blade is pushing and the push starts from the heel and
ends from the balls of the foot. The whole leg, including the ankle, has to extend to
produce a powerful stride. The push has to align to the side of the line of travel like in the
straight forward skating. The bodyweight has to be transferred to the inside skate at the
midpoint of the push to provide a maximal gliding phase. After the full leg extension the
toes can not face straight towards the ice because this would cause a player to turn into
the flat of the blades. There has to be a straight line from the skate to the head after the
full leg extension. (Stamm; Stamm 2001, 77-80)
The inside leg push, also known as an X-push, is done with the outside edge of the inside
skate. The inside skate crosses the outside skate but it does not go over the outside
skate: it goes under the outside leg. As in all other strides, the leg has to be full extended
to produce a powerful push, and the same occurs in the X-push. The push starts from the
heel of the blade and ends to the ankle extension. The bodyweight has to be transferred
in the middle of the push to the other skate, and after the full leg extension the toes can
not point straight towards the ice. These two pushes, inside and outside, are following
each other and they are done one at a time. (Glantz; Stamm; Stamm 2001, 80-82)
The inside skate push is found more powerful compared to the outside leg push. This is
because of the characteristic of the inside skate stride: a smaller knee angle and a higher
push-off angle (the angle between the vertical line and the medial side of the skate) at the
beginning of the push. The outside skate has to be placed more vertically on the ice after
the push-off than the inside skate. The differences of the inside and the outside strides are
27
shown in Appendix 2. Appendix 2 also illustrates the differences between the elite and the
trained skaters during the crossover skating. (de Boer et al. 1987, 73-78)
When comparing elite and trained skaters you will find out that elite skaters have shorter
stride and push-off times during the crossover skating. There is no big difference in the
stride rate between these two groups: the difference lies in the work per stride. Elite
skaters are able to recover faster. (de Boer et al. 1987, 73-78)
Some elite ice hockey players often run the first crossover strides to accelerate fast. This
requires more power from the thighs because a player has to stay in a low position to grip
the ice. The more the player bends the knees, leans from the waist down and balances
the upper body, the more the edges will grip the ice providing a powerful stride. (Stamm)
4.4 Gliding Phase of the Forward Crossover Stride
As in the pushing phase of the forward crossover stride also the gliding phase is different
comparing to the straight forward skating. In forward crossovers the inside skate glides on
its outside edge and the outside skate glides on its inside edge. The gliding skate could
also be called the directional skate because the edge and the leg determine the line of
travel. The edges do not change during the gliding phase, as it does during the straight
forward skating. (Aidelbaum; de Boer et al. 1987, 70-78; Stamm; Stamm 2001, 77-83)
A skater has to lean strongly from the waist down into the curve to get into the edges (IIHF
2000, B-21; Stamm). When the blade is placed on the ice after the recovery phase, the
angle between the ice and the blade, inside the curve, should be approximately 45
degrees (Glantz). A stronger lean determines the sharpness of the curve and a faster
speed helps a skater to dig into the ice (Aidelbaum; Stamm).
The gliding phase starts after the recovery phase and ends when the leg starts to propel
the speed. The gliding starts ahead of the point where the other leg was gliding as in all
the skating techniques: the gliding leg needs to be brought ahead of the other skate. The
full blade of the gliding skate has to be in contact with the ice to provide a stable and
continuous movement. The outside leg glides longer on the ice comparing to the inside
leg and that is why more weight is distributed on the outside leg when skating the curves.
(de Boer et al. 1987, 70-77; Stamm; Stamm 2001, 77-83)
Practicing gliding by using one blade at a time helps a player to improve his or her
balance during the curves (Paananen & Räty 2002, 35 & 38; Stamm 2001, 97). Gliding
28
one leg, however, is not characteristic during an ice hockey game and this should be
remembered when practicing skating (Bracko 1999). Using single gliding drills and game
performance skating drills together, will improve the player to balance with one skate and
master the edge work when practicing skating the curves (Bracko et al. 1998, 261;
Paananen & Räty 2002, 38).
4.5 Recovery Phase of the Forward Crossover Stride
Recovery phase in crossovers is a period when the leg is brought under the body close in
the ice after the push-off phase. In forward crossovers this means the phase when the leg
is crossing over, or under, the pushing leg in the air. The outside leg is brought over the
inside leg whereas the inside leg is brought under and behind the outside leg. (de Boer et
al. 1987, 78; Stamm 2001, 77-82)
The leg should stay close to the ice when returning. Lifting the heels up will decrease the
speed. The outside skate stays close and almost parallel to the ice, and in front of the toes
of the inside skate when it moves forward. This crossing over is done properly if the
outside leg crosses over the top of the thigh of the inside leg (player has to maintain the
deep knee bend). The inside leg is brought under, behind, the outside leg. The skate has
to move close and almost parallel to the ice behind the heel of the outside skate: center of
gravity rises if the skate is lifted up. (Stamm; Stamm 2001, 80-83)
The stride rate is higher in forward crossovers than in straight forward skating (Yuda, Yuki,
Aoyanagi, Fujii & Ae 2004, 201). This is mainly because of the longer gliding time in
straight forward skating (de Boer et al. 1987, 77). The inside leg stroke is shorter than the
outside leg stroke and the knee angular velocity of the inside leg is higher, which are due
to the shorter gliding time of the inside skate (de Boer et al. 1987, 76-78).
The forward crossover skating is demonstrated on the DVD. The inside and the outside
leg work are demonstrated by using the frozen frames. The forward crossovers drills on
the DVD are: “over the stick”, circle gliding, “airplane”, figure -8, inside leg skating, side
crossovers and forward lateral crossovers. All the drills are explained in Appendix 1.
29
5 BACKWARD CROSSOVERS
Backward crossover skating is common among the players of the defensive team during
the game. A defensive player tries to angle and to track the opponent to get him or her out
of the play and win the puck to his or her team. Backward crossover skating is important
to learn, because in some cases it is only way to win the situation and turn the play.
(Stamm 2001, 83)
The same forces affect backward crossovers as forward crossovers when skating in the
circles: the centripetal and the centrifugal forces (Stamm). The forces are explained in
Chapter 3 (forward crossovers). One similarity to the forward crossover is the difference
between the inside and the outside leg strides, whereas in straight backward skating both
legs execute the same stride pattern (Stamm 2001, 83). There are two major differences
in the forward and the backward crossovers besides the direction of skating: in backward
crossovers the outside leg stays on the ice during the entire stride and the inside skate
changes the edge during the stride (Aidelbaum).
5.1 Backward Crossover Skating Position
The skating position of backward crossovers follows the same principles as in the straight
backward skating: low knee bend and back straight. The thighs should be almost parallel
to the ice to create a sitting position. The bodyweight is in the middle of the blade and the
whole blade should contact the ice. The bodyweight moves from one leg to the other as it
does during the forward crossover skating. (Glantz; Stamm)
The upper body has an important role in crossover skating because of the centripetal and
the centrifugal forces. In backward crossovers the upper body is basically facing one
direction: the shoulders and the chest are facing the curve. However, the skates have to
point towards the line of travel, which means that the rotation is done from the hip and the
leaning is done from the waist down. Shoulders should always be kept parallel to the ice
to guarantee a good balance and a stable skating position as in forward crossover
skating.
The players should remember not to lean on the hockey stick to find a balanced position.
When skating backward crossovers the skating position is wider than in forward
crossovers due to the inside leg stride. The player is using wider steps to provide powerful
strides. The inside leg stride will be discussed more in Chapter 5.3 (the pushing phase of
the backward crossover stride). (Stamm; Stamm 2001, 83-90)
30
5.2 Backward Crossover Start
One demand of the game is to see the game situation and the position of the puck. When
the opponent is attacking, a player does not always have time to accelerate forward and
by doing that the player will lose the eye contact from the opponent. The backward
crossover start is one of the fastest ways to accelerate backward and at the same time a
player is able to face the game situation (Stamm 2001, 83). The technique of backward
crossover start is explained in Chapter 3.2 (backward crossover starts).
In a game situation after the backward crossover start the crossovers are done laterally,
especially if you are playing as a defender. Lateral crossovers are done in three strides
where the third one usually is a neutralizing step. A player has to learn throughout the
game when it is proper to execute crossovers and when to skate straight backward.
(Stamm 2001, 83 & 102-103)
5.3 Pushing Phase of the Backward Crossover Stride
There are two different pushes in backward crossovers: the inside leg push and the
outside leg push. The outside leg push is a normal C-cut, which is also used in straight
backward skating, and the inside leg push is a kind of pulling under movement. One
difference between the pushes is that the outside skate stays on the ice during the whole
stride. As in forward crossovers, one push is executed at a time. (Aidelbaum; Glantz;
Stamm 2001, 84-88)
The outside leg push is also known as a stride push. It is executed in the same way as the
normal C-cut when skating straight backwards but now in a circle or in a turn. The
technique of the C-cut is explained in Chapter 3.3 (the pushing phase of the backward
stride).
The inside skate is on its outside edge when executing the outside leg push. The
bodyweight has to be over the pushing leg to maximize the power of the push as in all the
other pushes. The outside leg is powerfully thrust to the front-side from the line of travel
starting from the heel and finishing the push from the balls of the foot. However, the whole
blade contacts the ice during the entire stride. The angle between the pushing skate and
the ice should be close to 45 degrees when pushing against the ice. (Glantz; Stamm
2001, 84-85)
The inside leg push is also known as an X-push and is executed by using a crossing
under/ pulling under technique: the inside leg is crossed under/ pulled under the outside
31
leg. The push starts when the skate is a little bit over the shoulder inside the circle/ turn
and from there the skate is pulled through the center of gravity. It differs in this way from
the others pushes, which always start under the body.
The inside skate propels the ice on its outside edge. The push starts from the middle part
of the blade and ends to the balls of foot providing an ankle extension. The leg has to full
extend to get the maximum power out from the push. The extension is directed to the side
from the line of travel, which is in this case a curve shaped line. Player will lose the
balance and the power of the push if the toes are pointing straight down and the heels are
pointing up. The bodyweight is shifted from the inside leg to the outside leg in the middle
of crossing under movement which is at the same time the midpoint of the push. (Glantz;
Stamm; Stamm 2001, 85)
5.4 Gliding Phase of the Backward Crossover Stride
The gliding phase starts after the recovery phase. As in forward crossover skating the
inside leg and the outside leg have their own way to glide, compared to straight forward
skating where the both skates execute the same gliding pattern. For the outside skate this
means a period when the leg is gliding under the body after the C-cut push and for the
inside skate a period when the skate is placed back to the ice to the side of the body.
Because of the characteristic of crossover skating the gliding time of one skate is shorter
than in straight backward skating. (Stamm 2001, 83-89)
The outside skate glides on its inside edge. The gliding phase starts under the body after
the recovery phase and ends when the pushing motion starts. The whole blade stays on
the ice during the whole stride. The gliding leg has to be well bended during the whole
phase to maximize the balance and the power of the inside leg push. The bodyweight is
transferred to the gliding leg in the midpoint of the inside skate push. (Stamm; Stamm
2001, 77-78 & 84-89)
The inside skate is mostly gliding on its outside edge. The gliding phase starts when the
skate is placed back to the ice after the recovery period. The skate might contact the ice
with the inside edge – flat of the blade because during the recovery the leg is placed as
wide on the side as possible to maximize the balance, the stable stance and the power of
the push. The skate is gliding backward and towards the center of the body to prepare for
the pushing action. The whole blade contacts with the ice and the bodyweight is
transferred to gliding leg in the middle of the outside leg push. (Stamm 2001, 85-86)
32
5.5 Recovery Phase of the Backward Crossover Stride
The recovery phase of the skates differs from each other, like all the other phases in
crossover skating. The outside leg recovery period follows the same principles as the
normal C-cut stride but is now executed in a circle. It starts in the middle of the C and
ends when the skate is under the body. In backward crossovers the outside leg is brought
in front of the inside skate and the distance between the skates is approximately three
centimeters. The skate stays on the ice and the full blade is contacting the ice during the
recovery. (Aidelbaum; Stamm 2001, 68 & 84)
The recovery phase of the inside skate is done in the air. After the full leg extension the
inside leg is brought on the side as far as possible, depending on the player’s abilities.
The skate should stay close and parallel to the ice during the whole recovery. The blade
might contact the ice with the inside edge or on the flat but it must quickly turn on the
outside edge. This “reaching to the side” –motion requires more strength from the player
but in the same time he or she is able to speed up easier. (Glantz; Stamm 2001, 85-86)
As in forward crossovers the stride length and tempo has to be equal on both legs: the
player must learn to push powerfully with both legs. If he or she is unable to push with
both legs, it will be seen in the speed and the power of crossovers. The low heel recovery
increases the stride tempos in crossovers and in straight skating. All the three phases
have to be fully finished before starting the new phase but at the same time the player has
to be able to move his or her legs rapidly to increase the speed. (Stamm 2001, 86-87)
Backward crossover skating is demonstrated and the technique is explained on the DVD.
The drills on the DVD are: backward circle gliding, figure -8, “stick on back”, backward
crossover skating with a pair and backward lateral crossover skating. The key factors of
the drills are seen in Appendix 1.
33
6 TURNING MANEUVERS
Turning is a very common way of changing the direction in ice hockey (Bracko et al. 1998,
255). The turn is a change of direction or a change of the body direction: a change from
forward to backward skating, or either changing the direction of skating or turning in a
straight line where the skating direction stays the same (Stamm 2001, 151). A player can
execute several turns during the game such as tight turns, forward to backward turns and
some others special turns (Bracko et al. 1998, 255; Stamm 2001, 151)
Turning to the left is more common during the game than turning to the right. This is
explained by the superior number of the left-handed players comparing to the righthanded players because it has been found that turning to the direction of the player’s
shooting side is easier. Gliding turn is the most used turning technique during the game
and all the turns start from the two feet gliding position. The frequency of the turns is seen
in Appendix 3. (Bracko et al. 1998, 255 & 260)
In all the turns a balanced position is very important. The player has to keep his or her
center of gravity low during the whole turn, in all turns. The turn starts either from the
backward or forward skating and posture of the player is determined by the turning
technique. The rotation of the body has to be done before executing the actual turn. The
back has to be kept straight and head up all the time to be able to see and follow the
game situations. The purpose of the turn is not to decrease the speed: the player has to
maintain or accelerate during the turn by striding. (Aidelbaum; Stamm 2001, 152-153)
6.1 Forward Two Feet Parallel Turns
Two feet parallel turns are most used during the ice hockey game (Bracko et al. 1998,
255; Stamm 2001, 153). Depending on the time and space the player either executes an
easy gliding turn or a more demanding tight turn (SJL & Avset 1987; Stamm 2001, 173).
In these two turns both the inside and the outside skate stays on the ice during the entire
turn (SJL & Avset 1987). The same forces apply in two feet turning as in crossover skating
(Stamm).
Two feet gliding turn is one of the easiest and simplest ways to change the direction in ice
hockey. It is mostly done as a forward turn but sometimes it is good to practice the
technique backwards to learn to control the edges and the body. It is really important to
learn to execute the turn in both directions. In two feet gliding turn the weight is equally on
both skates, in the middle of the blade. The inside skate is on its outside edge whereas
34
the outside skate is on its inside edge. The inside skate is a directional skate and it is
approximately 30 centimeters in front of the outside skate. As in skating crossovers, the
inside shoulder should stay parallel to the ice. If the shoulder drops down it will cause an
unbalanced position and a decrease in velocity. The player really has to lean from the
waist down towards the curve. (IIHF 2000, B-38; SJL & Avset 1987; Stamm; Stamm 2001,
83 &173)
The tight turn is executed as the gliding turn but now the turning action is done in a
smaller space. The player just moves his or her bodyweight more on the back halves of
the blades. This action provides a better grip from the ice to the edges but in the same
time decreases the speed. The bodyweight has to be kept low during the entire turn and
shoulders parallel to the ice. This turn is one of the most effective ways to change the
direction and get away from the opponent. (Stamm; Stamm 2001, 173)
It is important to maintain the speed and continue skating after the turn. Some players use
an outside leg C-cut when “entering” the turn to provide more speed. After the turn,
depending on the way of traveling, the quick crossovers allow a player to have a rapid
start. The turns can be done all the way from 90 degrees to a full circle depending on the
way of traveling and the game situation. (Aidelbaum; IIHF 2000, B-38; Stamm 2001, 173175)
These two parallel turns can also be made with the chest facing away from the circle
where the inside shoulder is leading the motion. For example there is a situation where
the player is going around the opponent while protecting the puck. In this turn it is still
important to keep the bodyweight low due to containment of the opponent and shoulders
parallel to the ice providing a balanced and stable position. (Stamm; Stamm 2001, 175)
6.2 From Forward to Forward Special Turns
The following turns are executed when the player needs to see the puck or the game
situation during the turn. Always facing the puck is an individual skill, which will help the
player to stay inside the game. One common turn is a Mohawk turn, which is executed for
example by the wingers when they break out from the defensive zone. Two other ones are
a heel to heel turn (forward open turn) and a turn which combines these two previous
turns. (Hockey Canada 2005, 6.22-6.24; SJL & Avset 1987)
Mohawk turn is done from the forward to forward skating while gliding sidewaysbackwards for a few seconds. The reason why it is done is that a player can face the puck
35
during the entire turn. The player skates forward and turns his or her lower body 90
degrees on the side, toes pointing towards the puck and heels backward. Lowering the
bodyweight and moving the weight a little bit on the back halves of the blades will move
the player backward. While the player is moving backwards he or she open ups the hip
and start to skate forward. This turn requires more skills because it is a combination of a
hockey stop, a backward crossover and a quick start. The idea is to maintain the speed
while turning and to get open for a pass. (Hockey Canada 2005, 6.24; SJL & Avset 1987)
Heel to heel glide is not used very often during the game. It demands a lot of strength and
flexibility from the player to really open his or her hips. In this glide the heels are pointing
to each other while gliding on the flats of the blades straight forward. This is one way of
going around the opponent in a small space. The bodyweight has to be low and equally
on both skates during the glide because player is unable to stride during the glide. Turning
the toes a little bit inward will turn the player to his or her inside edges. This motion will
turn the player to move towards the center of the curve. (Hockey Canada 2005, 6.22)
An open Mohawk turn is a combination of these two previous turns. It starts with a heel to
heel glide and from there the Mohawk turn is executed. The idea of the turn is to save
energy of a player, to make turning more economical, when he or she gets open during
the break out. It requires more space than the normal Mohawk turn because a player is
gliding more on the flats of the blades.
The player starts to glide by using the heel to heel glide while facing the puck. From there
the bodyweight is placed on the front skate and the back skate is lifted up. The front skate
is turned quickly on its inside edge and continued to the flat of the blade. At the same time
the bodyweight is moved more to the back half of the blade, causing the player to move
backwards. Back skate is placed back on the ice to point towards to the new line of travel,
which is towards the direction the player started at. (Nässén May 17, 2006)
6.3 From Forward to Backward Turns
Turning from forward skating to backward skating is an important skill in ice hockey. The
turning can be done either in a straight line or in a curve. Two important factors for both
turning styles are to rotate the hip and the upper body before the actual turn and not to
brake with the edges during the turn. It is necessary to learn to execute these turns from
both the right and the left side to be able to use these turns naturally during the game.
(SJL & Avset 1987; Stamm 2001, 152)
36
Turning from forward skating to backward skating can be used in a situation where a
player skates to defence and turn him- or herself to backward skating to stay between two
opponents while all the time facing the game situation. This turn requires a player to
change his or her feet during the turn and open up the hip. If the turn is done by first
turning the right shoulder to point backward, the left skate will remain on the ice and the
right skate is lifted up. The bodyweight is over the left skate and the turn is started from
the hips. When the hip and the upper body are pointing backward and also the heel of a
right skate, the right skate is placed back on the ice. Immediately when the right skate is
gliding on the ice, the left leg is lifted and the bodyweight is moved over the right skate.
When the left leg is turned to point backward in the air and placed back on the ice, the
player can start to skate straight backward. It is important to keep the skates close to each
other and under the body during the turn to maintain the balance and the speed. (IIHF
2000, B-34; SJL & Avset 1987; Stamm 2001 154-155)
Turning from forward skating to backward skating in a curve is done when the player
changes 180 degrees the line of travel. For example a game situation where the defender
has to start to skate backward after supporting the attack while facing the puck. In Finland
this turn is called as a defender’s turn because of this typical game situation.
This turn is done by using the both skates while the straight line turn was executed by
using one skate at a time. If the player wants to turn from the right side, the weight is
placed more on the left skate and on its inside edge. At the beginning of the turn the left
skate will be the outside skate and the right skate the inside skate. The outside and the
inside skate will change during the turn because of the characteristic of the turn. Both
skates are parallel and pointing slightly to the right together with the hip while the
bodyweight is in the middle of the blades. From there the hip is turned to point backward
with releasing the bodyweight and forcing the right skate to its inside edge. When the hip
points straight backward the weight is shifted more to the right skate and the back half of
the blade. The left skate executes a powerful crossunder stride straight after the weight
transfer. The player continues skating straight backward towards the starting point while
maintaining a deep knee bend. (SJL & Avset 1987; Stamm 2001, 155-156)
6.4 From Backward to Forward Turns
Turning from backward skating to forward skating is used for example in a situation when
the player has to take care or control the opponent when playing defence. These turns are
mainly done by using crossovers or opening up the hip. Both of these two techniques can
be used when turning in a straight line or in a curve. Like in all the other turns the upper
37
body and the hip has to rotate first before the actual turn of the skates. (SJL & Avset 1987;
Stamm 2001, 156-159)
When turning in a straight line, the open turn technique is mainly used. It is a two step turn
like turning from the forward skating to backward skating in a straight line. If the player
needs to turn from the left hand side, the bodyweight is placed on the right skate, which
glides backward, and the left leg is lifted up. The hip has to be open and the heels of the
skates should point to each other. The left leg is put back on the ice to face straight
forward and the bodyweight is shifted from the right leg to the left by executing a powerful
push. The right skate is recovered and player is able to execute straight forward skating
strides. The bodyweight has to keep low and in the middle of the blades during the entire
turn to maintain the balance and the speed. (IIHF 2000, B-33; SJL & Avset 1987; Stamm
2001, 156-157)
The crossover turn in a straight line is executed by first executing a c-cut and then
crossing over the gliding leg. If the player turns from the left hand side, he or she first
executes a C-cut with the left skate. While the left skate is recovered, the player starts to
open the hip forcing the left skate on its outside edge and then crosses the right leg over
the left leg. At the same time the left skate continues the stride under the right skate and
executes the X-push. The right skate lands on the ice on its inside edge and continues to
push the new stride while the left skate is recovered. Skating continues normally after the
turn. During the turn it is important to stay low to maintain the balance and the speed.
(Stamm 2001, 158-160)
Turning from backward skating to forward in a curve follows the same principles as turning
in a straight line: staying low during the whole turn will help the player to maintain the
speed. The player can either use crossovers for turning or an open turn. The decision of
using the technique depends on the game situation and a player.
Open turn in a curve is used when a player wants to return towards the point he or she
came from; the line of travel changes 180 degrees. If the player wants to turn to the righthand side from the backward skating, the right skate will show the direction. The left and
the right skate are forced to their inside edges by opening the hip. The right skate can be
lifted up for a moment to make the turning easier. The heels of the skates are facing each
other during the turn and the bodyweight is equally on both skates in the middle of the
blades. After the turn the player can continue skating by using crossovers or straight
forward strides.
Crossovers are used when the player needs to maintain and accelerate the speed during
the turn. The direction of the turn depends on the game situation; it might be straight to
38
the side to take the space away from the opponent or straight forward to support the
attack. The technique is the same as in a crossover turn in straight line but now the
crossovers and the turn are pointed towards the new line of travel. If the player needs to
turn to left, the right skate is crossed over the left after the left skate C-cut. The left skate
has to be on its outside edge allowing the right skate to cross over. The right skate is put
on the ice on its inside edge, and the hip is opened as much as needed, depending on the
new point of traveling. During the crossing over the left skate is taken off the ice and
placed back to direct the new way of traveling. Again, it is necessary to stay low during the
turn because up and down movement decreases the speed. (Stamm 2001, 158-160)
On the DVD the turning is under two different chapters: under the forward skating and
backward skating. The turns are divided to forward and backward turns to make it clear to
the viewer to follow the DVD. On forward turns the two feet gliding and tight turn, open
turn, Mohawk- and open Mohawk turn, defender’s turn and a forward to backward open
turn are seen and demonstrated on the DVD. The forward turning drills on the DVD are
two feet gliding turn around the pylons, figure -8, catching the pair and around the stick.
Backward skating turns on the DVD are from backward to forward an open turn and a
crossover turn. Both turns are demonstrated on the DVD by using slow motion. The
backward turning drills are two feet gliding turn around the pylons and a special turning
drill. The key factors of the drills and technique review are seen in Appendix 1.
39
7 MAKING THE SKATING IN ICE HOCKEY –DVD
The Skating Technique in Ice Hockey –DVD is one part of Ice Hockey DVD series by
Hungarian Ice Hockey Federation. The name of the series is Hockey Magic and it
contains eight DVDs (one for each age group and three special DVDs): U-8/U-10, U-12,
U-14, U-16, U-18, Goaltending, Skating and one for teachers working with small children.
The series will be released in November 2006 and it will be given to all the coaches in
Hungary. This series is the first ice hockey DVD product ever made in Hungary and it has
been video taped during May – June 2006 in Budapest, Hungary. The series is in
Hungarian language because of the authors and the target group, except the skating DVD
which includes both English and Hungarian.
The Hungarian Ice Hockey Federation asked me to help them to plan a DVD on skating.
They knew that my thesis deals with skating and I had already made a small ice hockey
skating DVD in the summer 2005. They asked me to be involved in this skating DVD as a
supervisor but as a result I made the script, I was skating on the DVD and I was editing
the content with professionals.
7.1 Making the Script
The federation asked me to plan the script of the DVD. In this case it meant deciding the
drills taped for the DVD. The original plan was that some players would execute the drills
according to my demonstration. The drills should be target for all the age groups and for
all the coaches. They wanted to have some easy skating drills for young players and
some “power” skating drills for older ones. The length of the DVD was planned to be
approximately 30 minutes.
I took a DVD and media course in the spring-summer 2005 in Vierumäki, Finland. We
learnt how to make an educational DVD, a tool for coaching and teaching. We also learnt
everything from planning the budget to shooting and editing the content. When planning
the DVD it is important to think about the target group and the goals of the DVD, and write
these on the paper. (Pohjaväre & Siirtola 2005)
In this case I didn’t have to make a synopsis because this project came from the
Federation which took care of all the expenses and the advertisement of the project.
Synopsis is a short introduction paper which includes the goals, the target group and the
structure of the DVD, and also the idea how to promote it (Pohjaväre & Siirtola 2005). The
target group and goals was chosen by the Federation and my job was to plan the content.
I made a mind map of skating which helped me to start to organize the script.
40
First I asked the people who were planning the age group DVDs the skating drills they
were planning to have, that I would not have the same drills on my project. I was told that
it does not matter if there are similar drills. My job was to decide, which drills are good for
the skating DVD. In order to choose the drills and to find more, I went through the
following skating DVDs:
•
Secrets of Hockey Speed Vol 1 and Vol 2 by Robby Glantz
•
Laura Stamm’s Power Skating
•
Team Canada Skills of Gold Skating DVD by Hockey Canada
•
Skating for Checking by Sean Skinner
•
Hockey Skating –luisteluopas by Savolainen & Kaarela
•
Jääkiekkokoulu 1 & 2 by FIHA and Avset
•
Jääkiekon startti paketti ala-asteille by FIHA
I wrote the contents of the DVDs above on the paper: the name of the drills and what they
told on the DVD and how it was present (camera angle, speaker on the screen, voice as a
background and were there any text on the screen). In earlier discussions with the
Federation we decided to speak the sentences of the DVD in a studio, not on the ice like
in some other skating DVDs.
The drills were chosen according to my knowledge of skating and some specific drills by
the Federation. The list of drills (shooting script) and the actual script is seen in Appendix
1 and 4. Appendix 1 includes all the important factors of the drills on the DVD. The
federation wanted to have some game specific combination drills, which will help the
coaches to see how different skating techniques are used in ice hockey. I decided to add
some gap control drills because those include a lot of skating, and a good skating
technique is the major fundamental to track the opponent. I did not have to put the camera
angles on the script because we were told to have three professional camera-men who
were already planned the locations of the cameras. However, I put some ideas of the
angles and issues need to be seen on the DVD to help their work because Ice hockey is a
minor sport in Hungary. The camera-men already had experience on how to make a sport
DVD.
I made the first version and I presented it to the project leader. During the meeting the
idea was changed: I would be on the ice because there would not be any time to teach the
drills to the players and some drills might be too demanding. We made some changes and
I started to refresh my skating skills.
41
7.2 Video Taping the DVD
The skating DVD was video taped in May 2006 at Budapesti Koriközpont ice rink in
Budapest, Hungary. There were approximately four hours time to shoot the whole DVD,
because of the tight schedule of the ice rink and the equipment used in taping. We did not
have any additional days to shoot more because of the previous reasons. The skating
DVD was video taped by using three cameras: two SONY DV CAM DSR 500 cameras
(camera 1 and 3) and one SONY DV CAM DSR 570 (camera 2). The straight skating was
always executed from the same end towards the other end of the rink to eliminate the
illusions of skating to different directions (Pohjaväre & Siirtola 2005). On crossover skating
we were only using the other end of the rink.
Camera 1 was the near blueline when we were video taping the straight forward and
backward skating. Camera 2 was locating on the red line in top of the Jimmy Jib (the
name of the machine) and it was able to change the height from the ice level to seven
meters and it was able to follow the skater to make short camera drives. Camera 3 was
shooting from the other end of the rink where the skater was aiming to.
During the backward and forward crossover skating the cameras were locating in different
places. The camera 1 was on the bench on the side of the rink shooting behind the board.
The camera 2 was in the middle of the blueline moving according to the skater. The
camera 3 was also on the blue line on the ice next to the boards but in the opposite side
than the camera 1.
Camera men were professionals and they did all the measurements according to the
lights and whiteness of the rink. All the windows were closed by blankets to provide the
same brightness during the shooting. Ice itself already mirrors the lights strongly but with a
good knowledge of video taping in difficult situation will provide a good quality for the DVD
(Pohjaväre & Siirtola 2005). All the lights were on during taping to provide enough lights
for the cameras.
I had a shooting script with me and I gave copies to camera men and to a project leader.
He was instructing the camera men and reminding me of the drills. Shooting script in this
case was a list of drills with ideas for the camera angles. I did not see my performances
from the screen after the skating and the project leader decided if I would skate again or
not. We did not have any other days for shooting the content because of the tight
schedule. Usually it is good to have an additional day for shooting because something
might get wrong or the performance is not as good as it was supposed to be (Pohjaväre &
42
Siirtola 2005). For some drills I needed to have a pair and one of the coaches who was
running the U-18 DVD was skating with me. During the skating I was wearing a helmet
and the stick was used almost in every drill.
7.3 Editing the DVD
Editing was done one month after the actual shooting session. I was given the copies of
each tape of the shooting sessions by the project leader. The first work, which you have to
do after video taping, is to go through all the material and to write down all the clips on
paper as detailed as possible. You will find out which clips were good and which clips can
not be used on the final DVD. The time code is also important to remember to write down
because it helps you to find the clip when editing. When this process is done, it is time to
make an editing script. Editing script is a detailed script where all the clips and frames are
written down. One clip or frame contains the picture, the duration, the special effects and
the voice of the clip, and all the written material, which will be seen on the screen. The
picture of the clip is the camera angle used in taping or it might be a subtitle frame with a
picture in background. Editing script saves time during the actual process because you do
not have to run all the material on the program and you can start to place the clips on the
right places. The editing script is excluded from the Thesis because of its side (about 30
pages) and some of the material is hand written. (Pohjaväre & Siirtola 2005)
Editing was done on the X-Trem studios in Budapest, Hungary. The program used in
editing was the Canopus Edius Pro. I was editing the DVD with one of the experts from
the company. I showed him the editing script and told him from which camera we need the
specific clips. He had copied all the tapes beforehand on the editing program and he
named the tapes as Camera one, two and three. All the cameras had two tapes. We
decided to put all the clips immediately into the right places. I told him the number of the
camera and the tape and the time code of the clip. He put one clip at time on the time line
of the DVD and after that we added the special effects on the clips. We were using
different camera angles and clips during one drill to create more action because it makes
an educational DVD more interesting to watch (Pohjaväre & Siirtola 2005).
The next step was to add the text and the voice on the DVD. I had planned the sentences
on the DVD in English and that is why I was chosen to read the English sentences on the
DVD by the project leader. The Hungarian sentences were translated, and the coaching
instructor of Hungarian Ice Hockey Federation spoke those to DVD. The speaking was
done inside a soundproof studio. I was reading the sentences from the paper and two
other people were listening to my pronunciation in other room. Either they or I said when it
43
was needed to repeat the sentence. The next process was to add the sentences on the
time line of the DVD and synchronize the clips and the sounds. The text was written in two
languages and the translation was done by the project leader. The authoring program was
the Sonic Reel DVD and the graphics and animation was added and done with the Adope
Photoshop and Adope After Effects programs.
The chapter division of the DVD differs little bit from this study. Two main chapters on the
DVD are forward skating and backward skating. The forward and backward crossovers
and turning are put inside these two main chapters. I decided to make this change. I was
planning to divide this study also into these two main chapters but that would cause too
many subsections. The subsections of the DVD in forward skating are: forward skating
position, forward starts, forward skating stride, forward crossovers, forward turning and
forward stops. Backward skating chapter follows the same principle as forward skating
chapter. The last chapter of the DVD is a gap control which contains 3 drills. The idea of
the gap control chapter is to show how the skating techniques are used in drills, which
stimulates a game situation.
The project leader made the final editing. He decided which clips were staying and how
much text was on the DVD. Because of the size of the DVD the Hungarian and English
text frames are seen in the screen at the same time. The language however can be
chosen either in English or in Hungarian at the beginning of the DVD. The main music in
the DVD is a Hamonica Rock and the music between the chapters is Lost in Music.
44
8 DISCUSSION
Skating in ice hockey is not just skating straight forward or backward nor crossover
skating to one direction. One skating sequence contains sprints, turns, stops and starts.
The skating style changes according to the game situation. Different demands of the
game control the players’ skating techniques. There are four roles in ice hockey: playing
offence with or without the puck and playing defence against the puck carrier or against
the none-puck carrier. When playing offence, the players are trying to win the space and
move towards the opponent’s net. When playing defence against the puck carrier, the
players are trying to angle the opponent towards the board by skating. Bracko et al. (1998,
259) found that all the skating styles start from and end to two feet gliding position during
the game. Two feet gliding is executed between the turns and sprints to maintain the
balance and to keep skating economical by gliding forward (comparing to stops and
starts).
One player has approximately 4 to 6 shifts during the second period of the game (Bracko
et al. 1998, 260; Green, Bishop, Houston, McKillop, Norman & Stothart 1976). The total
number of shifts during the game varies from 14 to 21 depending on the positions and the
role of a player (Green et al. 1976). Bracko et al. (1998, 261) found that a high point
scorer (HPS) NHL forward spends approximately 19,9 seconds more time on the ice
during one shift than a low point scorer (LPS) NHL forward. This is explained by the
characteristic of HPS: a HPS player glides more during one shift than a LPS player,
whereas a LPS skates more forward and backward with different velocities causing a
faster fatigue rate (Bracko et al. 1998, 261). The skating characteristic of high point
scorers and low point scorers is seen in Appendix 5.
Marino and Drouin (2000, 270) found the first signs of fatigue after 42 seconds of
continuous skating. Studies by Bracko et al. (1998, 257) and Green et al. (1976) reported
longer shift times but this can be explained by the gliding times during the game and lack
of high intensity skating. Bracko et al. (1998, 254) found that a NHL forward spends the
same amount of time skating backward than in high intensity skating. One sign of fatigue
is the lack of ability to maintain a deep skating position (de Koning, Foster, Lampen,
Hettinga & Bobbert 2005, 230). The skating position varies during skating and especially
younger players have a habit to flex their hip, straight their legs and lean strongly forward
when getting tired.
The good skating technique increases the time a player is able to spend on the ice:
skating is more economical when the technique is right. Characteristics for all the skating
45
techniques are a deep skating position, a full leg extension at the end of the push-off and
a good arm swing to provide a rhythm. Both right and left leg should be used equally, also
in crossovers, at all times and all the strides should start and end under the center of
gravity, in skating under the navel, to ensure a powerful and a smooth stride. A balanced
and stable skating position is a base of skating: a player has to able stay on his or her feet
all the time during the game. During the game a player gives and takes hits and has to
change the direction and the speed quickly. Without having a balanced skating position in
all cases, a player is unable to win the situation and to be successful. Characteristics of
fast skaters are wide strides with a quick leg recovery after the push, a deep knee flexion
and a good forward lean (Bracko 2004).
8.1 Some Aspects When Teaching Skating
The skating speed affects the game tempo. If the players are able to skate fast during the
entire shift, they are often more aware of the game situation. However, just having fast
skaters in the team does not make the team successful. All the skating should serve some
purpose: it can be maintaining the speed, accelerate to get rid of the opponent or just
gliding and wait the game to be developed. “Running around” the rink with full speed
makes the players tired and sometimes they might miss the play because of the
exaggerate speed.
Players have to learn that when it is time to go fast, they will skate on their maximum level
without or with the puck. It is easier to skate fast without the puck and during the game
most of the skating occurs without the puck. Players should practice skating with the puck
in full speed to be successful in these situations in games but also to learn a game
specific skating without the puck (Lafontaine, Lamontagne & Lockwood 1998). Game
specific skating can be for example to learn how to angle: crossovers and timing.
According to Bracko et al. (1998, 261) all the skating should start from the two feet gliding
position.
Skating is the first skill seen in ice hockey: immediately when a player enters the rink and
starts to skate, everybody can see his or her skating skills. Skating should be emphasized
among young players (and spend some time to practice it) because later it is easier to add
some other skills to skating such as stickhandling and scoring. However, skating is not the
only important skill in ice hockey and that is why the coaches should find an optimal ratio
between teaching the skills and the game. Players are often more motivated to play than
to skate. Skating skills can be included to different games by adding restrictive rules
according to skating: a player can only move by keeping the skates on the ice at all times,
or sprints three to five strides when getting the possession of the puck.
46
One of the important coaching skills is the ability to analyze the skill and cut it to pieces.
Coaches should find out what his or her players should do to improve skating and give
constructive individual feedback to the players. Coach should tell the area of focus to his
players. It can be a full leg extension phase in straight forward skating or leg recovery in
straight backward skating. It always depends on the skill and the part of the skill, which
need to be improved. However, the whole skill should be practiced to add the pieces
together.
Off-ice training is a good way to improve skating. Different kinds of agility drills with pylons
will improve leg quickness and different jumps the explosiveness. Bracko and George
(2001, 120) reported that a fast runner is also a fast skater with some restrictive limitations
such as inability to learn complex motor skills like skating. Executing squads with a full
range of movement will increase the mobility of the ankles and knees and also it
strengthens the skating muscles such as thighs and buttocks (Vesalainen 2004).
8.2 The Usage of the DVD and the Analyze of the DVD Process
The DVD provides coaches and players a small technique and drill bank to improve the
skating skills. Because of the limiting space of the DVD and the purpose and target group
it was not possible to put everything into one package. The DVD introduces the
techniques and provides some drills to improve the certain skating technique.
This paper is a tool for the coaches and players to understand the biomechanical
demands and aspects of skating. By understanding these issues and by watching the
skating DVD afterwards will give a better picture of the skating techniques. If the coach is
not aware of the fundamentals of skating, he or she might not understand all the drills of
the DVD and will execute the drills in a wrong way by paying attention to not relative
issues. All the drills and their areas of focuses are seen in Appendix 1. There are not any
pedagogical instructions to coaches how to teach skating in the DVD. Every coach should
find their own way to do it and to believe in their own process.
In the DVD process it is important to make a good plan and a script. The people who you
are working with should speak the same language and understand each other. In this
process the cameramen and people from the editing company were professionals, and it
made this process easier. Before the editing process I realized that there were more drills
for forward skating than backward skating in the script. I was thinking of this when
planning the script but I did not count the drills. The lack of material of backward skating
comparing to forward skating is also somehow explaining the ratio and also the fact that
47
forward skating is most used in game situations. Some of the drills are however executed
also in backwards under the forward skating chapter.
During the DVD process I improved my skating knowledge and skills. Understanding
better the fundamentals of skating I started to concentrate more on the different phases of
skating. I found out that skating requires a lot of strength of the lower body when skating
in high speeds. Maintaining a low skating position for 40 seconds is not easy task, it starts
to “burn” your muscles.
I realized the importance of the hollow of the blade. My skates were sharpened just before
the shooting a little bit differently than what I was used to. The hollow was made deeper
so it cut the ice more. The deep hollow of my blades combined with the softness of the ice
in the rink made my skating hard. The deepness of the hollow is one issue, which many
players are not aware of. Especially junior players just give their skates to sharpener
without asking or mention anything about the hollow of the blade. Some players could
improve their skating by knowing their hollow and instructing the sharpener to make it.
I have seen the whole process of making a DVD. It requires time to plan and write a good
script. When making the script you have to keep many different subjects in mind. You
have to for example try to keep the ratio between different topics even and it is also useful
to think about the camera angels at this point. When you have considered all possible
things about the making of a DVD beforehand, it makes the realization of the DVD easier.
I have learned that making of a DVD is an evolving thinking process.
8.3 Thoughts for the Future Research
There is a limited space in a DVD and you can not write all the details on the screen to
make the DVD longer because it is hard to keep the focus until the end. The next project
could be a full skating package, which would include the biomechanical aspects of all the
skating techniques, video clips of the skating techniques, on- and off-ice drills, and the
physical demands of skating. There could also be video clips on how a certain techniques
are used in different game situations.
The package could be either a multifunctional CD-ROM or a booklet with a DVD (Booklet
and DVD would have same numbering system to make it easier to follow the content). In
this kind of package all the knowledge of skating would be in one place. There could also
be a chance to update the package later on the internet.
48
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, W. J. 2001. The Mechanics of Speed Skating. Kaleidoscope Eyes, pp. 19-36.
Aidelbaum, B. Barb Aidelbaum Skating Schools. Training tips and articles.
http://www.hockeyskating.com/articles.asp. Accessed 18 September 2006.
Alatalo, M. & Lumela, P. 1987. Jääkiekon luisteluanalyysi. Liikuntapedagogiikan pro gradu
-tutkielma. Jyväskylän yliopisto.
Blatherwick, J. 1992. Over-Speed Skill Training for Hockey. USA Hockey. The Publishing
Group. Colorado.
Bracko, M. R. 2003. Biomechanics in Skating Instruction: From Science to Practice.
International Hockey Skating Summit. Stick with the Edge, Inc. Twist Conditioning.
Bracko, M. R. 2004. Biomechanics Powers Ice hockey Performance. Biomechanics. CMP
Healthcare Media Publications. September.
http://www.biomech.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=49400637. Accessed 20 September
2006.
Bracko, M. R. 1999. High Performance Skating for Hockey. Pulse: Sports Medicine
Council of Alberta (SMCA). November 1999.
Bracko, M. R., Fellingham, G. W., Hall, L. T., Fisher, A. G. & Cryer, W. 1998. Performance
Skating Characteristics of Professional Ice Hockey Forwards. Sports Medicine, Training
and Rehabilitation, Vol 8(3), pp. 251-263.
Bracko, M.R. & George, J. D. 2001. Prediction of Ice Skating Performance With Off-Ice
Testing in Women’s Ice Hockey Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
15(1), pp. 116–122.
Cady, S. & Stenlund, V. 1998. High-Performance Skating for Hockey. Human Kinetics.
Champaign, Illinois.
De Boer, R. W., Ettema, G. J. C., van Gorkum, H., de Groot, G. & van Ingen Schenau, G.
J. 1987. Biomechanical Aspects of Push-off Techniques in Speed Skating the Curves.
International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 3, pp. 69-79.
49
De Boer, R. W., Schermehorn, P., Gademan, J., de Groot, G. & van Ingen Schenau, G. J.
1986. Characteristic Stroke Mechanics of Elite and Trained Male Speed Skaters.
International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 2, pp. 175-185.
De Koning, J. J., de Boer, R. W., de Groot, G. & van Ingen Schenau, G. J. 1987. Push-Off
Force in Speed Skating. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 3, pp. 103-109.
De Koning, J.J., Foster, C., Lampen, J., Hettinga, F. & Bobbert, M.F. 2005. Experimental
evaluation of the power balance model of speed skating. Journal of Applied Physiology,
98, pp. 227-233.
Drouin, D. 1998. The Effects of Fatigue on the mechanics of forward maximum velocity
power skating in skilled and less-skilled skaters. Master Thesis. Department of Human
Kinetics, University of Windsor, Canada.
Duncan, D. Klapskates in Speed Skating.
http://home.quicknet.nl/qn/prive/cvanstaaveren/schaatsen/article/klapskateDouglasduncan
.htm. Accessed 15 September 2006.
Glantz, R. Robby Glantz Skating Tips. http://www.robbyglantz.com/tips_header.html.
Accessed 28 November 2004.
Green, H., Bishop, P., Houston, M., McKillop, R., Norman R. & Stothart, P.1976. Timemotion and physiological assessments of ice hockey performance (Abstract). Journal of
Applied Physiology, 40(2), pp. 159-163.
Hache, A. 2002. The Physics of Hockey. The John Hopkins University Press. Baltimore
and London.
Hermiston, R. T. 1976. Resistance Machine for Power Skating of Hockey Players. Journal
of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 16 (3), pp. 233-236.
Hervonen, A. 2001. Tuki- ja liikuntaelimistön anatomia. Lääketieteellinen
oppimateriaalikustantamo Oy. 6th Edition. Tampere.
Hockey Canada. DVD 1 –Skating. Skills of Gold -DVD series. 2005. Canada.
50
Hockey Institute. Skating. http://www.hockeyinstitute.org. Accessed 19 September 2006.
Humble, R. N. 2003. Podiatric Management in Ice Skating. Podiatry Management,
November/ December, pp. 49-63.
International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). 2000. Learn to Play Program. Coach
Development Program. Zürich.
International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). 2002. Coach Manual Level 1. Coach
Development Program. Zürich.
Kuper, G. H. & Sterken, E. 2003. Endurance in speed skating: The development of word
records. European Journal of Operational Research, 148, pp. 293-301.
Lafontaine, D., Lamontagne, M. & Lockwood, K. 1998. Time-Motion Analysis of IceHockey Skills During Games (Abstract). In Riehle, H.J. & Vieten, M. (eds). Proceedings
16th International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports. Pp. 481-484. Konstanz.
Germany.
McCaw, S.T. & Hoshizaki, T.B. 1985. A Kinematic Comparison of Novice, Intermediate,
and Elite Ice Skaters. In Johnson, B. (ed). In Biomechanics X. Pp. 637-642. Human
Kinetics Publishers. Champaign.
Marino, G. W., & Drouin, D. c2000. Forward Skating Mechanics of Ice Hockey Players
Under Fatigued Conditions. In Hong, Y. (ed.) International Research in Sports
Biomechanics. Pp. 266-270. Routledge (2002). London and New York.
Naud, R. L. & Holt, L. E. 1980. A Comparison of Selected Stop, Reverse and Start (SRS)
Techniques in Ice Hockey. Canadian Journal of Applied Sports Science, 5:2, pp. 94-97.
Paananen, J. & Räty, T. 2002. Eteenpäinluistelu: Jääkiekon Perustaito.
Liikuntapedagogiikan pro gradu –tutkielma. Liikuntakasvatuksen laitos, Jyväskylän
Yliopisto.
Roy, B. 1977, c1978. Biomechanical Features of Different Starting Position and Skating
Strides in Ice Hockey. In Asmussen, E. & Jørgensen, K. (ed). Biomechanics VI-B. Pp:
137- 141. University Park Press. Baltimore.
51
Roy, D. 2003. Developing Skating Speed and Quickness. International Hockey Skating
Summit 2003. Stick with the Edge, Inc. Twist Conditioning.
Savolainen, M. & Kaarela, J. 2004. Hockey Skating –luisteluopas (DVD). Finnish Ice
Hockey Association (FIHA).
Stamm, L. 2001. Laura Stamm’s Power Skating. Third edition. Human Kinetics.
Champaign, Illinois.
Stamm, L. Laura Stamm’s Power Skating Tips. http://www.laurastamm.com/TIPS/html.
Accessed 3 March 2006.
Suburban Hockey. Coaching Articles. Backward Stride.
http://www.suburbanhockey.com/documents/backwardstride.pdf. Accessed 12 August
2006.
Suomen Jääkiekkoliitto (SJL) & Avset Oy. 1986. Jääkiekkokoulu Osa 1 (VHS). Finnish Ice
Hockey Association (FIHA).
Suomen Jääkiekkoliitto (SJL) & Avset Oy. 1987. Jääkiekkokoulu Osa 2 (VHS). Finnish Ice
Hockey Association (FIHA).
Vesalainen, M. 2004. Luistelua Rajoittavia Tekijöitä Oheisharjoittelun Näkökulmasta.
Hockey Skating –Seminar.
Yuda, J., Yuki, M., Aoyanagi, T., Fujii, N. & Ae, M. 2004. Changes in Blade Reaction
Forces During the Curve Phase Due to Fatigue in Long Distance Speed Skating.
International Journal of Sport and Health Science, 2, pp. 195-204.
Unpublished:
Nässén, N. 2006. Skating Coach. Sweden. 17th May 2006 & 10th October 2006.
Pohjaväre, K. & Siirtola, J. 2005. Producing Educational Material (Opetusmateriaalin
tuottaminen) –unpublished educational material. Finland. March – June 2005.
52
APPENDIX 1
The Content of the “Skating in Ice Hockey” -DVD
1. Skating Position (technique)
Head up, back straight, facing and leaning forward
Bend your knees by bringing them in front of the toes (3-5 cm)
Bodyweight equally on both feet, the skates creates a letter V
Shoulders back and no support from the stick
2. Practicing the skating position (drill)
Deep knee bend, close to 90 degrees
Straight line from your toes to the head, a full leg extension
Leg returns straight under the body, Head in one spot, arm work
Muscle memory
3. Leg lifts (drill)
Control the movement, avoid kicking
Glide on the flat of the blade with your hockey stick held horizontally at shoulder high
Lift one leg at time, to the front, side and back. Execute also in backwards
Improves the balance and the ability to control the core section muscles
4. Two feet forward gliding (drill)
In the skating position and in a deep squad position, a shoulder width stance
Hockey stick on the ice and in one hand
Increases the mobility of the knees and the ankles and improves the balance
5. One leg forward gliding (drill)
In a deep squad position, first with keeping the free skate on the ice and then off the ice
Do with both legs
Increases the mobility of the knees and the ankles and improves the balance
6. T-Start (technique)
The skates create a letter T, the easiest technique to start with
Use the whole blade to propel the speed, a full leg extension, gliding leg well bended
Improves starting and power production of the push
7. Front start (technique)
All the bodyweight over the pushing skate, bodyweight low and a strong forward lean
The whole blade contacts with the ice directly under the center of gravity
End the push with a toe part of an inside edge
First three to four strides are running like
8. Crossover start (technique)
The both the outside and the inside leg push must be used
Only the first step is a crossover, the following steps are taken in the front start position
The whole blade of the inside edge make contact with ice
9. Front start using the sticks (drill)
4 hockey sticks well apart and the area between the first two sticks is forbidden
Thrust off and land beyond the second stick, after the sticks continue to skate forward
Strong forward lean, full leg extension, knees high, quick start
Forces you to drive your legs powerfully
10. Crossover start using the sticks (drill)
The same stick drill using a crossover start, stand sideways with your feet wide apart
The bodyweight more in front than on the heels of the blades
Only one crossover stride before turning forward
Continue skating until the full speed is reached
11. Resistance starts (drill)
Practicing starting with a pair
Strong forward lean, deep knee bend, full leg extension, facing forward
Stop after few strides and repeat starts, maximum start
12. Forward stride: Push, Glide and Recovery (technique)
12.1 Gliding phase
Gliding starts after the recovery phase and ends to a pushing phase
The blade is gliding forward from the outside edge to the inside edge.
12.2 Pushing phase
Push starts under the body and ends when the leg is lifted from the ice
A full leg extension, including the ankle extension
12.3 Recovery phase
After the pushing phase the leg has to return quickly under the body, low heel recovery
13. Forward C-cuts (drill)
Push to the side to make a letter C, gliding leg well bended
Pushing hard against the ice to produce speed
Working with the lower body, upper body stable, head in one spot
First one leg at time, then alternating
14. Forward C-cuts with both legs (drill)
Now the both legs simultaneously on the side
Working with the lower body, upper body stable, head in one spot
Improves the recovery phase
15. Scratching the ice (drill)
After the push-off drag the first 2-3 inches of the inside edge and scratch the ice
The entire leg is turned outward, gliding knee well bended
Always starting in the middle of the body, full strides, 100% weight transfer
Muscle memory, a full leg extension
16. Scratching the ice with a stop (drill)
Same than previous but now with a one skate stop, free leg on the air
Maximal push-off, also executed with a jump
Improves the power of the stride and muscle memory
17. Resistance skating (drill)
Executed with a pair, small resistance, pushing the pair
Strong forward lean, deep knee bend, full leg extension, facing forward
After few strides a pair can move away and the skater continues skating forward
Improves the maximal power production
18. Edge to edge drills (drill)
From inside to inside edge or from outside to outside edge by changing the leg
Smaller and bigger curves, keep the free leg still
Jump during the leg change
Edge control, mastering in edge work
19. One leg skating (drill)
Skating from the outside edge to the inside edge like, whole blade on the ice
A strong ankle roll when changing the edge, the free leg is still
Balance position, mastering the edges, rhythm
20. Wide tracking (drill)
Wide stance, skates on the ice during the entire drill, back straight and head up
Move the bodyweight from side to side, one leg will be fully extend on the side
Muscle work on the thighs and on the groins
21. Heel turning (drill)
Legs on shoulder width apart in skating position
Move forward by turning on your heels; keep the skates on the ice
Small and long turns, faster and slower
Use the arms to provide a rhythm, add a puck
22. Exaggerated strides (drill)
Slow speed during the whole drill, find the rhythm
Keep the upper body still and head up, arm swing
Glide few seconds before striding again
23. Skating in different velocities (drill)
Change the speed between the zones, try to keep the technique correct
Go slower if you lose the technique
24. Two feet gliding turn (technique)
To change the direction without loosing the speed, bodyweight in the middle of the blades
The both skates on the ice, skates parallel, inside leg is leading, low knee bend
Turn from the wais down into the turn but the shoulders parallel to the ice
Continue skating after the turn
25. Open turn (technique)
From forward to forward, with hip open and heels pointing inward creating a letter V
Stay low and keep the bodyweight on both skates
Maintaining the speed, economical
26. Tight turn (technique)
Turning in a small space, bodyweight more on back halves of the blades
Skates parallel, inside skate leads the turning
Decrease in speed, continue skating after the turn
27. Mohawk turn (technique)
Changing the direction while facing the game situation, a “winger’s” turn
Moving forward – backward/ sideways – forward, small cushion before the turn
Bodyweight moves while turning: middle of the blade, back halves, front and middle
Bodyweight low and on both skates
28. Open Mohawk turn (technique)
Same principles than in Mohawk, now hip open before the turn, requires more space
More economical way of turning than “normal” Mohawk
29. Forward to backward turn (technique)
Changing the way of skating, returning towards the starting point, a “defender’s” turn
Chest facing away from a circle or a curve, hip rotating 90 degrees from the line of travel
Bodyweight on both skates and in the middle of the blades, low knee bend
After the turn one to two backward crossover strides
30. From forward to backward open turn (technique)
A two-step turn, using the inside edges of the skates, turning towards the starting point
One skate at time: skating forward – left skate inside edge forward – right skate inside
edge backward – hip turned backwards – skating backward
Low position, full blade contact
31. Gliding turns around the pylons (drill)
Maintaining the speed, bodyweight in the middle of the blades (equally on both)
First ¼ turns, then ½ turns and last full circles
Turn into the turn from the waist down, shoulders parallel to the ice
32. Tight turn, Figure -8 (drill)
Turning quickly in small space, maintaining the speed, agility
Front leg open, bodyweight more on the back halves of the blades
Low position, wide stance and shoulders parallel to the ice
33. Catching the pair (drill)
Tight turns in competitive setting, agility, speed
Try to catch the pair, don’t cheat
34. Around the stick (drill)
To practice pivoting, facing in one direction
Deep knee bend, shoulders parallel to the ice
Add speed and the puck
35. Forward crossovers (technique)
Full leg extension with the inside and the outside leg, including the ankle
Lower body leans towards the curve, shoulders parallel to the ice
Inside skate on its outside edge while outside skate on its inside edge
36. Over the stick (drill)
Step over the stick by using crossing over technique, toes and head facing forward
The whole blade contacts with the ice, deep knee bend
Balance, technique
37. Circle gliding (drill)
One skate at time, gliding around the circle by outside or inside edge
Deep knee bend, lean towards the circle from the waist down, shoulders parallel to the ice
Balance, edge work, gliding
38. Airplane (drill)
Skating without stick, arms straight on side and parallel to the ice
Leaning towards the curve from the waist down
After a while turn the chest to point towards the circle
39. Figure -8 from edge to edge (drill)
Executed either on the inside edges or the outside edges, change of skate in the middle
Deep knee bend, upper body stable, facing forward
Edge work, gliding skills, balance position
40. Inside leg drill (drill)
Full leg extension of the inside leg, outside skate stays on the ice
Deep knee bend, shoulders parallel to the ice, generate speed in every push
Inside leg work, power production
41. Side crossovers (drill)
Crossover on sideways, full leg extension, the whole blade contacts with the ice
Low posture, facing forward, speed, agility
42. Lateral crossovers (drill)
Skating forward by executing forward crossovers, lateral mobility
Full leg extension, three crossovers a side, third one a “neutralizing” step
Speed, agility
43. One leg snowplow stop (technique)
Inside edge stop, “11 o’clock – 1 o’clock stop”, stopping feet turned strongly inside
Pushing towards the ice by placing the bodyweight over the stopping leg
Not used during the ice hockey game
44. Two leg snowplow stop (technique)
Two skates stopping at the same time, skates are turned strongly inside
The bodyweight over the skates to stop fast, weight in the middle of the blades
45. Hockey stop (technique)
Two feet parallel stop, the most explosive and the most used stop in ice hockey
Chest and hip 90° sideways to the line of travel, lower body follows
Deep knee bend to stop fast, weight equally in the middle of the both blades
Pushing strongly against the ice with both skates
46. One leg stops (drill)
Use one skate at time, either with the inside edge or with the outside edge
Strongly turn the stopping skate, deep knee bend
Mastering the edges, balance
47. Stop and go (drill)
Practicing the hockey stop, always facing the same sideboard when stopping
Start from one end and stop in every line, always change the direction
Decide the starting technique (Crossover, front or “thrust and glide” start), fast
Speed, agility, starting, stopping, technique
48. Backward skating position (technique)
Sitting position: back straight, knees bend almost 90 degrees, head up
The bodyweight in the middle of the blades, equally on both skates
49. Two feet backward gliding (drill)
In a skating position and in a deep squad position, legs in shoulder width apart
Back straight, head up, stick in one hand, bodyweight in the middle of the blades
Mobility of the knees and the ankles, balance
50. One leg backward gliding (drill)
Free leg on the ice and off the ice, gliding leg deeply bended
Back straight, head up, stick in one hand, bodyweight in the middle of the blade
Mobility of the knees and the ankles, balance
51. Straight backward start (technique)
Starting by using backward C-cuts, full leg extension to the side
Strong arm swing to provide a rhythm, deep knee bend
Quick start
52. Backward crossover start (technique)
Using backward crossover strides, full leg extension, fast recovery
Strong arm swing, deep knee bend
Quick start, fast legs
53. Backward crossover start with resistance (drill)
Starting with a pair, to push powerful backward crossovers, full leg extension
A hockey stick/ two hockey sticks between you and your partner
Low knee bend, back straight, head up, face forward
Stop after few meters and start again, improves backward starts
54. Backward stride: Glide, push, recovery (technique)
54.1 Gliding phase (technique)
Gliding skate under the body gliding backwards, from outside edge to inside edge
Gliding skate deeply bent
54.2 Striding phase (technique)
Backward C-cut, starts under the body, bodyweight over the pushing leg
Pushing skate powerfully against the ice with the inside edge of the blade
First front then to the side, full leg extension on the side
54.3 Recovery phase (technique)
After the push re-pivoting the leg back under the body
Skates close together under the body after the recovery phase
55. Backward C-Cuts (drill)
Backward stride, one leg at time, alternating, legs together
Backward skating position: in sitting position
Lower body works, upper body stable, head in one line
Strong push against the ice, backward power production
56. Hit the skates (drill)
Backward strides, transfer the bodyweight 100% over the pushing leg
Return the skate quick under the body, hit the other skate
Stimulates and improves the recovery phase
57. Edge to edge drill backward (drill)
Moving backward one skate at time, inside or outside edges, free leg still
Different size of circles, also executed with a jump (during the change of the legs)
Mastering the edges, edge work, gliding, balance
58. Backward slalom (drill)
Skates parallel to each other and close together, lower body works upper body stable
Move backward by moving the legs to same direction to the side, downhill skiing
Head in one line, bodyweight in the middle of the blades, deep knee bend
Improves pushing against the ice, leg work, rhythm, balance
60. One leg skating backward (drill)
One skate on the ice, strong use of ankle, skating from the outside edge to the inside
Deep knee bend, free leg still on the side, back straight
Edge work, generating the speed, balance, rhythm
61. Follow the line (drill)
Gliding phase, skate glides straight backward, stays on the line
One skate at time: one leg glides the other one pushes, gliding skate deeply bent
To prevent too excessive side to side hip motion
62. Backward to forward open turn (technique)
Economical way of changing the direction, with the inside edges of the blades
Hip open, heels of the skate pointing to each other, bodyweight in the middle of he blades
From the backward skating one skate at time, continue to skate forward
63. Backward to forward crossover turn (technique)
Using backward crossovers to change the direction, 1-3 strides
In the middle of the turn open up the hip and use the backward open turn technique
Deep knee bend, back straight
Continue to skate forward
64. Backward gliding turns around the pylons (drill)
Maintaining the speed, bodyweight in the middle of the blades (equally on both)
First ¼ turns, then ½ turns and last full circles
Turn into the turn from the waist down, shoulders parallel to the ice
65. From backward to forward turning drill (drill)
From backward to forward transition, always facing in one direction
Using the lines to change the direction, bwd to fwd open turn, “defender’s turn”
Deep knee bend, bodyweight equally in both skates, back straight
Turning, speed generation, agility, balance
66. Backward crossovers (technique)
Backward skating position, deep knee bend, shoulders parallel to the ice
Full leg extension, wide step in the middle with the inside leg, balanced position
Outside leg a c-cut, inside leg a “pulling under”, outside skate stays on the ice
67. Backward circle gliding (drill)
One skate at time, gliding around the circle by outside or inside edge
Deep knee bend, lean towards the circle from the waist down, shoulders parallel to the ice
Balance, edge work, backward gliding
68. Figure -8 from edge to edge backward (drill)
Edge work, one edge at time during one curve, gliding skills
Deep knee bend, strong lean towards the curve from the waist down,
The inside or the outside edges at time, the change in the middle of 8
Mastering the edges, gliding skills, balance
69. Stick on back (drill)
Keeping the back straight while skating, sitting position, head up
Deep knee bend, full leg extension, wide step in the middle
Balanced skating position, rhythm
70. Backward crossover skating with resistance (drill)
Powerful backward crossover strides, full leg extension, fast stride tempo
Stance sideways to the pair holding a hockey stick in chest height
Deep knee bend, in sitting position, back straight, facing towards the pair
71. Lateral backward crossovers (drill)
Skating backward by executing backward crossovers, lateral mobility
Full leg extension, three crossovers a side
Speed, agility
72. Two feet snowplow stop backward (technique)
Stopping backward with both skates, inside edges, heels pointing to each other
Deep knee bend, strong cushion when stopping, bodyweight in the middle of the blades
Easy to continue to skate forward after the stop
73. One foot snowplow stop backward (technique)
Stopping backward with one skate only, inside edge, toes pointing outward after the stop
“Free” leg pointing forward, fast way to continue to skate forward
One leg stop, edge control, balance
74. Backward hockey stop (technique)
Two feet parallel stop backward, the most explosive and the most used stop in hockey
The chest and hip turned 90° sideways to the line of travel, lower body follows
Strong cushion from the knees, bodyweight on both skates, in the middle of the blades
Chest and shoulders facing towards the new way of travel
75. Keeping the gap (drill)
Two players facing each other, one leads the other one follows,
Gap control, maintaining the gap, to get the opponent out of balance, agiliy
76. Gap control from end to end (drill)
Two players facing each other, one forward one defender, with or without the puck
Starting from the goal line, end with a body check, maintaining the gap, reaction time
77. Gap control in circles (drill)
One forward one defender, with or without the puck, end with a check
Maintaining the gap, angling, lateral mobility
APPENDIX 2
A Table to describe the differences between the left and the right stroke during
the curves among the elite and trained skaters (according to de Boer, Ettema,
van Gorkum, de Groot & van Ingen Schenau 1987, 74-75)
Left stroke
Trunk angle, S
Knee angle, B
Knee angle, S
Knee angle, B-S
Knee angle, E
Knee angular velocity, Max
Push-off phase, B
Push-off phase, S
Push-off phase, E
t B-S
t S-E
t B-E
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr * s-1)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(s)
(s)
(s)
Right stroke
Trunk angle, S
Knee angle, B
Knee angle, S
Knee angle, B-S
Knee angle, E
Knee angular velocity, Max
Push-off phase, B
Push-off phase, S
Push-off phase, E
t B-S
t S-E
t B-E
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr * s-1)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(degr.)
(s)
(s)
(s)
Elite
Trained
16
105
117.3
11.9
152.5
485.5
12.5
26
41.2
0.37
0.17
0.54
17.5
107.3
115.5
9.4
154.2
464.7
9.6
25.6
40.3
0.39
0.19
0.60
Elite
Trained
13.5
117.4
121.8
4.3
155.3
440.5
0.2
14.6
35.3
0.40
0.17
0.57
13.4
117.6
123.5
5.9
153.8
413.0
– 1.4
13.1
34.2
0.43
0.18
0.61
B, S and E = beginning of stroke, and start and end of the push-off phase,
respectively.
t B-S: gliding phase, t S-E: push-off phase, t B-E: stroke phase
APPENDIX 3
Tables to describe the frequency of skating characteristics (According to Bracko,
Fellingham, Hall, Fisher & Cryer 1998, 255)
Skating characteristic
% of total occurrences
All
HPS
LPS
1 Gliding R-turn
Gliding R-turn w/
2 puck
3 Gliding L-turn
4 Gliding L-turn w/ puck
5 R X-over turn
6 R X-over turn w/ puck
7 L X-over turn
8 L X-over turn w/ puck
9 Fwd-bkwd
10 Bkwd-fwd
11 Stop & start
12 Stop & start w/ puck
16.4
16.9
15.6
0.40
17.8
1.0
17.7
1.0
20.2
1.0
7.6
6.3
10.4
0.2
0.40
18.9
1.5
17.8
1.5
19.9
1.5
6.1
5.2
9.9
0.37
0.30
16.0
0.30
17.4
0.40
20.4
0.60
9.8
7.8
11.1
0.00
Total
100
100
100
Skating characteristic
1 Gliding R-turn
Gliding R-turn w/
2 puck
3 Gliding L-turn
4 Gliding L-turn w/ puck
5 R X-over turn
6 R X-over turn w/ puck
7 L X-over turn
8 L X-over turn w/ puck
9 Fwd-bkwd
10 Bkwd-fwd
11 Stop & start
12 Stop & start w/ puck
Total
% of occurrences
w/ out puck
% of occurrences
w/ puck
All
HPS
LPS
17.1
17.8
15.8
18.5
19.9
18.8
17.7
20.9
21.0
20.8
7.9
6.5
10.8
6.5
5.5
10.5
10.0
11.4
8.0
100
HPS
LPS
10.0
8.5
17.5
27.3
29.5
17.5
26.3
26.7
23.5
30.3
28.5
41.5
6.1
7.2
0.00
100
100
100
16.3
18.3
100
All
100
Skating characteristic
1 Gliding R-turn
Gliding R-turn w/
2 puck
3 Gliding L-turn
4 Gliding L-turn w/ puck
5 R X-over turn
6 R X-over turn w/ puck
7 L X-over turn
8 L X-over turn w/ puck
9 Fwd-bkwd
10 Bkwd-fwd
11 Stop & start
12 Stop & start w/ puck
HPS = High Point Scorer
LPS = Low Point Scorer
Occurrences/ min
w/ out puck
Occurrences/ min
w/ puck
HPS
LPS
3.14
3.48
3.51
3.59
3.31
3.88
3.71
1.11
0.063
1.83
HPS
LPS
0.080
0.07
0.276
0.07
0.253
0.09
0.264
0.15
0.070
0.00
4.75
2.21
1.76
2.47
APPENDIX 4
The shooting script (first the name of the clip and in the capital letters the important
factors)
FORWARD SKATING
1. Forward Skating Position (technique)
SIDE+FRONT, THE WHOLE BODY, LOWER BODY, SKATES
2. Practicing the skating position (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY AND FROM THE SIDE THE KNEES AND ANKLES
3. Leg lifts (drill)
FRONT/ SIDE THE WHOLE BODY, CAMERA ON THE SIDE
4. Two feet forward gliding (drill)
FRONT AND SIDE THE WHOLE BODY, SIDE THE THIGHS AND SKATES
5. One leg forward gliding (drill)
FRONT AND SIDE THE WHOLE BODY, SIDE THE THIGHS AND SKATES
FORWARD START
6. T-Start (technique)
ZOOM TO THE SKATES AND EDGES, GENERAL WHOLE BODY FROM SIDE/FRONT
7. Front start (technique)
SKATES FROM FRONT/BACK, WHOLE BODY SAME+SIDE
8. Crossover start (technique)
SIDE THE WHOLE BODY AND SKATES
9. Front start using the sticks (drill)
SIDE THE WHOLE BODY, FRONT THE SKATES
10. Crossover start using the sticks (drill)
SIDE THE WHOL BODY AND THE SKATES
11. Resistance starts (drill)
SIDEWAYS THE WHOLE BODY, BACK ON THE ICE LEVEL THE LEGS AND SKATES
FORWARD STRIDE: PUSH, GLIDE, RECOVERY
12. Skating forward
FRONT, BACK, SIDE THE WHOLE BODY AND SKATES, ARM SWING
13. Forward C-cuts (drill) (one leg at time, alternating)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY & UNDER THE HIP, BACK UNDER THE HIP
14. Forward C-cuts with both legs (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY & UNDER THE HIP, BACK UNDER THE HIP
15. Scratching the ice (drill)
BACK AND FRONT THE WHOLE BODY AND THE BACK LEG FROM THE ICE LEVEL
16. Scratching the ice with a stop (drill)
BACK AND FRONT THE WHOLE BODY AND THE BACK LEG FROM THE ICE LEVEL
17. Resistance skating (drill)
GENERAL PICTURE OF THE DRILL
18. Edge to edge drills (drill)
CAMERA DRIVE BACK FROM ICE LEVEL, FRONT/SIDE THE WHOLE BODY
19. One leg skating (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY AND THE WORKING SKATE
20. Wide tracking (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY
21. Heel turning (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY & SKATES, BACK THE SKATES
22. Exaggerated strides (drill)
GENERAL FRONT AND WHOLE BODY BACK
23. Skating in different velocities (drill)
GENERAL FRONT AND BACK
FORWARD TURNING
24. Two feet gliding turn (technique)
THE WHOLE BODY = THE UPPER BODY AND LOWER BODY DIFFERENCE WILL BE
ON THE TAPE, LOWER BODY WORK
25. Open turn (technique)
THE WHOLE BODY AND SKATES
26. Tight turn (technique)
THE WHOLE BODY = THE UPPER BODY AND LOWER BODY DIFFERENCE WILL BE
ON THE TAPE, LOWER BODY WORK
27. Mohawk turn (technique)
THE WHOLE BODY = THE UPPER BODY AND LOWER BODY DIFFERENCE WILL BE
ON THE TAPE, LOWER BODY WORK
28. Open Mohawk turn (technique)
THE WHOLE BODY, GENERAL, HIP AND LOWER BODY
29. Forward to backward turn (technique)
THE WHOLE BODY = THE UPPER AND LOWER BODY DIFFERENCE, LOWER BODY
30. From forward to backward open turn (technique)
THE WHOLE BODY = THE UPPER AND LOWER BODY DIFFERENCE, LOWER BODY
31. Gliding turns around the pylons (drill)
THE WHOLE BODY FROM THE STARTING POINT
32. Tight turn, Figure -8 (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT; THE WHOLE BODY AND THE SKATES
33. Catching the pair (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT; THE WHOLE BODY
34. Around the stick (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT, THE WHOLE BODY AND THE SKATES
FORWARD CROSSOVERS
35. Forward crossovers (technique)
ON THE OTHER END IN THE CIRCLES, WHOLE BODY, LOWER AND UPPER BODY
36. Over the stick (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY AND SKATES
37. Circle gliding (drill)
GENERAL PICTURE FROM ONE SPOT, SKATE, THE WHOLE BODY
38. Airplane (drill)
GENERAL FRONT AND UPPER BODY
39. Figure -8 from edge to edge (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT, WHOLE BODY AND SKATES
40. Inside leg drill (drill)
WHOLE BODY, CAMERA DRIVE BEHIND THE PUSHING LEG
41. Side crossovers (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY, LOWER BODY
42. Lateral crossovers (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY+SKATES, SAME FROM BACK
FORWARD STOP
43. One leg snowplow stop (technique)
WHOLE BODY AND SKATES FROM FRONT/SIDE
44. Two leg snowplow stop (technique)
WHOLE BODY AND SKATES FROM FRONT/SIDE
45. Hockey stop (technique)
WHOLE BODY AND SKATES FROM FRONT/SIDE
46. One leg stops (drill)
SIDE THE WHOLE BODY+CAMERA DRIVE ZOOMING THE LEG WORK
47. Stop and go (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT, GENERAL PICTURE FROM THE DRILL, CAMERA MOVES
ACCORDING TO THE PLAYER
BACKWARD SKATING
48. Backward skating position (technique)
CAMERA SIDE+FRONT, THE WHOLE BODY, LOWER BODY, SKATES
49. Two feet backward gliding (drill)
FRONT AND SIDE THE WHOLE BODY, SIDE THE THIGHS AND SKATES
50. One leg backward gliding (drill)
FRONT AND SIDE THE WHOLE BODY, SIDE THE THIGHS AND SKATES
BACKWARD START
51. Straight backward start (technique)
SIDE AND BACK THE WHOLE BODY+LEG WORK
52. Backward crossover start (technique)
SIDE AND BACK THE WHOLE BODY+LEG WORK
53. Backward crossover start with resistance (drill)
SIDE THE WHOLE BODY+LEG WORK
BACKWARD STRIDE: PUSH, GLIDE, RECOVERY
54. Backward skating
WHOLE BODY, LOWER BODY, SKATES FROM BEHIND, SIDE AND FRONT
55. Backward C-Cuts (drill) (one leg at time, alternating, two legs simultaneously)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY+LOWER BODY
56. Hit the skates (drill)
FRONT&BACK THE WHOLE BODY+LOWER BODY
57. Edge to edge drill backward (drill)
FRONT/SIDE THE WHOLE BODY+LOWER BODY LEG WORK
58. Backward slalom (drill)
BACK & FRONT THE WHOLE BODY, LOWER BODY WORK + HEAD IN ONE LINE
60. One leg skating backward (drill)
BACK THE WHOLE BODY + CAMERA DRIVE FROM THE SKATE
61. Follow the line (drill)
BEHIND THE WHOLE BODY AND GLIDING SKATE
BACKWARD TURNING
62. Backward to forward open turn (technique)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT, PLAYER SKATING AWAY AND COMING BACK, THE WHOLE
BODY, THE LOWER BODY AND THE SKATES
63. Backward to forward crossover turn (technique)
FROM SIDE/ FRONT THE WHOLE BODY AND LOWER BODY
64. Backward gliding turns around the pylons (drill)
THE WHOLE BODY FROM THE STARTING POINT
65. From backward to forward turning drill (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT FOLLOWING THE PLAYER, WHOLE BODY + LOWER BODY
BACKWARD CROSSOVERS
66. Backward crossovers (technique)
ON THE OTHER END IN THE CIRCLES, WHOLE BODY, LOWER AND UPPER BODY)
67. Backward circle gliding (drill)
IN A CIRCLE, CAMERA IN ONE SPOT, THE WHOLE BODY
68. Figure -8 from edge to edge backward (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT, THE WHOLE BODY, THE EDGE WORK
69. Stick on back (drill)
CAMERA IN ONE SPOT TO SEE THE SKATER AND THE WHOLE DRILL
70. Backward crossover skating with resistance (drill)
FROM THE SIDE THE WHOLE BODY
71. Lateral backward crossovers (drill)
FRONT THE WHOLE BODY + SKATES, SAME FROM BACK
BACKWARD STOPPING
72. Two feet snowplow stop backward (technique)
FRONT, BEHIND/ SIDE THE SKATES AND THE WHOLE BODY
73. One foot snowplow stop backward (technique)
FRONT, BEHIND/ SIDE THE SKATES AND THE WHOLE BODY
74. Backward hockey stop (technique)
FRONT AND SIDE THE WHOLE BODY AND THE LOWER BODY
GAP CONTROL
75. Keeping the gap (drill)
SIDE THE WHOLE BODY, BOTH PLAYERS
76. Gap control from end to end (drill)
CAMERA IN FRONT FOLLOWING THE WHOLE DRILL, BODYCHECK AT THE END
77. Gap control in circles (drill)
CAMERA IN THE BLUE LINE, FOLLOWING THE PLAYERS
APPENDIX 5
Tables to describe the timed skating characteristics and skating characteristic for
30s from the start of the shift (According to Bracko, Fellingham, Hall, Fisher &
Cryer 1998, 254 & 258)
Skating characteristic
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Two foot glide
Two foot glide w/ puck
Cruise
Cruise w/ puck
Low intensity skating
Low intensity skating w/ puck
Medium intensity skating
Medium intensity skating w/ puck
High intensity skating
High intensity skating w/ puck
Two foot stationary
Two foot stationary w/ puck
Struggle for puck or position
Struggle w/ puck
Backward skating
Total
Skating characteristic
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Two foot glide
Two foot glide w/ puck
Cruise
Cruise w/ puck
Low intensity skating
Low intensity skating w/ puck
Medium intensity skating
Medium intensity skating w/ puck
High intensity skating
High intensity skating w/ puck
Two foot stationary
Two foot stationary w/ puck
Struggle for puck or position
Struggle w/ puck
Backward skating
Total
% of total time
All HPS LPS
39.0 41.3 34.9
1.4
1.8 0.6
16.2 16.2 16.2
0.6
0.7 0.4
7.8
7.1 9.2
0.5
0.6 0.2
10.0
9.0 11.5
0.8
0.9 0.6
4.6
4.2 5.5
0.4
0.4 0.4
3
3.2 2.7
0.4
0.6 0.3
9.8
9.2 10.8
0.6
0.7 0.3
4.9
4.1 6.4
100
100
Mean time (s)
All HPS LPS
2.3 2.5 2.0
0.9 1.0 0.8
1.6 1.6 1.7
1.1 1.2 0.9
2.1 2.0 2.2
1.6 1.7 1.2
2.1 2.2 2.0
2.0 2.0 2.1
2.6 2.7 2.5
2.0 2.0 2.1
1.6 1.6 1.5
0.9 0.9 0.8
2.1 2.2 2.0
2.0 2.2 1.5
1.8 1.9 1.6
100
% of time
w/ out puck
All HPS LPS
40.9 44.0 36.0
% of time
w/ puck
All HPS LPS
30.0 32.0 24.1
16.9 17.1 16.7
12.7 12.1 14.4
8.3
7.5
9.5
10.5 11.4 6.7
10.5
9.5
11.9
4.9
4.4
5.7
3.2
3.4
2.7
10.2
9.7
11.1
5.1
4.4
6.4
100
100
100
16.5 16.0 19.4
8.5
6.5 14.0
9.8 10.0 9.0
12.0 12.0 12.4
100 100 100
Timed characteristics
1 Struggle for puck of position
2 Two foot glide
3
4
5
6
Cruise
Two foot glide
Cruise
Two foot glide
7 Cruise
8 Two foot glide
9 Struggle for puck or position
10 Medium intensity skating
11 Two foot glide
12 Medium intensity skating
13 Two foot glide
14 Cruise
15 Low intensity skating
16 Two foot glide
Frequency
characteristics
Gliding right turn
Gliding left turn
Left crossover turn
Gliding left turn
Left crossover turn
Gliding left turn
Right crossover
turn
Gliding left turn
Gliding right turn
Left crossover turn
Gliding right turn
Right crossover
turn
Gliding left turn
Gliding right turn
Left crossover turn
Gliding left turn
Average time
(s)
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
2.5
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.5
1.5
1.0
1.5
1.5
3.5
2.5