Interlake – Eastern
Regional Health Authority (“IERHA”)
Aboriginal Human Resources
Box 296
Lundar, MB R0C 1Y0
Ph#: (204)762-6506
Fax: (204)762-5164
ABORIGINAL WORKFORCE STRATEGY
__________________________________________
ABORIGINAL
CULTURAL
AWARENESS
TRAINING
PARTICIPANT’S MANUAL
IERHA Aboriginal Cultural Awareness Workshop
1
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Aboriginal Cultural Awareness one-day education session. The purpose
of this training is to provide staff employed with the Interlake – Eastern Regional Health
Authority an opportunity to learn about:
•
•
•
IERHA - Aboriginal Employment Plan;
First Nations, Inuit, & Métis History, and Contemporary Issues;
Ways to create a health care environment that is culturally sensitive and cognizant
to the needs of Aboriginal people.
This will assist our organization in addressing systemic barriers that may deter our
progress towards our long-term goal to increase employment of Aboriginals in health care
that is more representative of the population in our region. This manual is intended as a
“living document”. It will be revised on an ongoing basis to ensure continuous
improvements.
You will most likely ask yourself these following questions:
• What is the Aboriginal Employment Initiative all about?
• Why is this Aboriginal cultural workshop being offered and how will it help me in my
workplace?
It is our hopes that the information presented in this training will provide you with the
insights to answer many of your questions that will not only benefit you at work, but in all
other aspects of your life.
This training module has been designed to reflect the values of the Interlake - Eastern
Regional Health Authority’s vision and mission statement.
This presentation has been developed in Collaboration with Burntwood,
Brandon and Winnipeg Regional Health Authorities Workforce Strategies, Southeast
Tribal Council Health Unit, and Interlake – Eastern RHA Aboriginal Staff.
2
PARTICIPANT’S GUIDE
1st Direction East: Introduction
Prayer, Introductions, Drum Song (Optional: Smudge)
• Participants guide.
• Housekeeping.
• What is Culture?
• IERHA Aboriginal Workforce Strategy.
Morning Break: 10 minutes
2nd Direction South: A Holistic presentation on Aboriginal cultures.
•
•
12:00
PowerPoint overview and associated Teachings.
40 min Plenary Address DVD by Judge Murray Sinclair on Historical Aboriginal
Non-Aboriginal Relations.
Lunch
3rd Direction West: Historical Overview.
•
•
Energizer (Jigging Demonstration).
Timeline display and discussion.
Afternoon Break: 10 minutes
4th Direction North: A Contemporary Overview
•
•
Where Aboriginal groups are today.
Closing song.
3
Housekeeping Rules
1.
Sign in Sheet
2.
Optional Self Declaration Form
3.
Location of Washrooms
4.
Turn off Cell Phones
5.
Availability of refreshments (coffee, tea, juice, water)
6.
Breaks (10:30 – 10:40 am., 2:00 – 2:10 pm.)
7.
Lunch (12:00 – 12:30 pm.)
8.
Hand out Training Evaluation Form
9.
Finish up around 3:00 PM.
10. Participants Manual
(Contains workshop materials, supplemental readings and will
serve as a useful reference following the training)
11. Additional Resources Displayed
4
Supplemental Discussions
Section 1:
 Aboriginal Historical Perspective
• Background
• Pre European Contact
• European Contact
• British Rule
• Assimilation Policies (1760 – present)
• White Paper (1969 – 1971)
• Constitution and Consultation (1971 – Present)
• Land Claims
• Self-Government
Section 2:
 Frequently Asked Questions
• Who is eligible to receive benefits?
• Who is eligible for registration?
• What are Treaty Rights?
• Who is eligible for Treaty Payments?
• Who is eligible for First Nations Funds?
• Who can call The Reserve their Home?
• Must Registered Aboriginal People pay taxes?
• What about Social Assistance and Welfare Services?
• What Sort of Housing Help Exists?
• Is Education Provided?
• Is Help Available for Economic Development?
• General Business Assistance
• Resource Based Opportunities
• What Health Care Coverage is Available?
• What About Land Claims?
• What About Aboriginal Self Government?
• First Nations Systems
• Different Aboriginal Political Organizations
Websites:
Cradleboard Geography at www.cradleboard.org
Indigenous Studies Portal at iportal.usask.ca
Suggested Readings: Black Elk Speaks; NEIHARDT & BLACK ELK
University of Nebraska Press
www.nebraskapress.unl.edu
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP)
5
1st Direction East:
INTRODUCTIONS TO PARTICIPANTS
_________________________________
This module will provide the basis for building trust and a safe
environment for participants that is necessary to understand
perceptions, preconceived notions and cultural differences relevant
to Aboriginal Culture.
6
DEFINITION OF CULTURE
CULTURE CAN BE EXPLAINED AS THE ACCEPTED WAY OF
INTERACTING BETWEEN HOMOGENEOUS GROUPS OF
PEOPLE. THAT IS, PEOPLE WHO SHARE COMMONALITIES.
CULTURE SETS OUT THE BOUNDARIES AND STRUCTURE IN
WHICH THE GROUP INTERACTS WITH ONE ANOTHER.
SIMPLY, CULTURE MEANS HOW ONE LIVES AS AN
INDIVIDUAL WHO IS PART OF A GROUP WITH WHICH THEY
BELONG.
IT INCLUDES ALL ASPECTS OF A PEOPLE’S
HISTORY,
TRADITIONS,
VALUES,
SOCIAL
AND
ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS WHICH HAS BEEN HANDED DOWN
FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT, THROUGH
LANGUAGE, IMITATION OR FORMALLY.
CULTURE INVOLVES ALL HUMAN SENSES GUIDING THE
EXISTENCE AND SURVIVAL OF A PEOPLE. THIS IS THE BASIS
FROM WHICH PEOPLE LEARN TO BEHAVE, LIVE IN VARIOUS
CLIMATES (GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS) AND INTERACT WITH
THEIR ENVIRONMENT. THE SUM OF THIS KNOWLEDGE AND
EXPERIENCE IS PASSED TO THE NEXT GENERATION
THROUGH LANGUAGE AND IMITATION.
Source: Adapted from MPI Cultural Training Manual
7
What Can Happen If We Are Not Aware of Culture?
Stereotyping
(Holding preconceived ideas about any culture)
Leads to
Prejudice
(Factualizing a stereotype into a belief about a specific person)
Leads to
Discrimination
(A negative action directed at a member of a disliked group)
Stereotypes + Prejudice = Ideas
Discrimination = Action
Source: Adapted from MPI Cultural Training Manual
8
THOUGHTS ABOUT CULTURE
Differences between
cultures
Can be
•
External factors impact
culture
• Technology
• Environment
• Geography
• Politics
• Communications
Group Norms
Sources of
learning or points
of conflict
Cultures are based on
values
• How values are
interpreted and
expressed may
vary between
cultures
Culture
• Adapts
• Changes
continuously
Therefore culture is…..
• What is seen and
what is not seen
• Learned
• Shared
We each tend to see
• Our own culture as
right and other
cultures as wrong
Let’s strive to become culturally enlightened in
order to deliver a culturally proficient health care
matrix.
Source adapted from: Winnipeg Regional Health Authority, Poster #18
9
DEFINITION OF VALUES
 A set of personal beliefs and attitudes about the truth, beauty or worth
of any thought, object or behaviour.
 Every decision that is made and courses of action that is taken is based
on consciously or unconsciously held beliefs, attitudes and values.
 Values and the belief system we live by are deeply connected.
 Values influence our perceptions and our actions.
 Values represent an organizing principle of our lives.
 Values are the most powerful motivators of personal action.
 Values are at the root of all learning; they are energizing, inspiring and
motivating.
 When you work in an environment where your work activities are
aligned with what you consider important (your values) your energy,
motivation, desire and willingness to achieve even the most difficult task
seems to emerge.
 Values are a set of understandings about how to work together, how to
treat people and what is most important.
 Values are the meanings we attach to things.
 Our earliest values revolve around our parents and the people who take
care of us. As we grow, we acquire and develop other values – from
school, the community at large and work.
Examples:
-Improving Society
-Generosity
-Competence/Control
-Helping Others
-Financial Security
-Connection to others
-Love of Beauty
-Pleasure/Fun
-Integrity (Honesty/Humility)
-Cooperation
Source: Adapted from MPI Cultural Training Manual
10
-Recognition
-Respect
-Creating Justice
-Power
THOUGHTS ABOUT VALUES
Influences our understanding
and ways we work together,
treat others and helps us
decide what is important
Are ethnocentric (specific to
and the foundation of each
culture)
Are learned from families,
peer groups & experiences
Differences in values can be a
source of conflict or learning
Motivate us toward our goals
Can determine what, how &
when we act or react
Are uniquely understood
within each culture
Usually exist at the
unconscious level, therefore, if
challenged, can arouse strong
feelings
Brings meaning to our
perceptions, beliefs, goals,
decisions & actions
Rarely change unless the
individual experiences a
significant emotional event
There many Aboriginal groups
& each have
•
•
For example:
There are distinct differences
between First Nations, Inuit,
and Métis peoples.
There are differences
between the Ojibway & Cree
people and differences exist
between the Ojibway
Their own unique set
of values
Their own way of
expressing their values
Source adapted from: Winnipeg Regional Health Authority, Poster #19
11
IRHA > ABORIGINAL CULTURAL
AWARENESS WORKSHOP
I AM A CULTURAL BEING
 Our values grow from the culture from which we are born into and live with.
 Our beliefs and attitudes emerge from our values.
 When an event occurs we are influenced by our values, beliefs and attitudes –




they colour our perceptions.
What we perceive as we experience a specific event is impacted by our conditioned
values, beliefs and attitudes.
We interpret the event within our frame of reference.
We act based on our perceptions of the event.
Our perceptions are influenced by our values, beliefs and attitudes and, there is
a response to our action.
If we have responded in a way that ‘fits’ for the other person or situation, we
are reinforced. If it does not, we may be confused. We can either learn from
this or reinforce our behaviour by being dismissive or blind to the response of
the other.
12
DEFINITIONS OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
Intercultural communication is the process by which two people who
do not belong to the same culture “try” to communicate. This may
be more difficult than we think because the idea implies that they
may not share the same values, beliefs, behaviours and ways of
thinking.
Adapted from: Training for the cross-cultural Mind, Casse,P.
In intercultural communication, we should assume differences until
similarities are proven
International Dimensions of Organizational Behaviour, Adler.N.
Intercultural communication is communication between members of
different cultures. This definition is simple, but the process is
complex. Intercultural communication involves differing
perceptions, attitudes and interpretations. We know that even two
people from the same culture have communication problems.
Some misunderstandings are insignificant in that they can be easily
remedied or ignored. Other conflicts are more serious in that they
can cause misinterpretations and create persistent negative
attitudes towards others.
Beyond Language, Levine, D. and Adelman. M.
13
FIVE FACTS ON INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
 WE PERCEIVE DIFFERENTLY.
 WE DO NOT SEE THINGS WHICH EXIST.
 WE SEE THINGS WHICH DO NOT EXIST.
 WE COMMUNITCATE ALL THE TIME.
 PURE COMMUNICATION IS IMPOSSIBLE.
Source: Pierre, Casse
14
ABORIGINAL EMPLOYMENT PLAN
Representative Workforce
Strategy Does Not Do the
Following:
Representative Workforce
Strategy Does the
Following:
Promote quotas, targets or selective
access.
Identifies barriers that may limit
recruitment and retention of
Aboriginal people and develops
solutions collaboratively with
Aboriginal people and other
stakeholders.
Ensure the maximization of
recruitment and retention of
Aboriginal people through
partnerships and collaborations
with employers, unions,
government, education and training
and the Aboriginal community.
Promotes generic access and
opens doors to all job opportunities
in all classifications and all levels
by employers providing accurate
information on current and future
job opportunities.
Provides succession planning in
collaboration and partnerships with
unions/employers to facilitate
employment of Aboriginal people in
all classifications and meets
employer needs.
Force employers to hire Aboriginal
people.
Advocate set-asides or designated
positions.
Mean a replacement strategy.
Have a "top down" approach with a
program mandate already in place.
A collaborative approach where all
stakeholders are allowed to
develop processes and initiatives
that ensure Aboriginal people are
hired for their skills and merit.
15
WORKPLACE BARRIERS for ABORIGINALS
Inherent misconception, misinformation and negative attitudes toward
Aboriginal people.
The cyclical nature of entry-level employment which leads to low
retention and turnover.
Misunderstanding of the role of unions.
Lack of accurate information and employment status for succession
planning.
Reduced accessibility to jobs in the rural districts due to casual hiring
practices.
Access to advanced math and science subjects in rural areas.
Access to training in rural areas.
The high cost of education and training versus low level income.
The arbitrarily “raising the bar” for qualifications for low skill employment
jobs (i.e. a job that requires a grade 8 education being moved to
requiring a grade 12 education).
Lack of visible and effective role models within the health system.
Inability to gain seniority due to entry-level casual and part-time
positions in existing health system.
The following barriers were cited from 2003 SAHO (Saskatchewan Association of Health
Organizations) Representative Workforce Reference Guide A12.1.
16
2nd Direction South:
A HOLISTIC LOOK AT ABORIGINAL
CULTURES
________________________________
This module will facilitate an understanding of a holistic process by
examining the concept of the Medicine Wheel and the Seven Basic
Teachings of the Anishinabe. For illustrative purposes, the Ojibway
model will be used since the majority of Aboriginal people within the
Interlake region are Ojibway. A brief overview of the Role of
Ceremonies & Rituals, as well as Ojibway teachings, will be
presented to participants to enhance their perception of a cultural
value system still widely applied by Aboriginal people today.
17
A. GENERAL OVERVIEW
While there are a variety of belief systems among the First Nations peoples, many
common values are shared: primarily, the linking of the spiritual world to the physical.
Recurring themes appear in the prayers, customs, philosophies, sacred objects and
histories of the various Nations of the First Peoples.
Historically, each band was self-governed and the well being of the entire band was of
great importance for the survival of the whole. All decisions affecting the whole were
decided by the Traditional band council. Personal and communal wealth was measured by
physical health, solid relationships, spiritual harmony, a balanced family life, and the
wisdom of their elders.
The various First Nations peoples tended to migrate over time as conditions of weather
and environment changed. With the imposed Reserve system, many were re-located to
areas that are not their traditional homelands. It is therefore important to distinguish
between the current locations of tribal lands from the historical ones.
Special Note
It is vital for all participants to be aware that many aspects or items of First Nations culture
are considered sacred. Before embarking on any Aboriginal themed courses of study or
activity, be sure the use of cultural symbols, items, stories, etc, will not demean or insult, in
any way, the First Nations, Métis or Inuit person. Central to the traditional mindset is a
strong code of respect.
B. THE FIRST NATIONS WORLD VIEW
The First Nations peoples see the world from a unique perspective. They see themselves
as part of - not masters of – the natural world around them. The forces and mysteries of
nature and the universe hold special spiritual power and significance. This is reflected
in all aspects of culture, ceremonies, art, music and traditions.
18
THE MEDICINE WHEEL AND THE NUMBER 4
The Circle and the Medicine Wheel Teachings:
Indigenous Peoples, have always observed the cyclical nature of Life. These profound
perceptions are visualized in the traditional teaching tool known as the Medicine Wheel.
A circle, divided into four equal quadrants of specific colour, with each section or
direction representative of a multitude of lessons or Teachings. Aboriginals have observed
over many millennia that most natural occurrences tend to happen in sequences of 4.
For example; the four cardinal directions: East, South, West, and North.
The four natural elements: Earth, Air, Water, and Fire.
The four initial colours of humankind: Red, Yellow, Black, and White.
The four aspects of the human being: Spiritual, Emotional, Physical, and
Mental.
The four stages of Life: Child, Adolescent, Adult, and Elder.
The four seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
The Medicine Wheel can be inclusive of all these things at once, or individually.
For example; the four cardinal directions each represent a colour/race of the human being.
Red (Aboriginals) is East, Yellow (Asians) is South, Black (Africans) is West, and White
(Europeans) is North.
Everything is viewed as a great circular path: The Seasons, the Years, the Moon circling
the Earth. The Earth’s circling of the Sun, etc... The human life cycle is such that children
are born, grow up nurtured by their parents and elders, then in turn, become parents, then
elders themselves, only to be nurtured in turn by their children.
The colours of the Medicine Wheel can vary and are interchangeable to symbolize the
many teachings of the many nations or individuals.
There is a profundity of knowledge and wisdom represented in this traditional teaching
tool, many layers thick.
As is evident, the cycles of life and the universe fit within the Great Circle, which serves as
a basis for the perceived cosmology and spirituality of the First Nations peoples. And, like
a circle – which has no beginning or end in which we all belong - nor do these great cycles
that exist within the Great Mystery of the universal & natural worlds. All these cycles fit
naturally into the perceptions of Aboriginal Peoples and are meant to exist in a balanced
state. This is the traditional belief system, the model for how to live. In other words, the
medicine for personal and communal health as well as for ensuring the continuation of life
itself.
We can all have our own Medicine Wheel. It is a symbolic creation that serves as a most
basic guide to orient us within time and space. The Medicine Wheel divides our world into
different directions and applies specific meaning and significance to each direction.
Almost every culture has oriented themselves around seven directions: east, south, west,
north, centre, above and below. This directional orientation is achieved by simple
observation of the natural world. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Generally,
regardless of where we sit on the globe there are four phases of the moon and four
seasons to which we orient ourselves. Therefore, our personal Medicine Wheels are seen
as a reflection of our relationship to the natural world and those around us.
19
First Nations’ people throughout the world use the Medicine Wheel to teach their beliefs
and values. It is also used as a guide for daily living. There are many illustrations,
representations and examples for the Medicine Wheel; however, there is a common
understanding among all First Nations people of what the Medicine Wheel means. The
understanding is that everything is connected to one another and to Mother Earth. The
teachings of the Medicine Wheel were given to the people, in order to keep balance and
happiness with oneself and Mother Earth. Each of the four directions gives specific
significance and relationship to colours, animals, powers, and spirit guides. The circle
represents the First Nations understanding of the many cycles of life and creation. Each
quarter of the Wheel tells us exactly where we are, where we came from, and where we
are going. The Wheel teaches us to be respectful of all life and points out that each part of
the Wheel interacts with the next. The Wheel teaches us to break the belief of
separateness and to see ourselves as important parts of the Universe. No one quarter is
any less important than the next, for it takes all quarters to make a whole. Is not death a
part of life? Being a part of a whole does not take away what makes you special, but it
allows you to access the strength and flexibility found only in the whole. The details vary
between tribes and individuals. The Medicine Wheel is manifest in many different cultures
for example, Stonehenge vs. a Sun Dance Lodge. The Medicine Wheel can be a tool that
helps us face the amazing infinite nature of the universe in which we live and helps us
enjoy and cope with the infinite mysteries we face, things we cannot, do not or will not
understand. Wakatanka, the Great Mystery.
The Wheel can be used to help understand and deal with specific life circumstances for
example, jobs, relationships and illness. The Medicine Wheel is also used to consider the
flow of events unfolding over the years of a lifetime(s). A holistic awareness of our world
determines a lot of “what goes where” on the Medicine Wheel. Working the Medicine
Wheel is accomplished by this awareness of our environment and through personal
examination of thoughts and feelings. The Medicine Wheel is an organizing principle that
neatly ties together many diverse aspects of inner-self and the natural world. It serves as
a way to focus and reconnect to the rhythms of the natural world.
20
OJIBWAY GIFTS OF THE FOUR DIRECTIONS
NORTH
BUFFALO
SWEETGRASS
WHITE
Elders
Wisdom
Thinking, analyzing, organizing
Calculation, problem solving
Criticizing
Imagining, integrating all, interpreting
Capacity to finish what we begin
Freedom from fear, hate, love and knowledge
Seeing how things fit together
Insight
Intuition made conscious
Sense of how to live a balanced life
Capacity to dwell in the center of things
To see and take the middle way
Moderation
JUSTICE
WEST
BEAR
SAGE
BLACK
Adult
The unknown
Going within, deep
inner thoughts
Dreams
Testing of the will
Perseverance
Consolidating
personal power
Spiritual insight
Daily prayer,
meditation, reflection
Being alone with one’s
self
Respect for elders
Respect for the
spiritual struggle of
others
Respect for other’s
beliefs
Awareness of our
spiritual nature
Sacrifice
Humility
Love for the Creator
Commitment to
universal life values
Ceremony
SOUTH
WOLF
CEDAR
YELLOW
Adolescence
Fullness
Heart
Love
Generosity
Sensitivity to the feelings of others
Training and discrimination of senses – sight, hearing, taste
Passionate involvement in the world
Idealism
Compassion and kindness
Anger at injustice
Repulsed by senseless violence
Ability to express hurt and other bad feelings
Ability to set aside strong feelings in order to serve others
Appreciation of the arts
Loyalty
21
EAST
EAGLE/ROBIN
TOBACCO
RED
Infancy
Beginnings, renewal
Innocence
Spontaneity, joy
Capacity to believe in the
unseen
Warmth of spirit
Purity, trust, hope
Uncritical acceptance of
others
Courage, truthfulness
Illumination, guidance,
leadership
Beautiful speech
Vulnerability
Ability to see clearly through
the complex
Seeing situations in
perspective
Hope for the people
Concentration
Devotion to the service of
others
Wellness in the Circle of Life
Physical
Spiritual
Emotional
Mental
Mental
Diversity and creativity, Meditation
What can I do differently: ______________________________________________
What I need to support me: ____________________________________________
Who I need to support me: _____________________________________________
Notes: _____________________________________________________________
Emotional:
Healing through feeling
What can I do differently: _____________________________________________
What I need to support me: ___________________________________________
Who I need to support me: ____________________________________________
Notes: ____________________________________________________________
Physical:
Exercise, eat well, rest
What can I do differently: _____________________________________________
What I need to support me: ___________________________________________
Who I need to support me: ____________________________________________
Notes: ____________________________________________________________
Spiritual:
Take time out to give thanks, set intentions, and listen
What can I do differently: _____________________________________________
What I need to support me: ___________________________________________
Who I need to support me: ____________________________________________
Notes: ____________________________________________________________
22
Sharing Circles/Talking Circles
Sharing Circles or Talking Circles have been used for discussion and exploration of many
topics and issues. Aboriginal people have used Sharing Circles for many, many
generations. Usually, the nature of topics or issues is those where there is no right or
wrong answer or when people need to share feelings. Issues of a moral or ethical nature
may also be discussed in this forum, as this is a way in which offending anyone can be
avoided.
The purpose of Sharing Circles or Talking Circles is to provide a safe and neutral
environment for people to share their point of view or understanding of issues with others.
The Sharing Circles or Talking Circles process help to create trust with and among
participants. Participants come to accept and believe that what they say will be done
without criticism or judgment. Participants are also able to understand and respect the
views and opinions of others.
Sharing Circles or Talking Circles have also been used to teach important lessons about
the sacredness of all life. The trees, water, the sky, plants, animals, and all the races
around the world. The Circle allows a participant to internalize and verbalize the learning.
This understanding then becomes a part of spirituality, which is important in order to
maintain the balance of life.
It is not intended that a decision or consensus of any kind be reached. It is to create a
safe environment for people to share their opinions or point of view with others.
Participants are allowed the opportunity to react to a situation which has prompted the
need to express feelings or ideas in any manner that falls within the set guidelines and
understandings.
Differences between Linear Structure vs. a Circle, when working as a group of people.
•
•
Linear Structure: A room of people all lined up in rows and facing a presenter
situated at the front of the room.
All attention is on the person at the front. This person has an automatic position of
authority,
All interactions go through this individual. You cannot see the face of the person(s)
directly in front of you.
There is a disconnect with your fellow participants.
Circle Structure: A room of people sitting in a circle facing the centre. The presenter
sits in the circle as a participant that initiates the circle.
All people can see everyone; there is a sense of equality.
23
CEREMONIES AND CELEBRATION
Like most cultures on Earth, Aboriginal peoples have ceremonies and celebrations for life,
death, fun and games. Sometimes it’s difficult to appreciate the way certain things are
celebrated in Aboriginal culture; however, it is important to understand the significance of
the ceremonies.
In the following pages are a few traditional ceremonies and celebrations to help you
understand why they are performed and cherished by the Aboriginal peoples.
This section covers:
•
The Smudging Ceremony
•
The 4 sacred plants
•
The Pow-wow
•
The 7 sacred laws.
Smudging
Every Aboriginal society has rituals of purification that prepare a person for communing
with the Spirit World, from praying to the Creator to taking part in celebrations with the
community or participating in ceremony and ritual.
The most common method of cleansing for ceremonial/spiritual purposes is smudging,
Which involves the burning of sacred plants usually in a large shell such as abalone and
the resulting smoke is used to wash away any negative energy that may be around. The
shell brings into representation one of the four elements: water. The match used to light
the smudge represents fire, as does the actual burning. The sacred plants and their ashes
represent the Earth, and the smoke (an exact analogue to incense in the Judeo-Christian
tradition) represents the air. Once lit, a feather is commonly used to fan the embers to
assist the actual smoldering of the smudge. The rising smoke symbolizes the prayers of
the person smudging or being smudged, being brought to the Creator. It is a traditional
practice to offer the smoke to The Four Directions, starting with the direction each nation
recognizes as the their starting point then going full circle to say a prayer at each of the
other directions.
Smudging is usually done when one’s spirit is low, after being around someone who is sick
or depressed, during meditation, in prayer or at the opening of a ceremony or meeting.
Smudging is a sacred act; therefore, the ashes remaining must be treated with reverence.
These are returned to the Earth in a respectful manner or placed in a sacred fire. In some
Aboriginal cultures these ashes are gathered throughout the year and buried at
a special ceremony.
24
SWEETGRASS
WEENGUSH (Sweetgrass) – Weengush, the Sweetgrass, is known for its beautiful sweet
aromatic scent, which is enhanced when it rains or when it is burned. This, too, is a
purifier. Many things are made with Weengush (Sweetgrass) such as coiled baskets. It is
also often braided and the braid signifies the hair of Nokomis (Mother Earth). When picking
a plant from the Earth, such as Sweetgrass, we offer tobacco in return for the generosity
and help of the plant.
Sweetgrass is one of a variety of traditional medicines that naturally grows in marshy
areas. Sweetgrass is believed by many Aboriginal peoples; to be the hair of mother earth
and as a result, it is treated with much care and respect.
In Manitoba, Sweetgrass is ready to be picked in the summer months. When it is picked
the grass usually retains its green colour until it is completely dry. Each braid of the hair
represents the heart, mind, and spirit. It is for this reason that Aboriginal peoples use it to
smudge. As a gift, Sweetgrass represents Respect for continued growth on Earth.
CEDAR
GIIZHIKAANDAY (Cedar bough) the leaves of the cedar tree are used as a smudge for the
same reasons that Sweetgrass is used. The leaves are also used as a protective barrier
from the profound life energies that women radiate during their Moontime (menses) that
could overpower any other ceremony that is taking place in close proximity. The leaves are
spread on the ground for the women to sit or lay on during this time. The energies of the
Cedar fronds create a safe and secure environment for the women during this time of
cleansing. A tea can also be made from the leaves of the Cedar tree to assist in the
cleansing period. Cedar is also a good source of Vitamin C. If necessary, Cedar being an
evergreen can be picked during the winter months when all other medicines are
inaccessible.
SAGE
Sage is another medicine used for smudging. It is picked, bundled and dried in the
summer months. This particular medicine is the only smudge that women use during their
moon time. This medicine can also be made into a tea to help with colds, and sore throats.
TOBACCO
(Semah) or tobacco is one of the four sacred plants. Aboriginal peoples also used a form
of tobacco known as kinikinik which was a mixture of the inside bark of the red willow and
wild tobacco (bearberry plant). Some still prefer to use kinikinik, but many use store-bought
tobacco. Semah is used in the offering of prayer to the Creator, acting as a medium for
communication. It is either offered to a sacred fire, so the smoke can take the prayers to
the Creator, or it is set on the ground in a clean place. This can be done on a daily basis
as each new day is greeted with prayers of thankfulness. The Elders suggest holding
tobacco while offering prayers of thankfulness. They also advise that you are to hold
tobacco in your left hand, as that is the hand closest to your heart. It is recommended that
you offer a gift of Semah when seeking knowledge or advice from an Elder or when a Pipe
is present. This is a sign of respect and proper protocol.
It is important to remember that misuse of any medicine, whether traditional or modern can
have very harmful effects to the user. However, used in the prescribed way, a medicine
can be very healthy and in fact may save your life. This can also be said of tobacco.
When used properly, tobacco is very good mentally and spiritually. When used strictly for
commercial use, tobacco can lead to serious health problems.
25
POW WOW
Pow-wows are a modern day social celebration of First Nations’ culture. They are also
ceremonial in nature. It gives First Nations’ people the chance to gather with other First
Nations’ groups as well as the general public. It also welcomes all participants to take part
in dancing, games, competition and singing.
A Pow-wow has many protocols. The basics are as follows:
To begin, a Grand Entry of flag bearers, Elders, special guests and all dancers enter the
dancing area.
This is followed by a prayer ceremony to honour the Creator and all life on earth. Dancing
begins under the guidance of a master of ceremonies until a break is called. After the
Break a second Grand Entry takes place following the same protocols in the beginning.
To end a Pow-wow a closing ceremony takes place.
The singers of a Pow-wow are part of a drum group and can consist of one or many
singers. Singers may sing in their language or use only vocals. Vocal singing (Straight
songs) was popularized between First Nations’ groups that do not speak the same
language. This is to allow intertribal singers, or members of different First Nations’ to join
in and share their singing talent with people of other First Nations’ descent.
A Pow-wow gathering has many different styles of dancing which are broken down into
different categories, Men: Fancy Feather, Grass, Traditional, or Chicken dances. Women:
Fancy Shawl, Traditional, or Jingle Dress dances. Outfits of a wide variety of colour and
styles are worn to match an individual dancing style or First Nations background. The type
of dance being performed will have its own style of song and beat. For instance, a Fancy
Feather or Shawl dance requires a fast beat with many abrupt stops and starts to test the
skill of the dancers in keeping time with the drum. A Jingle Dress song or Chicken dance
song will have a beat similar to a heartbeat. An intertribal song will have a regular
consistent beat so anyone present can take part in the dancing.
A Pow-wow can raise a person’s mental, physical, emotional and spiritual well-being.
26
The 7 Sacred Laws:
The Seven Sacred Laws are important teachings in indigenous culture. These teachings
honour spiritual law and bring us back to our connection to the land. The Seven Sacred
Laws are represented by seven animals. Each animal offers a special gift and
understanding of how we as people should live our lives on Mother Earth.
•
1st law carried by the spirit of the Eagle: LOVE
Always act in love. Love the Earth. Love all Creation. Love yourself, your family,
and your fellow human beings
•
2nd law carried by the spirit of the Buffalo : RESPECT
Respect all life on Mother Earth., Respect Elders and people of all races. Respect
yourself.
•
3rd law carried by the spirit of the Bear: COURAGE
Listen to your heart; it takes courage to do what is right.
•
4th law carried by the spirit of the Sabe (Bigfoot): HONESTY
Never lie or gossip. Be honest with yourself and others. Speak from your heart. Be
true to your word.
•
5th law carried by the spirit of the Beaver: WISDOM
Everyone has a special gift. Show wisdom by using your gift. Acquire wisdom
through experience.
•
6th law carried by the spirit of the Wolf : HUMILITY
Think of others before yourself; humble yourself to all creation by being thankful.
•
7th law carried by the spirit of the Turtle: TRUTH
Always seek and express truth. Living the truth is living the Seven Teachings.
It is one thing to say you know the teachings but, it is an entirely different thing to
say you live the teachings.
Can you imagine a world that reflects these simple truths?
27
Regarding Elders
Elder advisory services can be very practical when implementing cultural awareness,
recruitment, and retention strategies, and training initiatives with an Aboriginal focus.
The question is often asked: How do I find an Elder?
To begin, it is important to define what you are looking for. Elders are those individuals
that are recognized by their community (often a Chief and Council, Tribal Council,
Settlement Council, or Provincial/Territorial Organization, the greater Aboriginal community
or individual) as being a resource for traditional knowledge and values of their respective
communities.
The title of Elder is earned, not automatically granted by age. Hence, it is in fact a title, and
is expressed in capital case when written. Further, age is not necessarily a requirement to
be granted this title. In some First Nations communities/Métis settlements, Elders play a
specialized role in ceremonies and in all cases are generally regarded as the most
important advisors to political leadership. Their influence upon policy, operations of
Aboriginal organizations, and the real politic should not be underestimated. Through their
peers, they are connected to hundreds, if not thousands of individuals – and have
considerable experience with influencing individual and group behaviour. In most First
Nations and Métis communities, Elders unto themselves are regarded as cultural
resources of singular value.
How does one find an Elder? To find an Elder, you must network within the
Aboriginal community. One link to explore would be Aboriginal Service Providers
directories. While Elders are not specifically listed, they can be found through these
service provider organizations, and some service provider organizations can be
contracted to facilitate these services. This is the preferred approach, because it permits
the Elder to be engaged by an organization that he or she is familiar with, and this
organization can accommodate any of the special needs of the Elder. As well, the
service provider organization can enhance the interaction between your organization
and the Elder, by bridging communication and cultural barriers.
Best Practices Toolkit Strategies and Tools for Employing Aboriginal People
Source: adapted from Edmonton Economic Development Corporation, Strategies and Tools for Employing Aboriginal People 2006
28
3rd Direction West:
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW:
THE IMPACT OF COLONIZATION
Timeline Presentation
This module will provide participants with knowledge and
understanding concerning the tremendous impact that Colonization,
Residential Schools and Children Aid Society Mass Adoption Era
(60’s Scoop) had on First Nations people and how these historical
events continues to affect their way of life today.
29
Canadian First Nations Historical Timeline
The first- and most important step towards understanding First Nations and their history is
to recognize that Indigenous people are a vibrant people that have a deep rooted
connection to the Spirit of the land. In spite of the severity of the many issues that
individuals, families and communities face, First Nation people are demonstrating their
resiliency and emergence to equal standing within Canadian Society.
The shared history between Indigenous peoples and European settlers is one of cultural
disruption. Generations of Indigenous peoples experienced profound, unsought and
irreversible changes in their family and cultural lives as a result. Many Indigenous people
are working to change the cycles of abuse, and forced dependency, which resulted in the
social and economic disruption of their cultures and a profound loss of language by past
attempts at assimilation.
Education is a key to this change. Aboriginal people are building bridges and working to
create educational communities where their children are respected and their cultures are
reflected. They are rebuilding their Aboriginal cultures and hope to right the relations of the
past.
Key Historical Events for First Nation Peoples
Prior to first contact with the explorer Christopher Columbus, it’s has been shared
throughout Indian history that the Indigenous population was around 50 to 60 million strong
in the Americas (Turtle Island). Today in the region which is now known as Canada, it is
estimated that the Aboriginal population is roughly 1.5 million. The following is a synopsis
of key events within the last five hundred years that to this day continue to affect Aboriginal
peoples in Canada.
1492 - The word 'Indian' comes from Columbus's description of the people he found here.
He was an Italian, and did not speak or write very good Spanish, so in his written
accounts he called the Indians, 'Una gente in Dios.' A people in God. In God. In
Dios. Indians. At the time of contact, Europeans had doubts as to whether Indian
people in the Americas were human -- only Christians were considered human.
European arrival in the "New World" changed First Nations societies forever.
1493 - In 1493, at the request of the King and Queen of Spain, Pope Alexander issued the
following papal bull. According to the Doctrine of Discovery in 1493, non-Christian
nations may no longer own land in the face of claims made by the Christian
sovereigns. The Indigenous people of these lands are then to be placed under the
tutelage and guardianship of those Christian nations that ‘discover’ their lands.
Terra Nullius – The Doctrine of Terra Nullius, which in Latin means ‘empty
land’ – gave a colonial nation the right to absorb any barren or uninhabitable
territory encountered by explorers. In other words, if the land was deemed
‘empty,’ then it was considered subject to the Doctrine of Discovery and could be
claimed by the European explorers. Over time, this concept was conveniently
expanded to include lands not occupied by ‘civilized’ peoples, or those not being put
to ‘civilized’ use.
1497 - John Cabot for England explores present-day Nova Scotia, Canada.
30
1512 - Pope Julius II declared that: "Indians are truly men...they may and should freely and
legitimately enjoy their liberty and possession of their property; nor should they be in
any way enslaved."
1534 - Jacques Cartier for France explores Kanata. Kanata is a Mohawk word, meaning
"village" or "settlement." Until the mid-20th century, this word was thought to have
been the origin of Canada's name. But, as evidenced by the journal of Jacques
Cartier about his voyage to present-day Quebec, Canada, in the early 16th century,
Canada's name stems from the Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian word "canada, which
holds the same meaning. This Iroquoian language was spoken by the inhabitants of
Stadacona and the neighbouring region near present-day Quebec City in the 16th
century, with words having similarities to those in related Iroquoian languages, most
notably in Mohawk and Oneida.
1610 - The Concordat Wampum Belt is agreed to with the Vatican in Nova Scotia.
This Belt is a First Nations recording of events using natural materials to depict this
Treaty. Concordat: a type of treaty which regulates church affairs, signed between
the Pope and a government.
1670 - In the early 19th century fur-trading was the main industry of Western Canada. Two
companies had an intense competition over the trade. The first, the Hudson's Bay
Company was a London, England-based organization. The second, the North West
Company was based in Montreal. Hudson's Bay Company was distinctly English in
its culture and flavour while the North West Company was a mix of French, Scottish
and First Nations cultures.
The voyageurs of the North West Company were a highly mobile group of fur
traders. They established temporary encampments in the forks region that later
became Winnipeg.
Initially the Fur Trade was mutually beneficial. The Europeans depended upon
Indian and Métis knowledge of the land and their labour; and provided
manufactured goods to them. For over 200 years the result was balanced trade
relations.
The Métis had a good command of European and Indian languages and became
intermediaries in the fur trade economy.
The fur trade brought many changes:
- Diseases such as small pox, tuberculosis and measles;
- Missionaries brought Christianity; and
- Many Indian and Métis people were faced with starvation due to over-hunting
and trapping.
1701 -The Great Peace of Montreal was a peace treaty between New France and 40
First Nations of North America. It was signed on August 4, 1701, by Louis-Hector de
Callière, governor of New France, and 1200 representatives of 40 aboriginal nations
of the North East of North America. Over 70 historical treaties negotiated with First
Nations between 1701 and 1923 in Canada.
31
1734 - La Verendryes’s son Pierre, explorer and fur trader, established Fort Maurepas on
a site approximately 12 -14 miles upstream from the mouth of the Red River. Fort
Maurepas is important historically as being the first post in that area trying to
capture the fur trade and make allies of the local natives which included Ojibwa,
Cree, Assiniboine, Métis, and other traders.
1759 - On September 13th, 1759, following a three-month siege of Québec, General James
Wolfe defeated the French forces at the Plains of Abraham outside the city. The
French staged a counter offensive in the spring of 1760 with some success, but
failed to retake Québec due to a lack of naval support. French forces retreated to
Montréal, where on September 8th they surrendered in the face of overwhelming
British numerical superiority. The victorious British Crown now controlled all of
eastern North America. This defeat has serious ramifications in Canada to this day,
as the Quebec sovereignty movement continues to see this as their "nation's"
defining moment. The tribes of the Great Lakes region: Ottawas, Ojibwas,
Potawatomis, and Hurons. They had long been allied with French habitants, with
whom they lived, traded, and intermarried. Great Lakes Natives were alarmed to
learn that they were under British sovereignty after the French loss of North
America. When a British garrison took possession of Fort Detroit from the French in
1760, local Natives cautioned them that "this country was given by God to the
Indians."
1763 - Pontiac's Rebellion was a war launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of
elements of Native American tribes primarily from the Great Lakes region, the
Illinois Country, and Ohio Country who were dissatisfied with British policies in the
Great Lakes region after the British victory in the French and Indian War (1754–
1763). Warriors from numerous tribes joined the uprising in an effort to drive British
soldiers and settlers out of the region. The war is named after the Ottawa leader
Pontiac, the most prominent of many native leaders in the conflict. The war began
in May 1763 when Native Americans, offended by the policies of British General
Jeffrey Amherst, attacked a number of British forts and settlements. Eight forts were
destroyed, and hundreds of colonists were killed or captured.
The Royal Proclamation. This document which was issued by King George III of
Britain sought to prevent further racial violence, explicitly recognizes aboriginal title;
aboriginal land ownership and authority are recognized by the Crown as continuing
under British sovereignty. It states that only the Crown could acquire lands from
First Nations and only by treaty with the Crown. The Proclamation established
British protection over unsettled land belonging to Indian tribes and recognized
Indian title to lands not already colonized.
The Proclamation is considered to be one of the strongest guarantees of First
Nations' land rights. Pre-existing land ownership was acknowledged and is a very
important legal concept today. As such, it is often referred to as an “Indian Magna
Carta” or an “Indian Bill of Rights.”
By forbidding colonists from trespassing on Native lands, the British government
hoped to avoid more conflicts like Pontiac's Rebellion. "The Royal Proclamation,"
writes historian Colin Calloway, "reflected the notion that segregation not
interaction should characterize Indian-white relations."
32
• British Lord, Jeffrey Amherst secured his place in history with the deliberate
introduction of the first act of modern germ warfare in North America on First
Nation peoples, including against his allies, "You will do well to inoculate the
Indians by means of blankets, as well as every other method that can serve to
extirpate this execrable race."
1770’s - Smallpox and other diseases had a devastating toll on the Indian population.
Waves of epidemics decimated First Nations populations to an estimated 90% of
the population. In 1910, at its lowest point, there were only 103,661 Indians in
Canada.
1794 - Article III of the Jay Treaty declared the right of "Indians" ("Native Americans" in
current parlance) to trade and travel between the United States and Canada, which
was then a territory of Great Britain. American Consular Services in Canada states
that as a result of the Jay Treaty "Native Indians born in Canada are therefore
entitled to enter the United States for the purpose of employment, study, retirement,
investing, and/or immigration".
1803 - The North West Company opened a post at Netley Creek, on the west side of the
Red River.
1805 - Alexander Henry the Younger left seed with the Saulteaux and Ottawa people. Corn
was raised by the Saulteaux, 1.5 miles upstream from the mouth of the Red River.
1809 - The North West Company built Fort Gibraltar. It proved an irritant to the Hudson
Bay Company for ten years. There were many conflicts between the mostly Scottish
employees of the HBC and the NWC employees, who were mostly FrenchCanadians and Métis. On March 17, 1816, Fort Gibraltar was captured and
destroyed by Colin Robertson, a former NWC employee who became a leader of
the Selkirk Colony. The capture was ruled illegal by British authorities and the North
West Company was given permission to rebuild the fort in 1817.
1812 - Fort Douglas was a fort of the Hudson's Bay Company that was built by Scottish
and Irish settlers. It was in the immediate vicinity (down river) of the North West
Company establishment, Fort Gibraltar. During the conflict between the Hudson's
Bay Company and the North West Company, the fort was burned by the Métis and
employees of the North West Company. The fort was soon rebuilt and there was a
short period of relative peace. After the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816, the fort was
again destroyed, and the settlers were removed from their land. It was used as a
trading post.
War of 1812 - Tecumseh, (1768-1813) the Shawnee war leader has no love for the
British but he despises the Americans and is in open war with the Americans. He
convinces the other tribes to join the British to combat American territorial ambitions
more effectively. He is a gallant General being instrumental in taking Forts
Michilimackinac, Brownstone and Detroit. He safe guarded Canada from the
Americans.
1817 - The Earl of Selkirk, who leads the Red River Colony, signs an agreement to share
the land with the Cree and Ojibwa. The First Nations agree to share land in return
for an annual supply of 100 pounds (45 kilos) of good quality tobacco.
33
1818 - The 49th parallel (Medicine Line) becomes accepted as the border between the
U.S. & Canada from Lake of the Woods to the Rockies.
1820 - An Anglican clergyman, John West, arrives in the Red River Colony. He opens a
school in which he hopes “to convert and civilize Indians.”
1821 - Hudson Bay Company and North West Company amalgamated. The North West
Company had 97 trading posts compared to the 84 in Manitoba that flew the
Hudson's Bay Company standard.
1822 -The Hudson Bay Company established a third trading post confluence of the Red
and Assiniboine rivers near the site of North West Company’s Fort Gibraltar. It
served as the centre of fur trade within the Red River Settlement. Unfortunately in
1826, a severe flood destroyed the fort. It was rebuilt in 1837 by the HBC and
named Upper Fort Garry to differentiate it from "the Lower Fort Garry."
1830 -The Hudson Bay Company began construction of the Lower Fort Garry, also
known as “The Stone Fort”, 20 miles downriver, one that would stand on higher
ground and be situated north of the gruelling St. Andrews rapids. Lower Fort Garry’s
main buildings were completed by the early 1840’s, using limestone and wood from
the surrounding area.
1857 - The Gradual Civilization Act and The Enfranchisement Act - The colonial
government passed these two acts to assimilate Aboriginal people into Canadian
society. By giving up his First Nations heritage, any Aboriginal male over the age of
21, literate in English or French, "of good moral character" and free of debt, could
be "no longer deemed an Indian". He could then enjoy the rights and privileges of
non-Aboriginal citizens. In 1933, an amendment to The Indian Act enforced
assimilation even further. That amendment empowered the government to order the
enfranchisement of First Nations members who met the qualifications set out in the
act, even when they had not requested this.
1862 - One of the worst small pox epidemics sweeps Western North America.
1867 - The Dominion of Canada is created under the terms of the British North America
Act. Canada's original constitution was the charter to Confederation. Section 91(24)
of the BNA Act established Federal jurisdiction over "Indians, and lands reserved for
the Indians". The federal government implemented their responsibility through the
Indian Act. The BNA was drafted in part to provide policy “teeth” for Sir John A.
MacDonald’s “New Indian policy.” The Act specified how First Nation peoples were
put ‘under the protection’ of the Crown. It provided the legal base for the treaties,
and it emphasized the government’s central priorities of “assimilation,
enfranchisement, and civilization.”
1869 - Red River Resistance to Canada led by Louis Riel in Red River leading to the
creation of a provisional government.
1870 - Manitoba joins Confederation. The population was made up of a majority of First
Nations people but they were given no role in the decision making process of the
province.
34
1871 - Canada’s Western Treaties. There are eleven Numbered Treaties signed between
the Crown and First Nations from 1871 to 1921.
First Nations people maintain that promises made during negotiations were binding,
even those that did not appear in the text of the Treaty. Treaty Commissioners
made some promises that were not incorporated into the written Treaty.
Sacred Pipe ceremonies at the beginning of negotiations were statements of faith
by the Indian people. Government participation in these ceremonies was taken as
acceptance of the significance of this practice, which entailed that the creator was
present and witness to these agreements.
Indian people believe that the Treaties are binding agreements that are to last
forever: “For as long as the sun shines, the grass grows, and the water flows.”
Present day interpretation of the Treaties continues to be defined by the courts and
more recently, at treaty tables established between Canada and First Nations.
1872 - After some contact with Europeans, education became the primary instrument to
assimilate Indian people. The Indian Residential and Industrial Schools were
established following the signing of the Numbered Treaties. The main objective was:
To Kill the Indian in the Child. How?
-
to Christianize;
to teach reading & writing and
to develop children into farmers and housekeepers.
Indian Residential Schools also began a legacy of despair for Indian people.
Government and religious orders made all decisions about the education of Indian
children. Children were removed from their homes with or without parental consent.
Later it became mandatory for children from the age of 5 to the age of 17. The use
of Indian languages in school was prohibited; children were punished severely for
speaking their language, even if they knew no English or French. Over 75% of the
Indian population attended these schools in Canada.
-
Many children died as a result of health conditions at the schools.
Many other children ran away from school; If caught, upon their return, they
were severely punished. Others died while trying to reach home.
Many encountered sexual abuse by people in authority.
Many suffered severe psychological harm as their identity as an Indian person
was attacked.
Many lost their knowledge of traditional practices, which included parenting
practices.
After a century of operation, the Indian Residential Schools had nearly destroyed
First Nations communities. These schools suppressed their language, culture, and
spirituality. The extended period of time spent in these schools with caregivers who
were often abusive resulted in these abused children moving these learned
behaviours into the Indian communities. The last Indian Residential School
closed in Gordon, Saskatchewan in 1996.
35
1873 - North West Mounted Police is stationed at Lower Fort Garry as their training
grounds before moving westward in 1874.
1876 - The Indian Act is established. It influences all aspect of a First Nations person's life
from birth to death. Indian Bands were created and “Indian Agents” (an official
representing the government in dealings with native peoples, as on reservations)
became the intermediaries between First Nations people and the rest of the country.
Throughout its history, the Indian Act had three main principles:
-
to civilize Indian people;
to manage Indian people and their lands; and
to define who was and was not an Indian.
Philosophy of the Indian Act
The first Indian Act adopted an explicit vision of assimilation, in which Aboriginals
would be encouraged to leave behind their Indian status and traditional cultures and
become full members of the broader Canadian society. In this context, Aboriginals
were viewed as children or wards of the state, to which the government had a
paternalistic duty to protect and civilize. This underlying philosophy was clearly
expressed by the Canadian Department of the Interior in its 1876 annual report:
“Our Indian legislation generally rests on the principle, that the aborigines are to be
kept in a condition of tutelage and treated as wards or children of the State. …the
true interests of the aborigines and of the State alike require that every effort should
be made to aid the Red man in lifting himself out of his condition of tutelage and
dependence, and that is clearly our wisdom and our duty, through education and
every other means, to prepare him for a higher civilization by encouraging him to
assume the privileges and responsibilities of full citizenship.” (Report of the Royal
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1996)
It is important to note the change in Aboriginal policy from the Royal Proclamation,
1763 to the first Indian Act. The first Indian Act maintained the Crown’s role as
trustee of Indian interests, but had a very different view of that relationship. No
longer were Indigenous groups viewed as autonomous quasi-nations within the
broader Canadian political system, to that of which the Crown had an obligation to
protect from abuse and encroachment from European colonial society. Moreover,
many of the changes to the Act granted the government greater powers to move
Indians onto Reserves and expropriate their lands for the purpose of non-Indian
use.
The effect of the Indian Act on Aboriginal people was to transform independent
Indigenous nations into physically marginalized and economically impoverished
‘bands,’ and individuals into “wards of the state.” Through the Indian Act, the federal
government has denied First Nation peoples the basic rights that most Canadians
take for granted.
1876 - “Medicine Chest” clause: “The only Treaty which specifically mentions medical
care is Treaty Six, which contains two clauses: “That in the events hereafter of the
Indians comprised within this treaty being overtaken by any pestilence or by a
general famine, the Queen, on being satisfied and certified thereof, by her Indian
36
Agent or Agents, will grant to the Indians , assistance of such character as to extent
as here chief Superintendent of Indian affairs shall deem necessary and sufficient to
relieve the Indians of the calamity that shall have befallen them. And, that a
Medicine chest shall be kept at the house of the Indian agent for the use and benefit
of the Indians at the discretion of the Agent”
1877 - Stony Mountain Penitentiary is established.
1880 - Tuberculosis epidemics sweeps across North America.
1881 - Introduction of Indian Agents onto reserves as gate keepers to ensure that the
policies of the government are adhered too.
1884 – Anti-Potlash and Sun Dance laws were enacted under the Indian Act. The Law is
passed where it is illegal for three or more Indians to gather in discussion.
It is deemed by the government that three or more Indians gathered is to “incite to
riot”.
Responsibility for the education of children was given in large part to church-run
residential schools. Christianity was imposed on Indian people as a means of
"civilizing" them. There was resistance to the aggressive polices of the
governments. The people retained a profound conviction that their hereditary title
still exists.
Movement to or from a reserve is restricted. This caused hardship with extended
relations.
1885 - Louis Riel and the Métis clash with the Northwest Mounted Police at Duck Lake and
are defeated at Batoche. Riel is trialed and found guilty of treason and executed in
Regina.
Canada’s biggest mass execution took place in Battleford, Saskatchewan where
nine Cree warriors are executed for their role in the Frog Lake incident.
A permit system for First Nation peoples living on reserves was established. First
Nation peoples had to pay a fee to an Indian Agent and get his permission to leave
the reserve and travel to another reserve.
Lower Fort Garry provides both Provincial Penitentiary and Lunatic Asylum until
1886.
1887 - Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, as appears in the following Return to an
Order of the House of Commons dated May 2, 1887 (20h) at 37: “... the great aim
of our legislation has been to do away with the tribal system and to assimilate
the Indian people in all respects with the other inhabitants of the Dominion, as
speedily as they are fit for the change.”
1889 – Current Chief and Council election system introduced with a maximum two year
term. This system does not account for women to take part in this voting process.
1893 - Duncan Campbell Scott becomes Deputy Superintendent General of the
Department of Indian Affairs. His stated objective was assimilation. At the turn of the
37
century it was widely assumed by the Dominion government that the "Indian
problem" would soon solve itself as Aboriginal peoples died off from diseases. The
survivors would be absorbed into the larger society. He ruled the department until
1932.
1894 - Removal of band control over non-Aboriginals living on reserves. This power was
transferred to the Superintendent General of Indian Affairs.
1896 - An immigration policy is developed to help bring farmers from Europe to settle on
the Prairies.
1905 - Power to remove Aboriginal peoples from reserves near towns with more than 8,000
people.
1909 - Within fifteen years of the signing of Treaty 1, both federal and provincial
government began restricting Treaty and Aboriginal rights to hunting and fishing. As
the result of bribery and corrupt practices by civil and government officials, the
Peguis /Henry Prince band was forced to surrender their reserve in Selkirk (for
which they received insufficient compensation for lands) and move to a new reserve
some one hundred miles north, close to the mouth of the Fisher River in the
Interlake.
1911 - Power to expropriate portions of reserves for roads, railways and other public
works, as well as to move an entire reserve away from a municipality if it was
deemed expedient.
1914 - Requirement that western Aboriginals seek official permission before appearing in
Indian “costume” in any public dance, show, exhibition, stampede or pageant.
All dances and ceremonies outlawed.
1918 - Influenza epidemics sweeps across North America.
Power to lease out uncultivated reserve lands to non-Aboriginals if the new
leaseholder would use it for farming or pasture.
1919 - First Congress of the League of Indians meets in Sault Ste Marie.
1920 - “No Indians Left” Policy, Indian Act Amended. Special Committee of the House of
Commons examining the Indian Act considers new legislative measures for
compulsory enfranchisement of Indians. Deputy Superintendent General Duncan
Campbell Scott said, “Our objective is to continue until there is not a single
Indian in Canada that has not been absorbed into the body politic and there is
no Indian question, and no Indian Department. That is the object of this Bill.”
The government asserted that assimilation was the only possible policy.
1922 - A total ban on wearing traditional clothing or in any way appearing “Indian” in
public.
1927 - Prohibition of anyone (Indian or otherwise) from soliciting funds or retaining a
lawyer for Indian legal claims without special license from the Superintendent
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General. This amendment granted the government control over the ability of Indians
to pursue land claims, and effectively blocked any chance of political or court action.
1930 - Prohibition of pool hall owners from allowing entrance of an Indian who “by
inordinate frequenting of a pool room, either on or off an Indian reserve, misspends
or wastes his time or means to the detriment of himself, his family or household.”
1934 - The Federal government through the Natural Resources Transfer Act (“NRTA”)
transfers responsibility of Natural Resources over to the Provinces. The start of
jurisdictional squabbles between governments when dealing with First Nations and
Treaties.
1945 - The Indian Act is revised to limit coverage of Native people, excluding Native
women who married non-Native men (rescinded in 1985).
Aboriginal War Veterans - Aboriginal Canadians enlisted in proportionately higher
numbers during World War II than did any other segment of the general population.
First Nations people had to choose between maintaining treaty status under the
Indian Act or status as veterans. Most Aboriginal veterans were excluded from the
standard veterans’ benefits that should have been their right, such as the right to
purchase or lease land under the Veterans’ Land Act and a grant or loan to start
farming or a small business. Aboriginal veterans, including Métis and non-status
Indians, had great difficulty obtaining.
1951 - Parliament repeals Indian Act provisions of anti-potlatch and land claims activity. It
also gives Indian women the right to vote in band elections.
1959 - Only one percent of children in care of Social Services were of Aboriginal ancestry.
By the end of the 1960s, 30 to 40 percent of children in care were Aboriginal, even
though they only constituted four percent of Canada’s population. In what is called
the “Sixties Scoop” (which continued into the 1980s), these children were fostered
or adopted out to predominantly white families. Many times, culturally valued ways
of raising children were misinterpreted by social workers and this resulted in
apprehension of the children. Often moved from home to home, children in foster
care suffered great losses, including loss of birth names and tribal identity, cultural
identity and, for First Nations children, loss of Indian status.
1960 - First Nations people in Canada win the right to vote in federal elections. An Indian
person could now be both an Indian and a Canadian citizen at the same time.
1961 - Compulsory enfranchisement provisions were removed from the Indian Act,
meaning that Aboriginals could no longer be forced to give up their Indian status.
• National Indian Council is founded. (First Nations National Political Body)
1962 - The courts decided that Section 94 of The Indian Act, which prohibited Aboriginal
persons from possessing liquor outside a reserve, did not violate the Canadian Bill
of Rights.
1968 - Formation of Métis Society and the National Indian Brotherhood.
39
1969 - Nisga'a goes to court with the Calder case. The Supreme Court rules that the
Nisga'a did hold title to their traditional lands before BC was created. The Court
splits evenly on whether Nisga'a still has title.
• The Federal government, under Prime Minister Trudeau and Minister of Indian
Affairs, Jean Chretien, issues its White Paper, advocating policies which
promote the assimilation of First Nations people. The abolition of the Indian Act,
devolution of responsibility for aboriginal peoples to the provinces. There is
nation-wide political activity to counter the White Paper.
1970 - Red Paper (Citizen Plus) presented to the government proposing that Indian
Nations be responsible for Native people.
1971 - Section 94 of The Indian Act restricting the possession of intoxicants by Aboriginal
persons is repealed.
1972 - Indian Control of Indian Education policy document written by National Indian
Brotherhood advocating parental responsibility and local control over First Nations
education. This policy is accepted by federal government a year later.
1973 - In the Calder Case, the Supreme Court rules that the Nisga'a did hold title to their
traditional lands before B.C. was created. The Court splits evenly on whether
Nisga'a still has title. The federal government adopts a comprehensive land claims
policy. B.C. refuses to participate.
1979 - Chiefs travel to Britain to oppose the repatriation of the Constitution and to call for
Canada to honour commitments made to Aboriginal people.
1982 - Canada repatriates its constitution from Britain. Canada's Constitutional Act,
Section 35, recognizes and affirms existing Aboriginal and Treaty Rights.
•
Métis People are recognized as a distinct Aboriginal people with their own history,
language and culture. The right to pursue a Métis way of life has been a long
struggle. Throughout their history, Métis people endured repression, restrictions on
trading, fraudulent schemes to dishonour Métis land entitlements, and
marginalization of their culture and rights.
•
The Indian Act often disregarded Métis heritage in its registration process. It was
not until 1982 that Métis people were recognized in Section 35.2 of the Canadian
Constitution, with “aboriginal peoples of Canada” defined as including the “Indian,
Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada.”
1984 - Guerin Case, the Musquem Indian Band (Vancouver, BC) sued the Federal Crown
for breach of trust concerning 162 acres of the Band’s reserve land that had been
leased to a golf club in the late 1950’s. Subsequently to the lease, the band
discovered that Department of Indian and Northern Affairs officials withheld vital
information about the value of the property and failed to follow the Band’s
instructions as set out in the surrender process of reserved lands. In the present
case, the Court found that the Crown had failed to meet its duties and was therefore
liable to the band for lost of potential revenues.
40
1985 - Sections of the Indian Act are declared to be in violation of the Charter of Rights and
Freedoms. Bill C-31 amends the Act to allow Indians who had been “enfranchised”
or lost their status as band members (e.g. women who married non-Indians, Indians
who served in the Armed Forces) to regain their status as Indians. The bill is
controversial because it retains the federal government’s right to decide who is and
who is not a band member.
1990 - (Indian Summer) Failure of the Meech Lake Accord as Elijah Harper says, no! creating a greater national awareness on Aboriginal issues.
• Oka Crisis receives national attention when Mohawk warriors in armed stand-off
with the Quebec police and Canadian army over the land at Oka. First Nations
across the country rally to support the Mohawks and to emphasize their demands
for recognition of inherent Aboriginal title and rights.
• Sparrow Supreme Court decision concludes that the Musqueam people's
Aboriginal right to fish for food and ceremonial purposed has not been
extinguished.
• British Columbia agreed to join the First Nations and Canada in treaty
negotiations.
• First Nations, B.C. and Canada agree to establish a task force to develop a
process for land claim negotiations in B.C.
1991 - Chief Justice McEachern dismisses the Gitxsan-Wet'suwet'en Chiefs' claim in the
case of Delgamuukw v. Her Majesty the Queen.
• The Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba issued a report on the state of
Aboriginal justice in Manitoba, in response to concerns about the quality of
policing and of investigations into matters concerning Aboriginal people.
1993 - BC Court of Appeal’s five judges unanimously ruled in the appeal of the 1991
Delgamuukw case, that native rights were never extinguished by the colonial
government before confederation and that the rights are protected in the
constitution. This ruling is known as Delgamuukw 2.
1994 - The United Nations develops a Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples, recognizing the right to self-determination and independent government in
matters related to internal and local affairs. The General Assembly of the United
Nations also declares 1995 to 2004 as the International Decade of the World’s
Indigenous People. Presently, Canada refuses to sign the Declaration.
1995 - Gustafson Lake Standoff. A major military operation was directed at a small group
of protesters.
1996 - ROYAL COMMISSION ON ABORIGINAL PEOPLES - The Commission releases
its report and calls for sweeping changes to heal a broken relationship between
Native people and the rest of Canadian society. The federal government recognizes
that First Nations people must have a significant input into how the Indian Act will be
changed.
41
1997 - Supreme Court hands down its unanimous decision on the Delgamuukw 3 Case.
The court ruled that aboriginal title to the land had never been extinguished. The
previous trial judge had erred by not accepting oral history as evidence in the case.
The claim was sent back to trial, suggesting that negotiations were the best way to
resolve outstanding claims.
1998 - The Government of Canada announces an action plan to restructure its relationship
with Aboriginal peoples (Gathering Strength — Canada’s Aboriginal Action
Plan), and affirms that both historic and modern-day treaties will continue to be key
elements in the future relationship between Aboriginal peoples and the Crown.
Since that time, the Government of Canada has begun negotiating agreements with
treaty First Nations to put self-government in place. These agreements will build on
the relationship already established by their treaties.
1999 - The Government of Nunavut comes into being as a self-governing territory of the
Inuit people.
• The Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission is established in Manitoba to
develop an action plan to improve Aboriginal justice as recommended by the
Aboriginal Justice Inquiry.
• Supreme Court overturns Donald Marshall Jr's conviction for illegal fishing,
recognizing an East Coast Aboriginal treaty right to a commercial fishery.
• Over 800 outstanding Land Claims still remain unresolved and new claims are
added each year.
2000 - The Indian Act was amended to allow band members living off-reserve to vote in
band elections and referenda. This amendment was in response to a 1999 Supreme
Court of Canada decision which concluded that the denial of voting rights for offreserve band members violated their right to equality under Section 15 of the
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
2003 - Powley Decision. Steve and Roddy, two Ontario Métis from the Sault Ste. Marie
area, were charged in 1993 with unlawfully hunting moose and possessing game
contrary to sections 46 and 47(1) of the Ontario Game and Fish Act. The central
issue was whether these individuals from the Sault Ste. Marie area, who self-identify
as Métis, can establish Métis Aboriginal rights to hunt that are protected by section
35 of The Constitution Act, 1982. The Supreme Court of Canada held that the
impugned legislation was no force or effect with respect to the accused on the basis
that, as members of the Métis community in and around Sault Ste. Marie, the
accused have an Aboriginal right to hunt for food in the legislation infringed the
Métis Aboriginal right and conservation concerns did not justify the infringement.
The Court held that, to support a site-specific Aboriginal rights claim, the claimant
must demonstrate membership in an identified Métis community with some degree
of continuity and stability as established though evidence of shared customs,
traditions and collective identity, as well as demographic evidence. The test for
Métis rights should focus on identifying those practices, customs and traditions that
are integral to the Métis community’s distinctive existence and relationship to the
land after a particular Métis community arose but before it came under the effective
control of European laws and customs. The Court found that the term ‘Métis in
Section 35 does not encompass all individuals with mixed Indian and European
heritage; rather, it refers to distinctive peoples who, in addition to their mixed
42
ancestry, developed their own customs, and recognizable group identity separate
from their Indian or Inuit and European forebears. While not setting down a
comprehensive definition of who is Métis for the purpose of asserting a claim under
section 35, the Court cited three broad factors as indicia of Métis identity: Selfidentification, ancestral connection and community acceptance.
2004 - Haida Decision. In Haida Nation v British Columbia (Minister of Forests) ‘Haida’
the Supreme Court of Canada recognised that the duty of governments to consult
with, and to accommodate the interests of, Aboriginal peoples can arise before
claims of Aboriginal rights and title are determined. The Court identified that
observance of this duty is essential to upholding the ‘honour of the Crown’.
• Taku River Tlingit Decision. The dispute centred on the British Columbia
Government’s approval of a Project Approval Certificate for Redfern Resources Ltd.
Who sought to reopen a mine in British Columbia. The controversial aspect of the
project centred on their plan to build a 160 km access road to the mine site, which
would cut across land claimed by the Taku River Tlinglit First Nation as their
traditional territory and the subject of on-going treaty negotiations. The Supreme
Court of Canada, applying its analysis in Haida Nation released concurrently with
this decision, allowed the Province’s appeal and held that the process engaged in
by the Province under the Environment Assessment Act fulfilled the requirements
of the Crown’s duty to consult with First Nation and accommodate its concerns. At
issue was whether the Crown had a duty to consult prior to approving the reopening of a mine and the construction of an access road to the mine through
territory over which the First Nation claimed, but had not yet proven, Aboriginal
rights and title. In Haida, the Court confirmed the existence of the Crown’s duty to
consult Aboriginal peoples prior to proof of rights or title claims. The Court found
that the Crown’s duty to consult was engaged in this case because the Province
was aware of the First Nation’s claims through its involvement in the treaty
negotiations process and knew that the decision to reopen the mine and to build
the access road had the potential to adversely affect the substance of the rights an
title claims. The Court concluded that the Crown had fulfilled its duty to consult on
the basis that the First Nation was part of the project committee, participating fully
in the environmental review process; its views were put before the appropriate
Ministers and the final project approval contained measures designed to address
both immediate and long-term concerns of the First Nation. The Court also stated
that the The court also stated that the Province was not under a duty to reach
agreement with the First Nation and its failure to do so did not breach its duty of
good faith consultations.
•
Canada-Aboriginal Peoples Round Table is held in Ottawa to discuss future
directions in economic development, education, health, and well-being of First
Nations peoples and communities in Canada.
2005 - Mikisew Cree. The case came about because of a proposal to establish a winter
road through Wood Buffalo National Park for access from four communities in the
Northwest Territories to the highway system in Alberta. The Mikisew Cree First
Nation, a Treaty 8 signatory, challenged the approval of the road proposal by the
Minister responsible for Parks Canada on the grounds that the building of the road
would infringe on their hunting and trapping rights. Treaty 8 confirms the right to
43
hunt, trap and fish for members of First Nations that signed the treaty, but it also
provided that land ‘may be required or taken up from time to time for settlement,
mining, lumbering, trading and other purposes’. In its decision, the Supreme Court
confirmed that, while the Crown can exercise its Treaty 8 right to “take up” land, its
duty to act honourably dictates the content of the process. The question in each
case is to determine the degree to which conduct contemplated by the Crown would
adversely affect the rights of the Aboriginal peoples to hunt, fish and trap sp as to
trigger the duty to consult. In this case, the Supreme Court found that Parks Canada
had not consulted enough with the Mikisew Cree First Nation before making its
decision.
2008 - “The Apology” Government of Canada recognizes and apologizes to those who
experienced physical and sexual abuse at Indian Residential Schools and
acknowledged its role in the development and administration of residential schools.
The Government of Canada provided financial compensation to living students that
had attended Indian Residential Schools.
The Manitoba court decision upholding Metis hunting rights on the Goodon case
began in October 2004 when Will Goodon harvests a duck near Turtle Mountain in
southwestern Manitoba. He had not obtained a provincial license, but was
harvesting under the authority of a Manitoba Metis Federation (MMF) Harvesters
Card. He was charged by provincial wildlife officers for unlawful possession of
wildlife. The MMF defended Goodon based on the Metis right to harvest, which is
protected in Canada’s Constitution, as first confirmed by the Supreme Court of
Canada in the Powley case in Ontario, and subsequently confirmed by court
decisions in Alberta and Saskatchewan. In a written ruling released in early
January, Justice Combs of the Provincial Court of Manitoba dismissed the charge
against Goodon. The trial spanned more than a year and included testimony from
Metis community witnesses, experts and historians. He ruled that Goodon has a
constitutionally protected Metis right to hunt and that Manitoba’s Wildlife Act is of no
force and effect in its application to Goodon and other Metis harvesters because the
province’s regulatory regime unjustifiably infringes the Metis right to hunt and fails to
recognize or accommodate the Metis right. In dismissing the charge against
Goodon, Justice Combs ruled that “the Metis community of Western Canada has its
own distinctive identity’ and that within Manitoba there is a regional rights-bearing
Metis community that “includes all of the areas within the present boundaries of
southern Manitoba from the present day City of Winnipeg and extending south to
the United States and northwest to the province of Saskatchewan, including the
area of present day Russell, Manitoba. The court also acknowledged that this rightsbearing Metis community in historic and contemporary times extends well outside of
Manitoba.
To this day, the provisions of the Indian Act that allow for the administration of Indians on
Reserves in areas such as: education, taxation, management of land, and membership
remains under federal government control.
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The Métis
The ancestors of today’s Métis Nation were the children of the unions between North
American Aboriginal mothers and European fathers. They developed into a distinct people
with a group consciousness necessary to promote their collective cause.
A Métis was not a French-Canadian, Canadian, Scot, First Nations, or Inuit. They created
for themselves a “New Nation”. The Métis forged treaties and declared a Bill of Rights that
marked this identity as a “New Nation”.
Often known as founders of the fur-trade, the Métis of what was to become the Canadian
and American Northwest participated as trappers, guides, interpreters, factors, dock and
warehouse workers, voyageurs, coureurs de bois, canoe and York boat operators, couriers
of the first postal services and Red River cart teamsters. The Métis were essential in
commercializing both the fur trade with the invention of the York boat, and the buffalo hunt
with the invention of the Red River cart. They were also instrumental in making fishing a
year round commercial industry with their ingenious ‘jigger’; a device used to set nets
under the ice.
Before cattle were abundant enough to become a food staple, Métis hunted buffalo to
make pemmican. Wild berries and wild vegetables were gathered and sold along with the
pemmican, which was used to feed the outlying communities and trading posts.
THE MÉTIS INFINITY FLAG
The Métis Nation had many symbolic flags that evolved over time. One of the flags still
used by the Métis of today has a blue background with the infinity sign. This flag has great
meaning as it symbolizes the joining of cultures and the existence of a people forever. The
blue infinity flag is the Métis National Flag and depicted the political and military force of
the Métis as early as 1816.
THE MÉTIS SASH
The Métis developed many unique cultural and national characteristics, one of which was
the “Métis Sash”. To the Métis of the Red River Settlement, the sash was a colourful and
distinguishable part of their apparel. The original Sash was finger woven using an
arrowhead or lightning bolt design. The colours of the Sash each represent different
meanings. The blue and white represent the colours of the national flag. The red
represents the colour of the Métis hunting flag. The black was added to the new Sash and
represents the dark period after 1870 during which time the Métis were suppressed and
dispossessed of their land by Canada. The green and gold signifies fertility, growth and
prosperity for the Métis Nation. Green and gold also mean we must move forward and
reclaim our rightful place in Canadian history.
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Contributions Made by Métis People
We often do not notice that we are continually surrounded by the symbols of Métis culture
and heritage. Across the greater Métis Homeland there are many enduring emblematic
reminders of the Métis historical presence: the Montana buffalo skull logo, the buffalo on
Manitoba’s Coat of Arms and on the seal of the Manitoba Federation; the blue Métis infinity
flag; the fiddle and sash; the ubiquitous Red River Cart; and the numerous streets named
after Métis patriots in cities and towns from Kansas City to Winnipeg; Edmonton to
Yellowknife. The Michif language is still spoken in four states and five Canadian provinces.
Métis buffalo hunts were of colossal size. In 1865, Alexander Ross, a settler in Red River,
reported in detail on an expedition which left the Red River Settlement on June 15, 1840.
When the roll was called at Pembina 1, 630 people were present with 1, 210 Red River
carts. In 1854, Pére Belcourt reported that there were about 2,000 Métis living at Pembina.
When these people joined others from the Assiniboia District they would mount hunting
expeditions with as many as 5,000 Métis and Indians. These parties traveled an extensive
route, some as far as the Missouri River to just below Fort Mandan.
The Métis assisted new settlers in adapting to the harsh conditions of this country. In 1820,
Métis cattleman, Alexis Bailly, drove a herd of cattle from Prairiedu Cheien, in what is now
Minnesota to the Selkirk Settlement. Due to Alexis’ entrepreneurial venture, a freighting
road was opened between the two communities by 1823. A number of Métis families in the
Selkirk and Pembina districts began raising oxen to haul Red River carts. Later, it was
Métis cattlemen who would provision the influx of prospectors and miners during the gold
rush era in Canada and the United States.
Métis men worked as farmers, breeding horses and cattle, clearing land and planting crops
while Métis women taught newly arrived Euro-Canadian and European women to prepare
and preserve wild game and other foods which were needed to survive the harsh winters.
The York boat, based on an Orkney Islands influenced design, was invented by the Métis
for use on larger bodies of water. These large flat-bottomed boats were up to 13 meters
long, could hold up to six tons of cargo, and employed a crew of eight men. In addition to
their superior capacity, these boats required less maintenance. Both oars and a square
sail powered them.
The Métis were responsible for the development of the versatile Red River cart used to
transport goods over both land and water. Today, the Red River cart is one of the bestknown symbols of Métis culture. The cart, drawn by either an ox or a horse, was used to
transport meat, buffalo hides, pemmican, trade items and personal belongings to and from
the bison hunt and centers of trade in the United States. The cart could carry 300 to 400
kilograms of freight. It was made entirely of wood with two large rawhide covered wheels,
1.5 meters in diameter. The versatility of the cart was unmatched. When crossing water,
the wheels were removed and lashed to the bottom to form a raft without having to unload
any freight. In winter, the frame could be used as a sled pulled by a horse.
Before the establishment of a police force in the west, the Métis organized themselves in a
military style that proved useful in regulating the bison hunt and in the creation of border
patrols. In fact, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Musical Ride may have been inspired
by the Métis practice of exercising their horses to the music of the jig and square dance. In
the evenings, after buffalo hunts, the Métis exercised their horses to music in the fashion
46
of the square dance while the fiddler played quadrilles. Skilled horsemanship developed
with the buffalo hunt and was easily adapted for bronco busting, calf roping and range
riding. These skills were put to good use, as the Métis were instrumental in the growth and
prosperity of ranching in the West.
An unknown militia member attending Treaty Negotiations at Kipahikanihk in 1874 has
elegantly described Métis horsemanship:
“On the first day of the assembly, almost immediately after the dress being
sounded by Bugler Burns the whole camp came forward in martial array, led
by an enormously large man, riding a very fair specimen of the buffalo
hunters of that time, standing about sixteen hands high, dark brown, and
showing a strain of good blood, his rider attired in blue cloth capote and
brass buttons, cotton shirt (unstarched), moleskin trousers and new deerskin
moccasins with broad L’Assomtion belt or sash of variegated colours in silk
around his waist, Indian pad saddle with heavily beaded saddle cloth,
complimented the "tout en semble" of this would-be leader now riding well in
advance curvetting and ascribing circles and half-circles, at the canter or
lope, and now and then parading up and down the whole frontage until close
up to our Marqu tent.” (Provincial Archives of Manitoba, MG1, A7: 2)
The Métis were widely employed as interpreters, as they were valued for their language
skills and multilingual ability. The Métis developed their own unique language, which, like
their heritage, was a combination of both European and Indigenous cultures. This
language, called Michif, is a mixture of French and Plains Cree and today is still spoken by
many of the Métis. Similarly, the Métis created their own syncretic form of music by
combining Celtic folk-style with beats and cadences characteristic of Cree and Ojibwa
songs.
The Métis have militarily served Canada in many international conflicts with many being
decorated for their bravery. The first was with the battle of the Nile Expedition in 1884-85;
followed by the Boer War; the First and Second World Wars; and the Korean War. One
example, Henry Nor’ West was a lance-corporal with the 50th Canadian Infantry Battalion.
He was a sharpshooter who was officially credited with 115 fatal shots and was awarded
the Military Medal with double bar. Nor’ West was later killed by a sniper’s bullet himself.
Today, Métis people continue to serve with distinction in the Canadian Forces and the
Armed Forces Reserves.
Early in the development of the Northwest, many Métis participated in industry, trade and
commerce at all levels. Many became involved with mainstream politics in a variety of
capacities. The Métis have a long history of participation in the legal, medical and
education professions, since they were often formally educated through the
encouragement and influence of their European fathers and the clergy who served their
communities.
The Métis were instrumental in the entry of Manitoba into Confederation and prepared the
way for the Minnesota, Dakota and Montana territories to enter the American union.
Today, Métis are involved in all facets of Canadian and American society and continue to
contribute to the building of these nations. (Barkwell, Lawrence J., Leah Dorion and
Darren R. Prefontaine, 2000, pp. 1-2. Reprinted with permission from Pemmican
Publications.)
47
THE FLOWER BEADWORK PEOPLE
Early beadwork of the Métis incorporated designs from both European and
Indian cultures. Métis beadwork has often been classed as Indian, thus much
of what the Métis produced is buried under other names. Needle workers
used materials from both cultures: quills, beads and silk embroidery thread.
Geometric patterns and floral motifs were used to develop a unique style and
so distinctive was Métis floral embroidery that both the Sioux and the Cree
called them the “flower beadwork people”.
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Traditional Métis Healing Herbs & Medicines
Traditionally, the Métis lived a lifestyle that was in harmony with nature like their relatives
the First Nations. The healing quality of plants, their roots, bark, flowers, fruits, leaves, oils
and seeds, were known to the Métis as this knowledge was passed down through the
families, usually from mother to daughter. Healing teas, salves, poultices, liniments
preparations and foodstuffs were a natural part of daily living.
Red Willow Tea
Simmer the bark to make tea, cool to lukewarm and drink as a healer for general ailments.
Yarrow (flower)
Used as a tea, yarrow is good for clearing mucous discharge from the bladder. Will
produce perspiration by opening the pores. Reduces clotting time if used for internal
bleeding.
Sage (leaves)
Used as a tea. Helps to eliminate spasms of the gastrointestinal tract.
Nettle (leaves)
Used as a tea, nettle helps to expel gravel and stones from any organ where especially the
kidneys formed.
Echinacea (root)
If unavailable, buy liquid drops at the health store. Used as a cleanser and purifier. Heals
infections, fevers, lung infections, wounds.
Dandelion (root)
Used as a tea, dandelion acts as a tonic to the system. It is a good blood purifier and
builder.
Burdock (root)
Used as a tea, burdock is one of the best blood purifiers. Helps to reduce swelling and
deposits in the joints and arthritis.
Rosehips
Good source of vitamin c, do not eat the seeds. Used for infections, colds, sore throat and
cleansing of toxins from the body.
Cranberry Juice
Drink as a tea. Used to prevent and heal infections of the bladder.
Prunes and Prune Juice
Eat boiled or drink juice to heal ailments of the digestive tract and to encourage movement
of the bowels.
Onion Poultice
Slice onions, boil in milk, strain and put onions in a warm towel. Apply to chest to relieve
chest cold and bronchitis.
Spruce Gum
Can be chewed or put into heated water and inhaled to relieve a cold. A good healer for
cuts & sores, by chewing and applying directly to the wound.
Wild Ginger (root)
Used in cooking and also used to make a tea. Good for preventing ailments of the
stomach and intestines. Adding 3 or 4 tablespoons of dry ginger to bath water will help rid
the body of waste and toxins by opening the pores.
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The Métis Flag
The First flag ever used by the Métis was introduced in 1815. The Northwest Company
gave these flags to the Métis as special gifts. This flag was red and the design on it was a
figure eight that lay sideways. This design represents the symbol of infinity. The Métis
soon adopted the flag as their own symbol of identity, two cultures joined together forever.
The second flag of the Métis came along in December of 1869. The famous leader, Louis
Riel, designed it. This flag was white with gold insignia. This design was the French fleurde-lis. Riel’s government at Fort Garry, Manitoba in 1870 used this flag.
A third flag was also made of white cloth. It had a brown buffalo on it. A circle of green
Irish shamrocks and gold fleur-de-lis went around the buffalo. Gabriel Dumont and the
Métis buffalo hunters used this flag in the 1870s.
There were six or seven other flags that existed. Some represented Métis communities;
others belonged to particular Métis families or special groups. Of all the old flags, the main
one that has been brought back into use is the white ‘infinity’ symbol on a blue backdrop.
Source: Adapted from Métis National Council Website
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Red River Carts
One of the best-known symbols of Métis culture is the Red River cart, which was used for
carrying belongings, or meat and hides back from the annual buffalo hunts.
In appearance, the carts were similar to those used in the Scottish highlands and the
French areas of Quebec. Made completely from wood, with a light box frame on an axle
with two large wheels, the carts were fairly light, strong, and easy to repair. The wheels,
with six to eight spokes, were five to six feet high and wrapped tightly with rawhide to
prevent the wood from splitting. The screeching of this dry hubbed cart could be heard for
miles. Grease was not used because it picked up mud and tiny pebbles that clogged up
the hubs. When this happened the cart was forced to stop.
Although oxen usually pulled the carts, when speed was important, the Métis used horses.
The wheels on these versatile carts were cone-shaped out from the hub so that the wheels
would not sink too deeply when they traveled over soft ground with a full load. When the
Métis wanted to cross water they simply removed the wheels, which were kept in place
with a wooden peg, thus creating a raft to cross-rivers with ease without having to unload
the cargo.
Source: Adapted from Métis National Council Website
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4th Direction North:
A CONTEMPORARY
OVERVIEW
This module will provide participants with information about the
history, accomplishments and current challenges of Aboriginals. It
will also conclude with a brief demonstration of the Red River Jig, a
Métis cultural dance that has been passed on from generation to
generation.
52
Definitions of Terms
The following definitions are provided to clarify the somewhat confusing classification system related to
Canada’s Aboriginal peoples.
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Aboriginal: According to the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982, Aboriginal peoples
of Canada include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis Peoples of Canada. They are
descendants of the original inhabitants of North America. It is also used in the
context of the indigenous peoples of a particular country.
Indigenous peoples: The original people in any region of the planet. This allinclusive term is usually used in referring to Aboriginal people in an international
context.
First Nations: A term used by the Assembly of First Nations to refer to their
membership. In 1980, all the chiefs in Canada adopted a declaration to call their
member nations (the Cree, the Mohawk, the Blackfoot, the Dene, etc) First Nations,
because they did not like the terms Indian, Native, Tribe or Band, words commonly
used by federal, provincial or territorial governments. The term is also used to
reinforce that as the original inhabitants of the Americas and the First Peoples of
Canada; they were the “First Nations” of North America.
Native: This term is used synonymously for all the Aboriginal peoples in Canada
who are Indian or Inuit. In the general context, Native refers to the people living in
what became Canada before the arrival of Europeans.
Indian: A common misnomer applied to the original people throughout the
Americas. A Spanish term 'Una gente in Dios.' morphed into the derivative “Indian”
from “In Dios” (The term was used by Christopher Columbus when he arrived in the
New World. The Indian Act of Canada includes a definition of Indians.
Bill C-31 Indian: A person who has regained or gained status as a registered
Indian under the terms of the Indian Act after the passage of Bill C-31 in the
Canadian Parliament in 1985. Prior to Bill C-31, women who married men not
considered Indian under the Indian Act were taken off the Indian register and lost all
their rights as Indians. These women took their cause for reinstatement to the
United Nations and eventually to the Supreme Court of Canada. The court decided
against them by one vote but advised the Canadian government to correct and
change the discriminatory section of the Indian Act. Parliament acted and passed
Bill C-31 in 1985.
Registered/Status Indian: A person recorded as an Indian in the Indian register by
virtue of descent from registered Indians for the purposes of the Indian Act.
Non-Status Indian: A person of Indian ancestry who is not registered as an Indian.
This may be because they lost their status under the former provisions of the Indian
Act (e.g. enfranchised) or their ancestors were never registered.
Treaty Indian: A member of a band of Indians that signed a treaty with the
government of Canada on behalf of the British Crown. Treaties affirm inherent
rights. Approximately 50% of First Nations in Canada have treaty. In the Prairie
Provinces, the majority of First Nations are treaty.
Non-Treaty Indian: A person who is registered as an Indian under the Indian Act
but is not a member of a treaty band. (e.g. Dakota Nations of Canada).
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Aboriginal perspective: The worldview of the Aboriginal Cultures, as distinct from
the worldview of western civilization. This worldview presents human beings as coinhabitants of a world made by the Creator and striving to live in a respectful
relationship with nature, community, and one self. Although this worldview is shared
by all Aboriginals it is expressed according to each distinct culture.
Inuit: Inuit word meaning “the people.” The singular is Inuk. Refers to the Aboriginal
peoples who generally live north of the tree line in Canada, near Canada’s Arctic
coast (as well as to the Native peoples of Greenland). To say “Inuit people” is
redundant, and most prefer simply Inuit.
Eskimo: Cree term for the people of the far North, meaning “eaters of raw meat”
because of their custom of eating their food raw at the site of the kill. This word is
not widely accepted in Canada; however, it is still used in parts of the western
Arctic. The government and people of the United States continue to use the term
when referring to Aboriginal people in Alaska.
Inuvialuit: Inuit who live in the western Arctic (generally the Northwest Territories).
Métis: The term for a person who self-identifies as Métis, the offspring of a First
Nations mother and a European father, or is of historic Métis Nation ancestry, which
is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, and is accepted by the Métis Nation.
Métis Nation: Refers to the Aboriginal people descended from the Historic Métis
Nation, which now comprises all Métis Nation peoples and is one of the “Aboriginal
peoples of Canada” as defined in section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.
Métis off Settlement: Métis people who live off settlements have the same
constitutional rights as Métis who live on settlement. The only difference is that they
are not entitled to benefits that are specific to the settlements.
Métis on Settlement: Since 1989, the Métis peoples of Alberta who live on
settlements are protected by constitutional law through “letters of patent.” Métis
people who live on settlements have political and democratic forms of self
government and have signed agreements with the province for the long-term
management of natural resources (under the Settlements Act). Settlement lands are
protected by the Métis Settlements Accord. Alberta is the only province that has
passed legislation specifically for Métis people.
Historic Métis Nation: The Aboriginal people known as Métis (sometimes
derogatorily called half-breeds) who reside in the traditional Métis Nation’s
homeland, an area in west-central North America. (e.g. Batoche in Saskatchewan,
St. Laurent in Manitoba).
Culture: The customs, history values and languages that make up the heritage of a
person or people and contribute to the person’s or people’s identity.
Elder: Any person regarded or chosen by an Aboriginal nation to be a knowledge
keeper/teacher of its oral traditions, teachings, and ceremonies.
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Métis National Council
The Métis National Council (“MNC”) is the national representative of the Métis
Nation in Canada. The MNC was established in 1983, following recognition
of the Métis as a distinct people with Aboriginal rights in the Constitution Act
of 1982. The MNC has been recognized as the voice of the Métis Nation in
constitutional negotiations at the national level and acts as an advocate and
negotiator for the Métis people with the Government of Canada and at
national conferences. It also represents the interests of the Métis people at
the international level.
The central goals and aspirations of the Métis Nation are to represent and
promote the interests of the Métis Nation.
• Restore Métis lands and resources for future generations;
• Achieve the full recognition of the Métis nation and its jurisdiction within
the Canadian federal system;
• Seek cooperative and productive relations with other Canadian
governments and peoples based on mutual respect, sharing and
tolerance;
• Promote progress and prosperity among Métis people in all cultural,
social, economic and political fields;
• Achieve self-sufficiency for the Métis people and institutions of the Métis
Nation;
• Maintain and promote respect for the individual rights and freedoms of
the Métis people and the equal protection and advancement of female
and male Métis; and
• Maintain the independence and integrity of the Métis Nation to
safeguard its stability and resist any aggression upon its existence or
any of its people.
The MNC has a local, regional, provincial and national structure. The local
structures vary according to local needs and relationships to the provincial
structures. The main condition is that all Métis in the community must be
allowed to participate in local meetings, votes and elections. Regardless of
their level of activity, each Métis has a right to participate in the local
organizations.
Currently the MNC is composed of five provincial Métis organizations: Métis
Provincial Council of British Columbia, the Métis Nation of Alberta, the Métis
Nation of Saskatchewan, the Manitoba Métis Federation, and the Métis
Nation of Ontario.
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Recommendation
Health professionals should appreciate holistic definitions of health as defined by
Aboriginal peoples.
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (“RCAP”) found that the desire of Aboriginal
peoples to look at concepts of health holistically was a major theme among the concerns
voiced by Aboriginal peoples interviewed: “Aboriginal concepts of health and healing start
from the position that all the elements of life and living are interdependent. By extension,
well-being flows from balance and harmony among all elements of personal and collective
life”.
The concept of the circle or cycle is a fundamental theme common to many Aboriginal
cultures. Rather than reviewing an object individually, that object may be perceived as a
part of an interrelated, repeated sequence. This holistic worldview is inspired by nature.
The cycles represented may be the life cycles of humans, animals, plants, the seasons, or
qualities of being (physical, mental, emotional and spiritual); and can be interrelated or
overlaid, forming a rich conceptual framework through which to interpret the world. As in
nature, each part of the cycle needs to be balanced with the other parts; otherwise
problems such as illness or famine may occur. Author “Dancing with a Ghost” describes
his interpretation of how the cycle of nature inspired and reinforced Aboriginal culture and
ethics:
“The sense of security that came from seeing life as a revolving affair was
constantly reinforced by a multitude of things. The seasons followed one another in
regular succession. So did every other aspect of the natural world, from ripening
berries to spawning fish to mating caribou. Every part of creation repeated itself
from year to year, returning in forms, numbers and conditions that were already
familiar for the Wheel of Life to continue revolving, it was necessary to interfere as
little as possible. Any item harvested whether a bird, plant, animal or fish, was
taken with regret and with respectful thanks, given in obligatory ceremony. Anyone
who took more than was necessary put everyone else in peril when the wheel
turned and the family came to that place again.”
Another description pertains to Inuit concepts of health and healing:
“The Inuit vision of the body offers a holistic vision of the individual and his or her
unity with his/her surrounding, a part of a whole that draws its meaning from the
relationships that the human being entertains with whatever is living and whatever
surrounds him/her…It is a model that is characterized by its continuity with the
environment, as opposed to the scientific model, which has been characterized as a
model of discontinuity…”.
The Medicine Wheel is a circular paradigm, which can be used as a framework for
understanding. Used historically as a teaching tool by Aboriginal peoples in the
Algonquian language group, the Medicine Wheel continues to be widely applied by many
First Nations and Métis peoples.
The teachings of the Medicine Wheel gave guidelines regarding how to strive for balance
physically, mentally, spiritually, socially, and emotionally. This was achieved by using the
symbols of the four colours and the positive qualities of animals, birds, or plants located in
the four directions.
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A Perspective on Interlake First Nations as experienced by the Author:
Robert Maytwayashing
This perspective is the express opinion of the Author, and in no way reflects the
attitudes of the Interlake - Eastern Regional Health Authority.
First Nations Structure:
Elections/Governance; All First Nations leadership is mandated over a two year period as
directed by the Indian Act of Canada. All members of a particular band whether on or off
reserve, have the right to vote. If you can’t make it to the polling station then mail in ballots
are available. The onus is on the candidates to contact their constituents. If you want to
run for Chief, you don’t have to belong to that “Band of Indians” you don’t even have to be
First Nations. You could be Chinese living in Africa to run for Chief. However, if you want
to run for council, you have to be a member and residing on the reserve of the band
holding the elections.
This two year mandate under the Indian Act has proven to be problematic, as it’s not
enough time to plan long term. This, plus the fact that fiscal year end (April 1 to March 31)
rarely coincides with a community election so at best; you only have one full fiscal budget
from which to work and plan. The only deviation from this system would be those bands
that have developed a Custom Band Election Code. In this instance, the community would
determine the terms of office.
All First Nations are governed by a Chief and Council. It is this group of individuals that
“maintain” the community. They negotiate and sign any agreements/contracts with
Government or Business on behalf of the community. They also ensure the delivery of the
contents of these agreements. The authorities of Chief and Council can be revoked by the
Department of Indian and Northern Development (Indian Affairs) if a community finds itself
in accumulated debt that surpasses 25% in any given year. When this happens, Indian
affairs appoint Third Party Managers (TPM) for an unspecified period of time, up until the
debt is retired. Trouble is, they charge an arm and a leg for this service and it comes out of
the existing resources. They also ensure that they are paid before anyone else. Their main
focus is on debt retirement with service delivery of essential programs coming in last.
This tends to perpetuate the abject poverty that exists within First Nations’ communities.
TPM could be in place with instances of up to 10 years.
The Chief and Council are responsible to ensure that their staff, complete in a timely
manner, a minimum of 168 financial and the closer to 400 reports per year, to account for
the dollars attached to these agreements. They have hiring and firing authority of all the
programs within the community. Unless, they delegate this authority to the
manager/director and /or board of any particular program such as; Health, Education,
Housing, etc. (This authority could be vetoed by the Chief or a quorum of Council).
The Chief and Council are recognized as the Governing body of the community but in most
instances get caught up in administrative duties. The two year term that most councils
operate from, creates all kinds of pressure on leadership.
The reality is this; if you want to plan for long term and strive for what is best for the
community, you have to utilize your available resources in a way that will support the long
term plan. As First Nations go, the amount that they receive to maintain and service the
community falls disastrously short of the actual need within that community.
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So leadership is always faced with; do I stick to the plan and allocate the minimal
resources we have to it, and risk losing the support of the community because the daily
needs of the community are not being met? Or do I give in to the daily community
requests for housing repairs, medical travel, emergency assistance, funeral support, post
secondary education, and the list goes on. Most times, at the cost of any viable economic
progress. Leaders are pressured constantly, in most instances, by their own relatives.
When leaders succumb to these pressures, it often times, is viewed as nepotism and
corruption. As a leader, if you meet the needs of the people, then the Government comes
down on you. If you meet the needs of Government, then the people come done on you.
You can’t win.
Theoretically, in a true democracy, the people give direction to the councilors and the
councilors give direction to the Chief. In the current system, Indian and Northern Affairs
Canada, 9 out of 10 times, will recognize the Chief as the official representative of the
community, and look at Council as secondary.
This can often makes Councilors or band members feel powerless and marginalized if they
end up with a rogue leader.
Ever hear the saying, Power Corrupts, Absolute Power Corrupts Absolutely?
As a leader you have to really be balanced to handle the constant pressures, if you are
truly there to better your community.
The main point I’m making here is the imposed system that is currently utilized in many
First Nations’ communities is flawed, thereby restricting the potential of any real progress.
It is set up for failure. The Indian industry is a multibillion dollar industry. What would
happen to the Canadian economy if Indians became progressive and successful? How
many government employees would this put out of work?
It is my belief that education and relationship building will someday turn things around. By
my doing what I’m doing, right here right now. I’m educating you and others to First
Nations, if not Canadian realities. I always tell people, it’s taken how many years to screw
up First Nations? It will take just as many if not more to turn things around. It is slowly
starting to change. The more people that, become aware of the realities, the faster the
change.
Family:
Decisions in the home:
It’s no different than any other Canadian family. You make the best decision that you can
on any issue, with whatever resources are at your disposal. When in doubt, many will
consult an older more experienced perspective (Elder). Overall, the family structure is on
the mend from the whole colonization experience which included residential school.
Although this healing process is slow and oftentimes painful, the healing is well underway,
individual by individual.
It has been my observation/experience that those people that rediscover their roots,
history, and culture are having the greatest success becoming balanced.
Family and Household maintenance: Traditionally, the man was responsible for anything
that took place outside the home and the women were responsible for anything that took
place inside the home. Today, because of evolution, things have changed so a lot of these
responsibilities are now shared both inside and outside the home.
Like any other Canadian family, First Nations are faced with certain challenges, whether
they be social, economic, or health issues that affect the stability of the family unit.
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Cultural practices:
Language: In the Interlake you have seventeen First Nations that fall within three of the
five linguistic groups found in Manitoba. You have Fisher River (Cree), Pequis (Oji-Cree),
with the remaining fifteen communities identifying as Ojibway or Anishinabae. Although
traditional language is still quite strong in most communities, it is endangered. Pequis and
Fisher River are two examples of this. You would be hard pressed to find any Elders that
you could deem “Fluent” in any one of these two communities. For the other communities
that still speak Ojibway (Anishinabaemowin) the majority of fluent speakers are aged 40
and up. The younger generation is either not being taught, or using it.
Beliefs: Most communities are strong in traditional cultural knowledge. There are however,
some Communities that are slightly different in their beliefs. These communities have a
strong Pentecostal Christian persuasion. This has caused some conflict in the past, more
from the side of the Christians calling (ironically) traditional ways and practices, the devils
work.
This has to be mentioned because any professional or service provider entering or working
in these communities needs to be aware of this sensitivity, and that not all First Nations
identify with their traditional ways.
I have been approached by youth from these “Pentecostal” Christian Indian communities
that say they want to learn about their Anishinabe (Ojibway) history, culture, and ways but
are in fear of being ostracized by their communities.
My advice to them has always been, Go with your heart and don’t ever let anyone
convince you that learning the history and ways of your ancestors is wrong. The ways of
your ancestors is what has enabled you to be here today.
As the rest of the communities go, there are a multitude of beliefs, Catholic, Protestant,
Anglican, Traditional, other, or none at all.
Health:
Health in general is viewed as holistic. The Spiritual, Emotional, Physical, and Mental
aspects of the human being must be kept in balance. If one of these is out of balance it
affects the other areas of that person’s wellbeing. Health care in today’s terms is viewed as
an extension of what is available to First Nations from a traditional standpoint. Treaty
Indians in particular view access to today’s Health Care System as a right affirmed by
Treaty. This view is not shared by the Government of Canada. They see Health Care for
First Nations as a matter of Policy. Often times First Nations that want to access certain
health services offered by the province are told that they are a federal responsibility and
that they should approach Indian Affairs or First Nations and Inuit Health, for help. The
other side of the coin; Often times First Nations will approach the federal authorities only to
be told “we (the federal government) have given resources to the province on your behalf,
go see them”. This has caused many contentious issues with First Nations who get caught
in the middle of these jurisdictional squabbles between the Federal and Provincial
Government departments.
Canadians receive health care based on need. First Nations receive health care based on
cost.
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Medicine Man/Women: Traditionally, before the arrival of the newcomers from across the
great waters. The indigenous people from this region and beyond had their own systems,
education, housing, governance, health, and trade treaties that kept the communities
intact. It was recognized that certain individuals had certain talents or gifts that better
equipped them for specific roles. They were viewed as leaders (Chiefs), that the people
would turn too when their expertise was required. An example of this is people that were
gifted with knowledge of medicinal herbs, plants, remedies, and ceremonies. You had
people that were gifted in the hunt. People that were good orators, negotiators, canoe
builders, and the list goes on. This knowledge came in many different forms. It could be
passed down from one individual to another in the form of an apprenticeship. Children
would be recognized as having natural talents in a particular area, and these talents would
be nurtured. A person could receive a vision showing them different ceremonies,
medicines, etc. There are also stories of individuals receiving dreams of a medicine for a
particular patient that has cured that patient. It must be noted however, that this medicine
did not work for others seeking a cure from the same sickness. That medicine, for
whatever reason was specific to that one patient.
The learning of these medicines was and is a lifelong process. It is more of a calling than a
choice.
Ironically, at this particular point in time, one of the most knowledgeable keepers of these
types of medicines I know of, lives in one of the Interlake communities that frown upon this
type of activity.
Cultural idiosyncrasies:
• Generally a lot of First Nations avoid direct eye contact. Direct eye contact can be
construed as a challenge of sorts.
•
The word “Please” does not exist in any First Nations language. The word
please, if you really think about it is a form of begging. It is a word added to a
request trying to ensure compliance. Traditionally, people knew that if they asked
for something and their request was not honoured, that was the end of it. To beg for
your request to be accommodated simply did not happen. It was unbecoming
behaviour, and affected ones honour.
•
There is no word for goodbye. There are only words or phrases that state; I will
see you again or, we will meet again. The premise of this phrase also extended into
the spirit world. If for whatever reason this “re-meeting” didn’t take place in this
world, it was generally understood that it would take place in the next. No matter
what, you would always meet again.
•
Indian Time is a paradigm where First Nations did/do things when they need to
get done.
Life does not revolve around a 24 hour clock. You eat when you are hungry, not
when the clock says its 12 noon. You sleep when you are tired you wake when you
are rested. You hunt, fish, and trap when the need arises, always from a
conservative perspective. There is also an innate belief that your purpose in life is
guided by spiritual forces. If you are meant to do something you will be guided in
that direction. This belief can also translate into workplace performance.
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•
Family is priority with First Nations, there is very little separation between
immediate and extended family members. Cultural adoptive practices are also
common. A close friend could be adopted into the family and given the same
recognition and privilege as a blood relative. The term “it takes a community to raise
a child” recognizes that everybody within the community has a say as to how a child
will be raised. An example of this, are the words Aunt and Uncle. In the Ojibway
language they loosely translate as Little Mother or Little Father. Extensions of the
child’s parents, with equal responsibilities to the child’s upbringing.
•
Handshaking traditionally was done as a way of acknowledging the other persons
existence through the medium of human touch. The act was more about human
contact than that of character, and was expressed differently. It was actually the
holding of each other’s forearms as opposed to the holding and shaking of hands. In
today’s society more so within the male realm, a person’s character is judged by
their hand shake (especially in the business world). The firmer the handshake the
more respect you garner. If you present a weak handshake you are viewed with
questionable character. It’s all about appearances of stature. Many First Nations
men still express their handshakes as a mere expression of human contact. In
today’s society this often times leads to a misjudgment of character, where the First
Nations man could be viewed as weak, incompetent, or scared.
•
Teasing in First Nations culture is a social norm and is still prevalent amongst First
Nations. Often times a First Nations person will start teasing you soon after they
meet you, even though they really don’t know you. This is a First Nations way of
showing endearment.
This has at times, lead to misunderstandings between First Nations and Non First Nations
interactions. This often times is met with resistance from Non First Nations individuals as
an invasion of privacy or, to personal for comfort.
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FOUR COMMON MYTHS & FACTS ABOUT
FIRST NATIONS/ABORIGINAL PEOPLE
MYTH:
First Nations people cannot interface with, or adapt to, life in the mainstream.
FACT:
First Nation’s people have extensive and effective relationships with the rest
of Canadian society:
• First Nations people attend and graduate from a wide range of colleges
and universities;
• First Nations people work in all parts of the economy – many in large
mainstream industries like mining, forestry, banking and construction;
• First Nation’s businesses form joint ventures (and other business
arrangements) with non-Aboriginal businesses.
MYTH:
First Nation’s people do not have good work ethics – they have high rates of
absenteeism and turn over.
FACT:
First Nation’s people are skilled, productive reliable employees who are
valued by their employers:
• First Nations people participate extensively in work oriented education
and training programs;
• First Nations people work in all parts of the economy and in many
different occupations;
• First Nations people are valued as stable and reliable employees, who
contribute in many ways to corporate performance;
• Flexible work arrangements may be established to allow First Nations
people to pursue their traditional ways, the timing of which differs from
statutory holidays.
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MYTH:
There are no qualified First Nations people to hire
Fact:
First Nation’s people have education, skills and expertise required for jobs in
all economic sectors:
• IN 1991, over 150,000 First Nation’s people had post secondary
education, up from 800 in 1969. This number continues to increase
rapidly.
• First Nation’s people work in many occupations. They are obtaining
qualifications and experience in business, administration, management,
social sciences, education, natural and applied sciences, and health.
• Many services are available to help employers find qualified First
Nations employees.
Myth:
Hiring First Nations’ people is a form of reverse discrimination.
Fact:
Hiring First Nation’s people is a part of a strategy to develop a representative
workforce:
• A representative workforce strategy means that all groups are
represented, those who are part of the majority population as well as
those who are in the minority’s – reflecting the makeup of the country or
population surrounding work areas.
• Measures to increase Aboriginal workforce participation are not
designed to favor any one group over another. They are designed to
increase access to employment vacancies and promote equitable
opportunity for all groups.
• Provisions of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (as well as
provincial and territorial statutes) permit employers to take special
measures to achieve the equitable representation of Aboriginal people
and other groups in the workforce.
• With the majority of the Canadian workforce (Baby Boomers) fast
approaching retirement age, the resulting workplace void will need to be
filled. The Aboriginal segment of Canadian society is the youngest and
fastest growing population. By the year 2020, In Manitoba, one out of
every four people entering the workforce will be Aboriginal. It only
makes sense to tap into this resource as one strategy to fill this fast
approaching chasm that will impact us all.
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Sources:
Brandon Regional Health Authority, Cultural Training Manual, 2004.
SAHO, Saskatchewan Association of Health Organizations, Representative
Workforce Reference Guide, 2004.
Winnipeg Regional Health Authority, Aboriginal Cultural Awareness Training
Manual, 2004.
Manitoba Public Insurance, Cultural Manual, 2003.
Burntwood Regional Health Authority, Northern Cultures: A Refresher Participants
Manual.
Métis National Council Website, www.metisnation.ca
Métis Resource Centre Website, www.metisresourcecentre.mb.ca
The Sacred Tree: reflections on Native American Spirituality. Produced
collaboratively by Judie Bopp, Lee Brown and Phil Lane. Lethbridge, Alberta,
Canada: Four Worlds Development Press, 1984.
A Guide for Health Professionals in working with Aboriginal People:
Towards Enhanced Cross-Cultural Understanding, p. 81-82.
Training for the cross-cultural mind, SIETAR International, Washington D.C., Casse,
Pierre, 1984
Search Institute Website, Minneapolis, www.search-institute.org.
Spirit Seekers: Ceremonies, Land of our Fathers Aboriginal Culture Instruction
Group, Sept. 1992.
Group of Elders, Lethbridge, Alberta who came to consensus: Four Worlds
Development Project, First Nations People: Becoming Healthy Leaders.
North Western Canadian Conference on Family Violence, May 12th, 1996
Judge Murray Sinclair, Plenary Address, DVD.
Edmonton Economic Development Corporation, Strategies and Tools for Employing
Aboriginal People: Best Practices Toolkit 2006
First Nations Historical Timeline, By White Spotted Horse (2009)
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