Pathways to Excellence in Language & Literacy:
A Multiple Top-10 Approach
CONTENT
Developing Word Knowledge in School-Age Children (Part 3)
FORM
Handout No. 3
USE
Presented for: NMSHA
October 2016
Wayne A. Secord
The Ohio State University
Elisabeth H. Wiig
Knowledge Research Institute
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SLOBIN’S PERCEPTUAL OPERATING PRINCIPLES
A.  Children pay attention to the ends of words and the ends of sentences.
- 
Suffices over prefixes
- 
Ends of Sentences
- 
Given/New Again
WHY?
1. 
Remember the last things they hear
2. 
Remember the meaningful things
3. 
Remember the things in the order presented
4. 
Establish semantic expectations, follow through on them, avoid interruptions
to their thought patterns
WORD
MEANING
SENTENCE
MEANING
SUMMARY
Children Pay Attention to:
1. 
The Last Things Heard, 2 Word Order, and they
2. 
Avoid Interruptions to their thought patterns
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SURFACE STRUCTURE
Language Content
Speech System
SENTENCE MEANING
1.  The Proposition (Basic Unit of Meaning)
2.  Verbs are the Driving Force
Select
Syntactic
Forms
Select Words
Combine Propositions
3.  Conjunctions (their importance)
Propositions
4.  Transition Words
Proceeds Out of Linguistic Competence
5.  Relative Pronouns
LANGUAGE
6.  The Given - New Principle
THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
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Word Meaning - Word Relations
Language Content
Cognition
Language
Word Knowledge
Word
Referent
Reality
1.  Referential Meaning
Meaning - Knowing -Thinking
2.  Relational Meaning
1. 
We create the meaning of Words
2. 
3.  Figurative Meaning
We utilize our cognitive abilities to allow us to “know” what the word
stands for (its referent)
3. 
We must then be able to interpret, integrate, conceptualize, and
organize information from our world, including memory to decide
what a word means and how it relates to other words.
4. A word does not have a constant relationship to its meaning. It can be
changing and even reshaped.
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Traditional -Historical Views < > Semantic (Component) Features)
Man
Adult
+
Woman
+
Boy
-
* Expressive
* Low-Level Word Definitions
+
-
+
-
Human
+
+
+
+
Man
Woman
* Receptive
- Male
Adult
Word Knowledge (Areas Assessed)
1.  Referential Meaning
Girl
Boy
Girl
( Parent)
- Expressive
- Receptive
2.  Relational Meaning
Parent
+
+
+
-
-
Father
+
+
-
-
-
+
Mother
+
-
+
-
-
+
* Antonyms
* Hyponyms
* Synonyms
3.  Figurative Meaning
* Defining Words (Expressive)
* Metaphoric Expressions
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* Jokes, Riddles, Idioms, etc.
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Low-Level Word Definitions
1.  Referential Meaning
* Receptive
* Expressive
* Low-Level Word Definitions
- Expressive
- Receptive
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2
Relational Word Knowledge (An Overview)
2. Relational Meaning
1.  Antonyms (Lexical Opposites) * Antonyms
* Directional
* Hyponyms
* Gradable & Ungradable Contrasts * Synonyms
* Morphological * Converseness
2.  Hyponyms I (Super-ordinate – Subordinate)
3. Figurative Meaning
3. Hyponyms II (Part – Whole)
* Defining Words (Expressive)
4. Collectives (Cow-Herd)
* Metaphoric Expressions
5. Synonyms
6. Semantic Sets (Serial - Cyclical)
* Jokes, Riddles, Idioms, etc.
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Relational Word Knowledge (A Closer Look)
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Relational Word Knowledge (A Closer Look)
2. Hyponymy 1 (relation based on class inclusion)
1.  Lexical Opposites (Antonyms)
Super-Ordinate - Subordinate - “Animal/Cow”
Very Important - Foundation of hierarchical structure
- Ungradable Contrasts - “Male-Female”
- Gradable Contrasts - “Hot-Cold”
3. Hyponymy 2 (Part-Whole Relations (P/W)
- Converseness - opposites with two place predicates,
Husband/Wife; buy/sell; give/receive
- Morphologically related: “Unhappy/Happy”
Note: Hyponymy is P/W but P/W is the relationship
between the entity and its parts.
- Morphologically unrelated: “Happy/Sad”
“finger/arm”
- Directional Opposites - “Front-Back”
“handle/door”
“wheel/bicycle”
- Antipodal - “Up/Down” “Come/Go”
- Orthogonal - Front/Side” “North/West” 16
Relational Word Knowledge (A Closer Look)
Relational Word Knowledge (A Closer Look)
4.  Collectives (Another P/W)
Semantic Sets (2 Types Continued)
• Relation denoting a collection such as “sheep/herd”
and “bird/flock”
(2) Cyclically Ordered
5.  Synonymy
• Relationship that exists when more than one word or
expression can express a given meaning.
Each word is ordered between 2 others as in the
days of the weeks, months of the year
6.  Semantic Sets
• Word Groups with more than 2 members – 2 Types:: (1) Serially Ordered, e.g.
Always -Usually - Sometimes - Seldom- Never
“Always” and “Never” Define Limits
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3
Relational Meaning
Relational Meaning
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Relational Meaning
RELATING
WORDS
ACTIVITIES
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DEMONSTRATION TASK
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DEMONSTRATION TASK
First Grouping
GLOVE
FOOT
SOCK
GLOVE
FINGER
SHOE
HAND
FINGER
HAND
Second Grouping
FOOT
SHOE
SHOE
SOCK
FOOT
HAND
GLOVE
FINGER
SOCK
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4
CARD
LAYOUT
Egg
Stamp
Lake
Book
Trumpet
Piano
Car
Wheel
Key
Bee
Seed
Newspaper
Tree
Boat
Plane
River
Envelope
FORM
A
Bush
Box
Leaf
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FORM
A
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FORM
A
27
Relating Words Scoring - Form A
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Elisabeth H. Wiig, Ph.D - Wayne A. Secord, Ph.D.
FORM
B
© 2011 by Red Rock Publications & Schema Press, used by permission
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Relating Words Scoring - Form B
Elisabeth H. Wiig, Ph.D - Wayne A. Secord,
Ph.D.
FORM
C
© 2011 by Red Rock Publications & Schema Press, used by permission
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Relating Words Scoring - Form C Elisabeth H. Wiig, Ph.D - Wayne A. Secord, Ph.D.
© 2011 by Red Rock Publications & Schema Press, used by permission
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Possible
Expressive
Format
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Wheel
Possible
Expressive
Format
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Possible
Expressive
Format
Angered
Car
Plane
Key
Displeased
Annoyed
Seed
Discuss
Egg
Bee
Box
Debate
Argue
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Word & Picture Differences
Egg
Stamp
Lake
Book
Trumpet
Piano
Car
Wheel
Key
Bee
Seed
Newspaper
Tree
Boat
Plane
River
Envelope
Bush
Box
Leaf
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Shared Semantic Relations Summary
2. Relational Meaning
* Antonyms
* Hyponyms
* Synonyms
3. Figurative Meaning
* Defining Words (Expressive)
* Metaphoric Expressions
* Jokes, Riddles, Idioms, etc.
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Figurative Language: Structure, Uses. Definitions
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Figurative Meaning: Structure, Uses & Definitions
Proverb
Figurative Language
The use of words or expressions that contain multiple meanings,
multiple contexts or both.
A figurative expression in which the meaning is based on relationship
and in which there is no concrete linkage between the literal and
figurative meanings of words and phrases.
Idiom
The assigning of a new meaning to a group of words that already have
their own meaning.
Metaphor (Kid’s Definition)
A word or phrase that is used to make a comparison between two
people, things, animals, or places
Joke
A communication containing two or more meanings that are
‘condensed’ into one expression or situation.
Sarcasm
A communication in which the meaning of the verbal expression is
incongruent with the situation it refers to.
Metaphor (Webster’s Definition)
A word or phrase for one thing used to to refer to thing for similarity
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USES OF METAPHORIC EXPRESSIONS
USES OF METAPHORIC EXPRESSIONS
• They evoke, appeal to, and play on universal, shared,
or common images (visual, auditory, tactile, motor,
cross- modal).
•  They give clarity to information by making abstract
relationships concrete.
•  They lend economy to the repertory of linguistic forms
through their multiple uses.
•  They give flexibility and variety to verbal expression.
•  They can serve as aids to memory by encoding information
or experiences into images.
•  They lend expression and creativity to thoughts.
•  They allow us to refer indirectly to topics that are taboo or
traumatic.
•  They can summarize complex events in shorthand
•  expressions.
•  They allow us to share our inner world and the
psychodynamics of our reality with others in a culturally
and
socially acceptable form.
•  They let us see one thing as if it were another and
•  allow us to use knowledge from one area to solve
problems in another area
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DEVELOPMENT OF METAPHORIC ABILITY
COMMON SETTINGS FOR
METAPHORIC EXPRESSIONS
AGES 4 TO 7
Names of body parts transferred metaphorically to objects by
analogy rudimentary interpretations, which rely on
preoperational abilities.
•  Literature: Poems, plays, novels, short stories, folklore.
•  Advertisements and Commercials: Materials presented in
newspapers, journals, magazines, trade journals, and on
television.
AGES 8 TO 10
Strongest aspect of meaning is relied on for interpreting
concepts in metaphors. Few interpretations of proverbs are
attempted before age 10.
•  Jokes and Comics: Materials presented in verbal or nonverbal, pictorial, or combined verbal and non-verbal forms in
daily newspapers or magazines.
AGES 11 TO 13
•  Curriculum Materials: Materials presented in early readers, in
class presentations, and test questions.
Metaphors are interpreted with reliance on formal operational
cognitive mechanisms. Proverbs are interpreted consistently at
ages 11 to 12.
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STRUCTURE OF METAPHORS
STRUCTURE OF METAPHORS
Orientational Metaphors
Orientational Opposites UP - DOWN
Metaphorical Category
Structural Metaphors
Metaphorical Concepts
• Happy is UP - Sad is DOWN
• Health is UP - Illness is DOWN
• Power is UP - Powerless is DOWN
• Virtue is UP - Depravity is DOWN
“She is in high spirits”
“Her health is declining”
“She feels down today”
“She is top dog”
TIME IS MONEY
Subcategories
“She is in top shape”
“She stooped to a new low”
Entity/Whole
Person(s) Object(s)
“I need a strong arm”
“He’s a real brain in math”
Limited Resource - Valuable Commodity
“We must budget our time”
“Please lend me a moment”
“We live on borrowed time”
Part-Whole Metonymy (Synecdoche)
“I see a lot of new faces”
“He’s a pain in the neck”
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Reference/Parts
“We wasted time”
“Time was well spent”
“Our efforts paid dividends”
“We need new blood”
“Do you have any green?”
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SOURCES OF METAPHORIC EXPRESSIONS
STRUCTURE OF METAPHORS
The Human Condition
Ontological Metaphors
Entity/Category
Ad for a motel: Your children are priceless.
Ad for cooking oil: Does your chicken make a bad impression?
CONTAINER
School - Curriculum
Metaphorical Concepts
Ad for beer: The spirit of the empire.
Ad for dishwasher detergent: Nobody promotes better relations with china.
Activities as Containers States as Containers
“She is immersed in reading”
“He puts energy into his garden”
“They jumped into the game”
Business - Vocation - Profession
“We are out of trouble”
“He fell into depression”
“They came out of the shell”
Ad for diamonds: Take stock in your favorite company. Show her how high
your interest rates
Responses to Current Contexts
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Teen to parent: My life is a yoyo right now.
Teen to friend: Jim is just a floppy disk.
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FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Strategic Questions
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (Meaning)
Teaching Figurative Language Strategies
STRATEGIC QUESTIONS
Recognizing Underlying Structure
Recognizing Metaphors
1.  Does the expression tell about something that could not
possibly be true, seems stupid, or is highly unlikely?
4. Is there a word that refers to direction in space?
“ He is top brass.” “ That was very underhanded.”
“ He’s on top of the world right now.”
5.  Is there a word or phrase that compares two different
entities or events?
“ She burns the candle at both ends.”
2.  Does the expression tell about something different from
the topic you or they are talking about?
“ She grinds out solutions.”
“ With our troubles, time to return to the menu .”
About shopping: “It sure got me in the dog house”
6. Is there a word for a body part or part of an object or entity?
About a lecture: “I was up the creek without a paddle.”
“ We gave him the cold shoulder.”
“ You’d better get it in gear.”
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STAGES OF CHILDREN’S METALINGUISTIC ABILITY
Stage Two Continued (Age 2 to 5 ½ or 6)
STAGES OF CHILDREN’S METALINGUISTIC ABILITY
Stage Three (Ages 6 to 10)
STAGES OF CHILDREN’S METALINGUISTIC ABILITY
Stage Three Continued (Ages 6 to 10)
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RWQT PILOT STUDY - Summary
Subjects –178 3rd and 4th grade students from regular/inclusive classes in a
suburban Mid-Western school system. There were 86 3rd graders and 92 were 4th
graders. All students completed the RWQT Form A, a district administered
Language Arts Test and the DIBELS.
Scoring – Each response form was scored by assigning a weighted score between
0 and 5, derived from the normative response matrix. A subject could earn a
perfect score of 100.
Statistical Analyses – Analyses included: (1) Descriptive statistics and frequency
distributions for Grades 3 and 4, (2) ANOVA testing differences in grade and sex,
and (3) Pearson r for relationships between the total RWQT scores and (a)
teacher ratings of students’ reading abilities, (b) percent correct on the standard
Language Arts test, and (c) scores on the DIBELS assessment
Results - The ANOVA indicated that the RW-A score means were significantly
lower for 3rd Graders than for 4th Grade students, a desirable outcome.
The correlation between the district Language Arts test scores and the RWQT
percentage correct was r = 0.71 (p < .01), accounting for nearly 50% of the
variance between the LA and RWQT.
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“He sounds just perfect! Frankly, I’ve never known a metacognitive person I didn’t62like.”
TOP-10 Word Knowledge Concepts & Ideas
MYERS-BRIGGS PERSONALITY-TYPES
(10) The Content, Form & Use Game
Why Does Semantics Always Win?
http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbtibasics/
(9) Language Formulation Process
How Does Meaning Drive the Process?
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp
(8) Types of Word Meaning
Compare and Contrast the Types? (7) Referential Meaning
Receptive & Expressive + Word Definitions (6) Relational Meaning
A Wide Array of Interconnections!
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TOP-10 Word Knowledge Concepts Continued
(5) Relating Word Activities
Printed Words and Pictures
(4) Relating Words Research
Utility, Applications, and Potential
(3) Figurative Meaning
Structure, Use, and Components
(2) Metaphorical Expressions
Types, Development and Applications
And The Number 1 Answer for Word Knowledge is:
(1) The Metalinguistic Bridge
Getting There, Paying the Toll and Beyond
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