DIFFERENCES IN INTRA-FAMILY
RELATIONSHIPS, PEER PRESSURE AND
SELF-ESTEEM BETWEEN
YOUNG AND ADULT HARDCORE DRUG ADDICTS
BY
NOOR HASSLINE BINTI MOHAMED
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
MALAYSIA
2008
DIFFERENCES IN INTRA-FAMILY
RELATIONSHIPS, PEER PRESSURE AND
SELF-ESTEEM BETWEEN
YOUNG AND ADULT HARDCORE DRUG ADDICTS
BY
NOOR HASSLINE BINTI MOHAMED
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Human
Sciences (Psychology)
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
JANUARY 2008
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to identify the differences in psychosocial factors (intrafamily relationships, peer pressure and self-esteem) between young and adult hardcore
drug addicts. The hypotheses developed for the study were (i) young hardcore drug
addicts would report higher level of poor intra-family relationship compared to adult
hardcore drug addicts, (ii) young hardcore drug addicts would report higher peer
pressure compared to adult hardcore drug addicts, and (iii) young hardcore drug
addicts would report lower level of self-esteem compared to adult hardcore drug
addicts. Eighty hardcore drug addicts from Private Treatment and Rehabilitation
Institute (PENGASIH) were selected as participants. The measurements used in this
study were the Index of Family Relation (IFR), Peer Pressure Inventory (PPI) and
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). The t-test used to identify the differences
between young and adult hardcore drug addicts in their relationship with family, peer
pressure, and self-esteem. However, the findings of this study revealed that there were
no significant differences between young and adult hardcore drug addicts in their
intra-family relationships, peer pressure and self-esteem. Implications of the findings
and future research are highlighted.
ii
‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬
‫‪‬ﺪﻑ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ )ﺗﺪﱐ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺳﺮﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﻓﻘﺎﺀ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﰐ( ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻫﻘﲔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺨﺪﺭﺍﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺟﺪﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﻳﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﰲ ﺃﺩﱏ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻠﻬﺎ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻫﻘﲔ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺎﺭ‪ ،‬ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﻓﻘﺎﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻫﻘﲔ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﳌﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺎﺭ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﻫﻘﲔ ﳝﺜﻠﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺃﻗﻞ‬
‫ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﰐ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺘﻬﻢ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺎﺭ‪ .‬ﰎ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﲦﺎﻧﲔ ﻣﺪﻣﻨﺎ ﺇﺩﻣﺎﻧﺎ ﻣﻄﻠﻘﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻞ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﳌﺨﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻫﻴﻞ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺎﺟﺔ ﺍﳋﺎﺹ ﺑﻮﺻﻔﻬﻢ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﲔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﱪﻧﺎﻣﺞ‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﻳﻴﺲ ﻋﺪﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻨﻬﺎ‪ :‬ﻣﻀﺎﻣﲔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﻓﻘﺎﺀ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﰐ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻣﺘﺤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻮﱘ ﻟﺒﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳌﺮﺍﻫﻘﲔ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳌﺨﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﻭﻋﻼﻗﺎ‪‬ﻢ ﻣﻊ ﺃﺳﺮﻫﻢ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺋﻬﻢ ﻭﺃﻧﻔﺴﻬﻢ‪ .‬ﻭﺟﺪﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻟﻴﺲ ﲦﺔ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﺪﻣﻨﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﳌﺮﺍﻫﻘﲔ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻝ ﺗﺪﱐ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻟﺮﻓﻘﺎﺀ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﰐ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻫﺘﻤﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪iii‬‬
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Psychology).
…………………………………..
Wan Rafaei Abdul Rahman
Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a
dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Psychology).
…………………………………..
Rahmatullah Khan
Examiner
This dissertation was submitted to the Department of Psychology and is accepted as a
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Human Sciences
(Psychology).
…………………………………..
Mariam Adawiyah Dzulkefli
Head, Department of Psychology
This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences and is accepted as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Human Sciences (Psychology).
..………………………………….
Hazizan Md.Noon
Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic
Revealed Knowledge and Human
Sciences
iv
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigation, except where
otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Noor Hassline Binti Mohamed
Signature……………………..
Date……………….......
v
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION
OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
Copyright © 2008 by Noor Hassline Binti Mohamed. All rights reserved.
DIFFERENCES IN INTRA-FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS, PEER PRESSURE
AND SELF-ESTEEM BETWEEN YOUNG AND ADULT
HARDCORE DRUG ADDICTS
No part of this unpublished research may reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except
as provided below:
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only
be used by others in their writings with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or
electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and
supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities or
research libraries.
Affirmed by Noor Hassline Binti Mohamed
.....……………………
Signature
…………………..
Date
vi
This thesis is dedicated to:
My beloved parents
Mohamed and Fatimah
For their constant love and support
&
My beloved husband and lovely daughter
Ridhuan
Rafhanah Nisrina
For their endless love, patience, care and understanding
Without their precious prayers this work could have never seen the light
May Allah (SWT) Bless and Reward them with His Jannah
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost all thanks to ALLAH (SWT) for blessed me with patience I have
needed to finish up writing my thesis and for the faith which has enabled me to make
the right decisions in my life. Truly all praise is due to the Almighty Allah (SWT)
whose mercy, guidance and blessings did indeed enable me to complete this work.
I gratefully acknowledge my supervisor Prof. Dato’ Dr.Wan Rafaei Abdul
Rahman who has introduced and taught me into experiencing and practicing the
academic world in doing intellectual research. I sincerely gratitude him for all his
guidance, help, kindness, and understanding, without his many contributions this
thesis would not have been possible.
I would like to convey my sincere thanks to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rahmatullah
Khan for his thoughtful comments, suggestions and generosity for sharing his
knowledge and experiences.
I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Noraini Mohd.Noor for her sincere support,
guidance, and valuable advice that helped me a lot in completing the thesis. Special
thanks to Prof. Dr. Mahmood Nazar Mohamed and for his generosity in lending me
his experiences and ideas into this thesis.
I greatly appreciate Mr. Hafizi and Mr. Khalid from Private Treatment and
Rehabilitation Institute (PENGASIH) and other administrative staff, for their generous
time in assisting me conducting the research, and have been kind enough to advice
and in help in their respective roles.
I would also like to thank Bro. Ali from the Arabic Language Department for
the Arabic translation abstract. Thanks are also to my dear friends, whose unending
support and encouragement, Sis. Intan Aidura, Sis. Eka Juliana, Bro. Aris and
Bro.Avis from the Department of Psychology.
Finally, I praise Allah for bestowing on me a lovely family. So, I dedicated my
special and deepest gratitude to all the members of my family for their warmth and
unconditional love, support and encouragement throughout my life. To my dear
husband, ‘thank you very much for standing by my side, and also the comfort when
tears, I couldn’t hide.’
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………
Abstract in Arabic………………………………………………………………
Approval Page………………………………………………………………….
Declaration Page………………………………………………………………..
Copyright Page………………………………………………………………….
Dedication……………………………………………………………………….
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………
List of Figures……………………………………………………………… …..
CHAPTER 1:
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study………………………………………..
The Statement of the Problem………………………..…………
Significances of the Research…………………………………..
Research Questions……………………………………………..
Research Objectives…………………………………………….
Conceptual and Operational Definitions………….…………….
1.6.1
Hardcore drug addicts………………………………...
1.6.2
Intra-family relationships…………………………….
1.6.3
Peer pressure………………………………………….
1.6.4
Self-esteem…………………………………………...
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
The influence of age on drug use……………..…………………
2.2
Psychosocial factors influencing drug addiction………..………
2.2.1 Intra-family relationships………………………………..
2.2.2 Peer pressure…………………………………………….
2.2.3 Self-esteem……………..……………………………….
2.3
The relationship between psychosocial factors and drug
addiction…….. ………………………………………………….
2.3.1 The relationship between intra-family relationships and
drug addiction……………..……………………………..
2.3.2 The relationship between peer pressure and drug
addiction ………………………………………..……….
2.3.3 The relationship between self-esteem and drug addiction
……………………………………………………………
2.4
Theoretical Framework……………..……………………………
2.5
Conceptual Framework of the Research…..……………………..
2.6
Research Hypotheses……………..……………………………...
CHAPTER 3: METHOD
3.1
Participants……………..………………………………………..
3.2
Design of the Study……………………………………………...
ix
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
xi
xii
1
3
5
7
7
8
8
9
10
11
12
14
14
17
20
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
3.3
3.4
3.5
CHAPTER 4:
4.1
4.2
4.3
Research Procedure……………..……………………………….
Research Instruments……………..……………………………...
3.4.1 Dimension A: Relationships with family……...…………
3.4.2 Dimension B: Peer pressure………...……………………
3.4.3 Dimension C: Self-esteem ……..………………………..
Data Analyses………..………..……………..…………………..
RESULTS
Socio-demographic Characteristics……..………………………
Psychometric Measure……..……………………………………
Psychosocial Differences between Young and Adult Hardcore
Drug Addict….............................................................................
30
32
32
33
34
35
36
39
39
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
5.1
Psychosocial differences between young and adult hardcore drug
addicts……………………………………………………………
5.1.1 Young versus adult hardcore drug addicts on intra-family
relationships……………………………………………..
5.1.2 Young versus adult hardcore drug addicts on peer
pressure………………………………………………….
5.1.3 Young versus adult hardcore drug addicts on
self-esteem………………………………………….……
5.2
Implication of the Study……………………………..…………..
5.3
Limitations and Recommendations………………………………
5.4
Conclusion…………………………………….…………………
45
46
47
49
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….
51
APPENDIX A: Letter from Researcher………………………………………….
APPENDIX B: Support Letter from Supervisor…………………………………
APPENDIX C: Approval Letter from PENGASIH………………………………
APPENDIX D: Resident Consent Form………………………………………….
APPENDIX E: Index of Family Relations (IFR) ……………………………….
APPENDIX F: Peer Pressure Inventory (PPI)…………………………………..
APPENDIX G: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). ………………………...
61
62
63
64
66
69
71
x
42
43
44
LIST OF TABLES
Table No:
Page No.
4.1
Demographic characteristics of residents in PENGASIH
37
4.2
Distribution of participants according to age, gender and race
38
4.3
Reliability of each scale (Cronbach alpha)
39
4.4
Psychosocial differences between young and adult hardcore
drug addicts
40
xi
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure No:
2.5
Page No.
Conceptual framework of Drug Addiction among Hardcore
Drug Addicts
xii
28
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
West Malaysia has had a long history of drug use, beginning as early as the 1800s.
While early use was primarily restricted to Chinese coolies and Indian immigrant
laborers, the 1970s saw drug use become the domain of the individuals age 15 to 30 of
Malaysia and achieve the proportions of a national crisis (Mohd Reduan Aslie, 1990).
In 1995, addiction is mainly to heroin and the rest morphine and psychotropic pills as
methadone, amphetamine, and barbiturates and involved mostly males of the
productive age group (National Drug Agency (ADK), 1995) (as cited in Yahya, 1999).
In Malaysia, drug addiction remains as one of the most serious problems.
What worries the government is that most of the addicts identified are youths. Every
year, more than 80% of persons identified by the system are youths between the ages
of 14 to 39 years old. Statistics also indicate that 96.3% of the addicts are educated,
with at least 6 years of education. Approximately 69% of these addicts are opiate
abusers, 20% are cannabis abusers and the rest abuse Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
(ATS) and psychotropic substances. Many of these addicts are also poly-drug abusers.
More worrying is the increase in abuse of ATS by the youth. ATS appears to be the
drug of the 21st century. The abuse of ATS amongst the youth will not go away unless
serious action is taken to eradicate its use (ADK, 2005).
Drug addiction is the greatest threats to mankind today. Drug addiction
continues to spread worldwide and almost every country in the world suffers a broad
range of tragic consequences from drug abuse. When abused, narcotic drugs and
1
psychotropic substances become a force of evil and destroy the lives of thousands
of individuals and jeopardize the security and stability of nations (Yahya, 1999).
A substantial amount of research indicates that parents and family members
play an important role in the lives of children and adolescents (Henricson & Roker,
2000). A recent research has focused on both external and internal factors of
individual including parental supervision, family attachment, and peer pressure factors
influence on drug use (Henricson & Roker, 2000; Lexcen & Redding, 2000).
A review of 161 drug addicts’ survey found that poor relationship with parents
and family members was a risk factor for drug dependence. Children whose parents
and family members are involved in their lives and provide positive influences by
modeling anti-drug attitudes and behaviors are less likely to involve in drug use
(Lexcen & Redding, 2000). Lexcen and Redding (2000) also found that drug use at
younger ages also result in greater involvement with delinquent peers. The greatest
drug use was found in drug addicts who perceived high peers pressure.
Even though, family can influence individuals to participate in drug use, the
decision still rest on their shoulders. The choice to engage in drugs can be influenced
by individuals themselves. The level of self-esteem is one of the most important
factors contributing to drug addiction (Skager, 1988). A study by Jennifer and Mark
(2004) was examined the relationship between self-esteem and drug use. The sample
was diverse with respect to race and ethnicity and included 8,320 males and 8,429
females. The result indicated that there was a significant relationship between selfesteem and drug use in samples. The researchers also found that high self-esteem was
associated with less drug use.
Explaining youth drug addiction is a complex task. There are various factors
may contribute to understanding of what leads someone to engage in drug use.
2
According to Farrington,(1998), Grisso (1998), Hoge and Andrews (1996), various
psychosocial factors have been identified as predictors of drug addiction, including
individual internal factor such as self-esteem, and individual external factors such as
parental supervision, family relationship, school and peer pressure.
1.2 The Statement of the Problem
Drug addiction in Malaysia has reached a dangerous level and could be a risk to the
country's economic, social and education development. According to the statistic of
Royal Malaysia Police (RMP) (2005), drug addiction among Malaysian continues to
increase from 24,940 cases in 2001 to 41,684 cases in 2005. According to Malaysia
Deputy Federal Territories Minister, the efforts to combat drug abuse had begun in
1972 but the number of drug addicts continued to increase every year. Government
had spent RM90 million of the total RM200 million allocated for the campaign
against drug addiction (Star, July, 3, 2006).
It is pertinent to note that according to the World Health Organization (WHO)
drug addiction problems no longer relate to the use of only one or a few drugs. More
often, users move from one drug to another and even use combinations of different
substances. In many societies, drug habit-forming exposure to drugs can start at a very
early age, with grave consequences for health in later life and involve in narcotic
crimes (RMP, 2004).
According to Goldstein (1989) drug addiction remains as one of the nation’s
critical domestic problems, linked to crime, neglect of children, family violence,
incomplete education, homelessness, AIDS, high health care costs, urban decay, and
diminished economic competitiveness. There is another problem regarding drug
3
addiction, in which there are many of drug addicts are more likely to relapse after
released.
According to National Drug Agency (ADK) (2005), Malaysia’s drug situation
remains a serious one, from 1988 to Mac 2006, a total of 292,696 drug addicts were
identified throughout the country. This invariably means that for every inhabitant in
Malaysia, it was 1.10% were drug addicts. The report from 1998 to 2005 indicated
that 15,389 drug addicts were identified for the first time and the remaining 17,419
drug addicts were recidivists.
Foong Kin and Navaratnam (1987) conducted a survey of drug treatment
outcome among drug addicts who were released. They found that 42.9% of them were
likely to be arrested, 38.8% were likely to be punished and 37% were likely to be
incarcerated and received treatment. Most of them involved in violence as the effect of
drug use, including robberies to get money to buy drugs, and violence against rival
traffickers that influence society daily.
Besides law enforcement efforts, our government has given a serious
consideration to the preventive aspect of drug control. Malaysia attaches great
importance to drug prevention programs. It is the vision of the Malaysian government
to create a drug free society by the year 2015, in line with the ASEAN vision of
creating an ASEAN drug free region. To achieve this target, Malaysian government
has drawn up plans to create drug free units, starting from the smallest unit of the
family, next moving on the schools, to work places, to the smallest community in a
village, to the district, to the state and finally by 2015 to a drug free Malaysia.
A growing number of literature and empirical research have documented that a
relationship exists between drug addiction and psychosocial factors (Yahya, 1999).
Therefore, this study attempts to contribute to our understanding towards the
4
involvement of hardcore drug addiction from different psychosocial contexts. Thus, it
would be worthwhile to study the differences between young and adult hardcore drug
addicts in these three psychosocial factors (intra-family relationship, peer pressure,
and self-esteem).
1.3 Significances of the Research
There are several reasons for conducting this study. First, this study will look at the
age factor that may influence drug addiction, which previous study has not covered.
Previous study (Yahya, 1999) examined psychosocial factors of drug addiction
without comparing the different age groups among hardcore drug addicts. Unlike
previous study, this study will select equal numbers of young and adult hardcore drug
addicts from Private Treatment and Rehabilitation Institute (PENGASIH) as a sample,
and in doing so, it will provide a comparison between young and adult in the
dimensions of internal (self-esteem) and external (family and peer) psychosocial
factors.
Moreover, it will also benefit us to obtain respondents’ profile background.
Unlike trainees from Drug Rehabilitation Center, most of the PENGASIH trainees are
sent by their families to get treatment. Therefore, the study’s outcome will only rely
on psychosocial factors that influence hardcore drug addicts from PENGASIH.
Second, psychologists have long recognized the importance of family in the
etiology of drug addiction (Chein, 1984). Since family is the individuals’ first source
of information and the primary model of how they experiences relationship, experts
believe that a destructive and disturbed family relationships can have a strong
significant impact on drug addiction (Haddad, Barocas, & Hollenback, 1991).
5
Carr and Vandiver, (2001) found that individuals who are strongly attached to
parents and their siblings have a lower probability of self-reported drug addiction than
those who are not strongly attached to their family members. Since intra-family
relationship has been found to be an important and consistent variable in drug
addiction, it would be worthwhile to see how it affects young and adult hardcore drug
addicts.
Third, previous studies that have examined the association between high peer
pressure and drug addiction have found significant associations. Chaiken (1986)
conducted a longitudinal research on 400 hardcore drug addicts in Chicago. He found
that there were no significant differences between young and adult drug addicts in
perceived peer pressure, in which both of groups who perceived high peer pressure
tended to use drugs chronically after engaged in peer activities.
However, Frauenglass, Routh, Pantin and Mason (1997) investigated the
influence of deviant peers on chronic drug use. Researchers found that drug addicts
whose age below than 23 were the most likely of any age group to use drug
chronically after associated with peers than those who ages 24 and above. They
concluded that there was a significant difference between young and adult drug
addicts in perceived peer pressure. Because there is inconsistency in previous research
findings, it is important to investigate how peer pressure affects young and adult
hardcore drug addicts.
Fourth, previous studies that have examined the association between low selfesteem and drug addiction have found significant associations. Brady, Dustan, Grice,
Dansky and Kilpatrick (1995) conducted study on violent offenders age 17 to 40 in
correctional centers to study the relationship between drug addiction and self-esteem
among them. The result indicated that there was no significant difference between
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young and adult offenders in their level of self-esteem. Both of groups were more
likely to possess low self-esteem.
However, Abraham and Teplin (1990), in their study on drug trainees in
Chicago found that younger trainees were more likely to possess low self-esteem
compared to elder drug addicts. Because there is inconsistency in previous research
findings, it is important to investigate how self-esteem affects young and adult
hardcore drug addicts.
Finally, the government and non-governmental organizations also will benefit
from the findings of this study, as they need to know the current status of psychosocial
influences on drug addiction specifically on intra-family relationship, peer pressure,
and individual concept of self-esteem among hardcore drug addicts in Malaysia. The
approach of their intervention programs and campaigns usually will be based on
research findings to grasp the best way.
1.4 Research Questions
1) Do young hardcore drug addicts differ in their relationships with family
members compared to adult hardcore drug addicts?
2) Do young hardcore drug addicts differ in perceiving peer pressure compared to
adult hardcore drug addicts?
3) Do young hardcore drug addicts differ in their level of self-esteem compared
to adult hardcore drug addicts?
1.5 Research Objectives
Specifically, the objectives of this study are:
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1) To find the differences between young and adult hardcore drug addicts in their
relationship with their family members.
2) To examine the differences between young and adult drug hardcore addicts in
perceiving their peer pressure.
3) To explore the differences between young and adult hardcore drug addicts in
their level of self-esteem.
1.6 Conceptual and Operational Definitions
1.6.1 Hardcore drug addicts
Conceptual definition
Hardcore drug addicts refer to those individuals who have a combination for both of
physical and psychological dependency on drug addiction (Nevus, Rathus & Greene,
2000). Physical dependency occurs when a drug has been used habitually and the
body has become accustomed to its effects. The person must then continue to use the
drug regularly in order to feel normal, or its absence will trigger the symptoms of
withdrawal. Psychological dependency occurs when a drug has been used habitually
and the mind has become emotionally reliant on its effects, either to elicit pleasure or
relieve pain, and does not feel capable of functioning without it. Its absence produces
intense cravings, which are often brought on or magnified by stress (Nevus et al.,
2000). This is characterized by tolerance that is with continual use, the individual
must take more and more of the drug to achieve the same effect (ADK, 2005).
Operational definition
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In this study, hardcore drug addicts will include those who undergo the primary
treatment. The primary treatment service is focuses on drug rehabilitation and
treatment. Private Treatment and Rehabilitation Institute (PENGASIH) authorities
will identify hardcore drug addicts who are eligible for this study according to the
several criteria. First, hardcore drug addicts are those who use one or more illegal
drugs regularly or more frequently and suffer from a compulsive drug craving and
usage. Second, it includes those who have been involved in drug addiction for more
than one year. Third, it includes those who have been engaged in criminal activity to
support their drug dependency.
1.6.2 Intra-family relationship
Conceptual definition
According to Steinberg (2001), intra-family relationship is a relationship that
individuals experience within the family members such as the kinship relation
between children with father, mother, and siblings and family environment with
regards to their relationship with entire members of the family. Caldwell and Bradley
(1984) promoted two important climates of intra-family relationship that individual
needs most. First, it is important to build up a good relationship among each member
of the family with love, affection, caring, belong and belongingness sense and mutual
understanding. Second, good intra-family setting fosters high frequency of adult
context, positive emotional climate, and higher physical, verbal, and emotional
responses to appropriate valued behavior of individuals.
Operational definition
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In this study, intra-family relationship refers to the perception, opinion, and value of
the respondents towards the relationships with the entire members of the family. Both
young and adult hardcore drug addicts will be compared to determine whether they
have positive or negative experiences in term of intra-family relationships. They will
be measured by using Index of Family Relation (IFR) scale, which consists of ranging
from perceive good relationships to perceive poor relationships with family members.
1.6.3 Peer pressure
Conceptual definition
Peer pressure refers to a term describing a person's changes, or temptations to change,
in attitude, behavior and morals as directly influenced by their peer group (Kichler,
Palmonari & Pombeni, 1993). According to Schwartz (2000), peer pressure is
considered by many to be the root cause of several recent tragedies, for example, drug
addiction and criminal behavior. Young people are more willing to behave negatively
towards those who are not members of their groups, whereas adult maturity generally
precludes this type of behaviour being overtly performed.
Operational definition
In this study, peer pressure refers to the inclination of individual to be influenced by
their peer groups and they are affected by their peers toward making a certain choice
or decision. Peer Pressure Inventory (PPI) will be used to assess the direction and
intensity of pressure that individuals perceive from friends in three major domains:
conformity to peer norms, peer involvement, and misconduct. Both young and adult
hardcore drug addicts will be compared to determine whether they perceive high or
low in the direction or intensity of peer pressure.
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1.6.4 Self-esteem
Conceptual definition
According to Rosenberg (1965), self-esteem is a favorable or unfavorable attitude
toward the self. Good self-concept is associated with feelings of high self-esteem that
is important to psychological well-being. High self-esteem relates to pride in one’s
self, whereas low self-esteem reflects feelings of low worth or shame. According to
Coopersmith (1975), a person's self-esteem is a judgment of worthiness that is
expressed by the attitudes he or she holds toward the self.
Operational definition
In this study, self-esteem refers to individual’s global feelings of self-worth or selfacceptance, pride in oneself or self-respect. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) will
be used to measure respondents’ global self-esteem. The scale denotes a continuum of
self-worth ranging from statements that are endorsed even by individuals with low
self-esteem to statements that are endorsed only by persons with high self-esteem.
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