Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus, Germany
Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Urban Planning
World Heritage Studies
Master Thesis
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local
Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Submitted By
Kittichai Ruktae-Ngan
Matriculation No. 2116266
25th July 2003
Cottbus, Germany
Supervisors
Professor Dr. phil. Leo Schmidt
Professor Emeritus Hans Detlef Kammeier
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus, Germany
Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Urban Planning
Master of Arts (M.A.) in World Heritage Studies
Master Thesis in the programme of World Heritage Studies
under the Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and
Urban Planning presented in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (M.A.) at
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus, Germany.
Submitted By
Kittichai Ruktae-Ngan
Matriculation No. 2116266
25th July 2003
Supervisors
Professor Dr. phil. Leo Schmidt
Professor Emeritus Hans Detlef Kammeier
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus, Germany
Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Urban Planning
Master of Arts (M.A.) in World Heritage Studies
This is to certify that the Master Thesis prepared by Kittichai
Ruktae-Ngan
Entitled: Monument Grading System as a Means for Local
Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand and submitted in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master
of Arts (M.A.).
Complies with the regulations of this University and meets the
accepted standards with respect to quality.
Signed by the Thesis Supervisors:
Professor Dr. phil.
Leo Schmidt
_____________________________
Professor Emeritus
Hans Detlef Kammeier
_____________________________
Table of Content
Page
Hypothesis
i
Abstract
i
Acknowledgements
ii
Abbreviations
iv
Glossary
v
Lists of Figures and Tables
vi
Chapter 1: Introduction
1
1.1 Background of the Study
3
1.2 Rationale of the Study
4
1.3 Objectives of the Research
5
1.4 Organisation of the Research
6
1.5 Research Methodology
8
Chapter 2: Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the
Monument Grading System in Thailand
9
2.1 Historical and Cultural Significance of Thailand
9
2.2 Conservation Movement in Thailand
12
2.1.1 The Fine Arts Department
13
2.1.2 Problems in Conservation and Management of Cultural
17
Heritage in Thailand
2.2 Monument Grading System in Thailand
18
2.2.1 Concept of Monument Grading System in Thailand
18
2.2.2 Monumental Classification
20
2.2.3 Monument Grading System
21
2.2.4 Implications of Monument Grading System
24
Table of Content (Cont.)
Page
Chapter 3: Implementing the Grading System: Lessons
from a Selected Country: England
28
3.1 Cultural Properties and the World Heritage List
28
3.2 Listing and Grading System in European Countries
30
3.3 Listing and Grading System in England
35
3.4 Comparison of the Grading System and Implications in
53
Thailand and England
Chapter 4: Local Authorities and Conservation of
Cultural Heritage in Thailand
59
4.1 Decentralisation Policy in Thailand
59
4.2 Local Administration in Thailand
63
4.3 Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage
70
Chapter 5: Assessing the Feasibility of Monument
Grading System at the Local Authority Level
77
5.1 Method for Interview and Analysis
79
5.2 Practice of Monument Grading System: Case Studies in
82
Thailand
5.3 Analyses and Summary of the Case Studies
99
Chapter 6: Future Direction of Monument Grading
System in Thailand
105
6.1 Conclusions
105
6.2 Recommendations
106
Table of Content (Cont.)
Page
Appendix
118
Appendix A: Structure of the Fine Arts Department
119
Appendix B: Decentralisation Process in Management of Cultural
120
Heritage
Appendix C: Drafting of Monument Grading Evaluation Charts
121
Appendix D: Functions of PAO, Municipality and TAO under the
135
Decentralisation Plan and Process Act in 1999
Appendix E: Target Respondents of the Case studies
137
Appendix F: Inclusion Criteria of Historic City of Ayutthaya and
139
Associated Towns, as a World Cultural Heritage
Appendix G: Attitude Survey Questions and Scoring of the Three
140
Case Studies
Bibliography
148
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Abstract
Hypothesis
The monument grading system proposed by the Fine Arts Department can be
an effective means for management of cultural heritage sites in Thailand by
local authorities in cooperation with higher-up agencies.
Abstract
This Master Thesis examines the idea of a monument grading system and its
implications on the local administration of heritage sites in Thailand. Due to
the rapid changes and the complexity of the Thai society particularly in the
last few decades, cultural heritage in Thailand has been regarded as less
important in the modern context of development. Lack of sufficient and
effective management, as well as problems and conflicts among national and
local authorities in practice, have also caused difficulties in protection,
conservation and management of the cultural heritage in Thailand.
Meanwhile, in a more recent development, the local authorities have gained
more power and responsibilities in conservation and management of cultural
heritage, as a result of decentralisation administration policy in 1999.
Nevertheless, lack of awareness and inadequate preparation of local
authorities have various effects on the safeguarding and managing cultural
heritage at the operational level.
To react to such problems, the Fine Arts Department proposed a monument
grading system in 1996. Under this framework, local authorities are
encouraged to practise and implement the system in all aspects, including
statutory mechanisms, design regulations and guidelines, and financial
incentives, for protection and management of the cultural heritage in their
administrative territory. The roles of local authorities in the implementation of
the system will be examined in a comparative study with the system in a
selected country, as a reference, focusing on different case studies in
Thailand. By using on-site surveying, as a methodological approach, i.e.
observation and interviewing of stakeholders, these primary data, both
quantitative and qualitative, have been used to analyse the roles of the local
i
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Abstract
authorities at the operational level. Based on the monument grading system,
comprehensive recommendations on the roles of local authorities in the
management of cultural heritage are the intended result of analysis and
conclusion of the research.
Acknowledgements
This Master Thesis was undertaken in the World Heritage Studies Programme
at the Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus, Germany. The content
of the thesis has evolved in recognition of the monument grading system as a
means for management of the cultural heritage in Thailand at the local level.
The information and discussions on different issues of the topic were provided
and supported by many persons, educational institutes, and governmental
and local organizations in both Germany and Thailand.
I am fortunate to acknowledge in this page many persons who have provided
valuable support. I would like to thank Prof. Dr. phil. Leo Schmidt who has
guided my thesis from the beginning and I am grateful for his continuing
support, and comments on the final draft of the thesis, and Prof. Emeritus
Hans Detlef Kammeier for the help and valuable advices given to me from the
beginning until the completion of the thesis. Also Associate Professor Dr.
Yongtanit Pimonsathean, Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
Faculty of Architecture, KMITL, for reading material and dedicated support on
various parts of the draft. I am especially indebted to Ms. Pichya Boonpinon,
Mr. Ronnarit Rattana-Khoseth and Mr. Vasu Poshyanandana, the Fine Arts
Department for valuable support and recommendations on my case studies,
and also to Mr. Puthorn Bhumadhon for helpful comments on many issues of
this master thesis. I would like to thank many others who have assisted with
information and precious discussion on those places in the case studies in
Thailand, in particular Mr. Tiamsoon Sirisrisak and Ms. Kalaya Meeyutem- the
Ph.D. candidate and Master student at the Faculty of Architecture, KMITL, Mr.
Kerdsak Yasothorn- an architect of Lampang Office of Public Works, Urban
and Country Planning, Mr. Preecha Jindawan- an official of Community
ii
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Abstract
Development
section,
Ayutthaya
municipality,
Mr.
Nuttaphong
Jaruwannaphong and Mr. Poon Kwansuwan- architects conservationist of the
Thailand Cultural Environment Project, OEPP. Others helped with personal
support and recommendations for my master thesis, including Mr. Chee Meng
Wong and Mr. Kwok On Cheung, for their patience and supports in reviewing
and completion the thesis, my colleagues in the World Heritage Studies
Programme and friends in Thailand.
I owe a great debt to my parents, sisters and brothers in Thailand who have
supported and encouraged me during the study in this master programme. I
am also indebted to their precious advices and encouragement, which have
been a constant source of wisdom for me to complete this master thesis.
I would like to thank many organisations that have offered permission on
visiting those places and sourcing information and pictures: the Fine Arts
Department, Office of Environmental Policy and Planning - the Thailand
Cultural Environment Project, Lampang Office of Public Works, Urban and
Country Planning, Office of Historic Park of Ayutthaya, Community
Development section of Ayutthaya Municipality, King Mongkut’s Institute of
Technology Ladkrabang, “Lankhum Lampang” group and “Wat Khun Saen”
group.
iii
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
BMA
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
Cadw
Historic Scotland and Welsh Historic Monuments (in Welsh)
DCMS
Department of Culture, Media and Sport
DoE
Department of Environment
DTLGR
Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions
FAD
Fine Arts Department (Ministry of Culture, Thailand)
ICCROM
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (the Rome Centre)
ICOMOS
International Council of Monuments and Sites
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
NHMF
The National Heritage Memorial Fund
OEPP
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment
PAO
Provincial Administrative Organisation
SPAB
Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings
SPAFA
Southeast Asian Ministers of Educational Organization-Regional
Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts
TAO
Sub-District (Tambon) Administration Organisation
UNCHS
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation
iv
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Glossary
Glossary
Cultural
heritage
According to the Convention Concerning the Protection of
the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, cultural heritage
includes monuments, groups of buildings or sites, and these
are defined as (Management Guidelines for World Cultural
Heritage Sites, 1998, p.13):
Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental
sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an
archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and
combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal
value from the point of view of history, art or science;
Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected
buildings which, because of their architecture, their
homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of
outstanding universal value from the point of view of history,
art or science; or
Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and of
man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of
outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic,
ethnological or anthropological points of view.
And in the Convention for the Protection of the Architectural
Heritage of Europe (Granada), ETS No. 121:
Monuments: all buildings and structures of conspicuous
historical, archaeological, artistic, scientific, social or
technical interest, including their fixtures and fittings";
Groups of buildings: homogeneous groups of urban or
rural
buildings
conspicuous
for
their
historical,
archaeological, artistic, scientific, social or technical interest
which are sufficiently coherent to form topographically
definable units"; and
Sites: combined works of man and nature, being areas
which are partially built upon and sufficiently distinctive and
homogeneous to be topographically definable and are of
conspicuous historical, archaeological, artistic, scientific,
social or technical interest.
National
Monument
According to the Section 4 of Act on Ancient Monuments,
Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums, B.E.2504
(1961 A.D.), Amendment B.E.2535 (1992 A.D.) means: an
immovable property, which by its age or architectural
characteristics or historical evidence, is useful in the field of
art, history or archaeology and shall include places which
are archaeological sites, historic sites and historic parks.
It also covers “Antiques” and “Objects of Art” which are
significantly movable properties and archaeological objects.
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229
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
The cultural heritage in Thailand is represented both in tangible and intangible
forms. Specifically, those historic monuments, buildings and sites are tangible
forms of significance that represents the heritage and identity of the nation
and the Thai people. Furthermore, obviously many Thai communities have
settled down and grown in population in the historic areas and this leads to
characteristics that have to be regarded in conservation of any cultural
heritage.
However, due to rapid development and changes in Thailand in the last
decades, various attempts in respect to protection and conservation of
national heritage have become more difficult in the modernised context.
Different issues have become more critical in conservation-related plan and
actions i.e. cultural, social and economic. Likewise, various stakeholders are
considering it more important to protect and conserve the cultural heritage in
Thailand, particularly local authorities at the operational level. Thus, local
authorities’ capacity is one important aspect in carrying out the conservationrelated action.
1.1 Background of the Study
With a long history of more than 700 years, Thailand represents one important
part of history and culture in Southeast Asia, especially since the 13th century.
Based on a mixture of different ethnic groups, different cultures have thrived
all over the country, which are represented in both tangible and intangible
traditions, such as variety in lifestyle, languages, arts, architecture, costumes
and even food. Obviously, one tangible heritage of Thai is its physical
environment – monuments, different types of buildings, villages, cities, open
spaces, and landscape. In view of the importance and significance of those
built environments in history, function and aesthetics, the Thai government
established a state authority to protect and conserve those tangible and
intangible cultural treasures, as well as man-made environments.
1
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
In 1911, the Fine Arts Department (FAD) was established under the Ministry
of Education, as the main state authority in dealing with arts and cultural
affairs. Its responsibility also includes the protection of historical artefacts,
monuments, buildings and sites, as “National Monument” (in Thai, “Boran
Sathan Haeng Chart”). Over more than 90 years, FAD has played an
important role in the protection and conservation of those National
Monuments. However, due to the development and changes of Thailand
during the latter half of the 20th century and numerous heritage sites
throughout the country, the FAD has faced many problems in protecting and
conserving the heritage, as well as managing them for new development and
functions, especially for tourism. The conflict between the development of the
economy and society, and the ongoing protection of heritage in Thailand is
becoming more critical and has led to many problems. One of them is a
tension between an exploitation of heritage, especially tourism, and dissenting
groups, particularly among those local communities whose lives are attached
to the heritage sites. Some major problems of the FAD are listed, as follows:
1. Overall responsibility of the FAD, announced as its mission:
“Proceed according to the Act on Monuments, Artefacts, Art Objects
and National Museums, together with other related legislation and
laws”.
(FAD, 1999, URL: http://www.finearts.go.th/zemission.htm.)
One of the inscribed duties of the FAD due to the Act, declared in
1961, is to register and preserve the significant and important sites
under the National Monument List. Over more than 40 years of the Act,
the FAD has registered more than 2,000 monuments and historic sites.
However, due to the lack of efficient management of protection and
conservation from the FAD, most of the registered sites suffer from
poor conditions. Furthermore, lack of sufficient staff and budget from
the central government has made the work of the FAD harder and
more difficult to achieve in protection and conservation of those sites.
2
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
2. Due to the limited resources, the FAD is also lacking analytical data
of the heritage sites, which can be used for planning protection and
conservation work. This also means the lack of a standardised system
to set up categories and priorities of the heritage, both existing and
proposed, to facilitate effective future action of the FAD.
3. Based on the new administrative policy of the Central Government in
1999,
the “Decentralisation Plan and Process Act” (so-called
“Decentralisation Act” thereafter) has been declared and led to many
changes of the administrative authorities and policies on every level,
from national to local levels. The local administrative authority has
gained more power in governing and managing within its territory,
including administration of historic sites, income, and other local
issues. This however has led to a conflict between the FAD and local
authorities in protection and conservation of under-local-authority
heritage.
1.2 Rationale of the Study
Coordination between national and local authorities is one of the most
important issues in the protection and conservation of cultural heritage in
Thailand. According to new structure and policy of the Royal Thai
Government, local authorities have become a main player in conservation and
management of heritage of national and local importance. This study relates
to private and local organisations, which have gradually become recognised in
the field of conservation and management of heritage. Furthermore, new
approach of national authorities, as advisory and supporting units, and
legislative mechanisms like the monument grading system in conservation
have an impact on the functions of the local authorities. The system can be
used to classify the local responsibilities and to recommend improvement of
the authorities’ capacity in conservation-related action in the future.
Therefore, this study is intended to understand functions and capacities of the
local authorities based on the monument grading system, which will lead to an
3
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
effective implementation. This can serve as a basis for recommendations of
conservation and management of cultural heritage by local authorities in
Thailand.
1.3 Objectives of the Research
As a solution to the problems mentioned above, the FAD has proposed a
system called “Monument Grading System”. This system aims to react to
those problems, as an effective official tool, by the national authority: FAD,
and the local authorities. However, the system is only at the initial stage of the
definition of its concepts, mechanisms and other implications, particularly
legislations, guidelines, and financial incentives.
Generally, this Master Thesis intends to examine the local administrative
system and its characteristics, and to explore the local authority as an
effective player to manage cultural heritage in the developing country of
Thailand, based on the monument grading system. On this issue, it will
concentrate on various types of local authorities, as well as public-private
partnerships. The roles of the local authorities in relation to the implications of
the system will be examined. The specific objectives of the research are
focused on the issues as follows:
§ Study the conservation movement and current situation in Thailand;
§ Explore the initiative of the monument grading system and its
implication in Thailand;
§ Study the implementation of a grading system in a selected European
country, namely England, as a reference, on different aspects e.g.
legislation, stakeholders and mechanisms;
§ Study the local administration and authorities in relation to the
decentralised administration, particularly in protection and conservation
of the cultural heritage in Thailand;
§ Study the functions of the local authorities in relation to the grading
system and its implication, based on the reference from Europe and
different case studies; and
4
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
§ Analysis and recommendation on the monument grading system and
local management of cultural heritage of different significance in
Thailand
1.4 Organisation of the Research
Based on the mentioned objectives, the research is organised into three main
parts, as follows:
The first part is an introduction to the topic, background and present situation
of the conservation and management of cultural heritage in Thailand. This
includes defining the purpose and objectives of the research, stating general
problems related to the topic, and formulating the framework and
methodology of the research.
The second part describes and analyses basic data and information relevant
to the study, including: conservation of heritage in Thailand, initiative of
monument grading system, conservation mechanisms and implementation of
a grading system in
European countries specifically England, and
decentralised administration and local authorities in Thailand. A comparative
study is used for analysing detailed structures of the systems in Thailand and
England like legislative mechanisms, grading and its characteristics, criteria of
grading, implementers and implications of the system.
Furthermore, the
relationship between local authorities and initial grading system in various
aspects will be defined. These two approaches will be further developed in the
third part.
The third part of the study comprises various case studies in relation to the
grading system and local authorities. Based on the structure and results of the
second part, different issues from stakeholders of each case are collected and
analysed, including: present condition, problems, value, potential and attitude
towards the heritage. These variables are constructed to recommend the
roles of local authorities, as well as possible development of the system in
actual implementation.
5
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
Conservation
and Monument
Grading System
in Thailand
Conservation
and Monument
Grading System
in England
Decentralisation
and local
authorities in
Thailand
Comparative study of the
system and relevant issues
Relative studies and
selection of case studies
Case studies
Conditions and
problems
Implementation
of the system
Attitude
awareness
Suggestions
Analysis of data in relation to the structure of the system
Recommendations and conclusion towards local authorities
Figure 1.1 Organisation of the research
1.5 Research Methodology
The methodology of this research work is derived from both my participation
in the World Heritage Studies Programme, in various academic lectures,
seminars and study projects, and practical work of my internship at the
Historic Town of Lutherstadt Wittenberg, Germany. Different types of
methodology for collecting and for analysing data and information are applied
in this Master Thesis.
The data is based on secondary sources i.e. literature and data, collected
from different authorities and organisations including Department of Urban
and Regional Planning, King Mongkut Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
(KMITL), Thailand, the Fine Arts Department (FAD), Ministry of Culture, the
International Field School for Asian Heritage (IFSAH), and other research
6
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
oriented reports have also supplemented data for the research. Furthermore,
a part of data is conducted through electronic searching i.e. Internet.
Table 1.1 Sources of data collection and method of analysis
Parameter
Variables
Primary Data
Secondary
Data
• Literature
• Recent
drafting
documents
by FAD
Methods of
Analysis
Descriptive
Conservation and • Player
Monument
• Monumental
Grading System
Classification
in Thailand
• Monument
(Chapter 2)
features
• Legislative
mechanisms
• Selection criteria
• Grading
characteristics:
value, potential
and urgency
• Implications
• Consultation
of FAD
officials and
academics
Conservation
and Monument
Grading System
in England
(Chapter 3)
• Player
• Monumental
Classification
• Monument
features
• Legislative
mechanisms
• Selection criteria
• Grading
characteristics:
value, potential
and urgency
• Implications
• Impacts
• Consultation
of academics
• Literature
• Academic
articles and
reports
Descriptive
and
comparative
analysis
Decentralisation
and local
authorities in
Thailand
(Chapter 4)
• Administrative
structure
• Administrative
policy
• Local authorities
and characteristics
• Legislative
mechanisms
• Consultation
of academics
• Literature
• Academic
articles and
reports
• Thai Laws
and
regulations
Descriptive
and relative
analysis
Assessment of
the system,
attitudes and
suggestions
towards the
system
(Chapter 5)
• Conditions and
problems
• Awareness
• Implementation of
the system
• Attitudes and
opinions
• Suggestions
• Semistructured
interview
• Consultation
of FAD
officials and
academics
• Field survey:
photographic
documentation
• Literature
• Academic
articles and
reports
Qualitative
and
evaluation
analysis
7
Description
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Introduction
For primary data, particularly case studies in Thailand, the data are collected
by on-site surveying and research. Personal interviewing i.e. semi-structured
interview, and observation with different stakeholders in the concerned
authorities, area and related personnel i.e. officers and experts from the FAD,
educated person or scholars concerned to the heritage, members of local
authorities, and local people or owner, are conducted and collected for
analysis and summary of the Master Thesis. The discussed issues are, as
follows:
•
General condition and significance of the monument and historic town,
as case studies
•
Perception towards the case studies
•
Problems and conflicts in conservation and management of the case
studies
•
Attitude towards the monument grading system and its implementation
to the case studies
•
Attitudes towards the Decentralisation policy and process
•
Suggestion towards the system and its implications
8
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Chapter 2: Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the
Monument Grading System in Thailand
Despite a long history of more than 700 years, the conservation movement in
Thailand only began in the early twentieth century, with the establishment of
the national authority responsible for the national culture and arts. The
initiative was recognised with strong support from the royal and elite groups.
At the beginning, the issue was only limited to such groups. The conservation
issue has gradually evolved through the changes of the political, social and
economic structures of Thailand, particularly after the 1950s. These include
different aspects in conservation and management of the cultural heritage
such as declaration of statutory legislation and various mechanisms; initiatives
of different programmes among localities; and implementation of conservation
work in different parts of the country based on cooperation between the
international and national organisations. Meanwhile, due to rapid changes of
the country during the last few decades, cultural heritage and conservationrelated issues have increasingly been recognised among Thais, not only in
the elitist groups but also in different levels, from national to local authorities
and individual. Thus, the local authorities have increasingly taken part in
protection and conservation of cultural heritage.
However, due to lack of preparedness, as well as social and cultural
differences, of the local authorities, different problems and conflicts have
arisen between the national and local stakeholders. To react to such
problems, the Fine Arts Department has initiated different programmes, one of
which is the “Monument Grading System.” This chapter explores the system
and its implications. A study of the system implemented in a selected country,
England, is also used as a reference to the system initiated in Thailand.
2.1 Historical and Cultural Significance of Thailand
Thailand is a country right in the middle of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula of
Southeast Asia. She borders the Kingdom of Laos (-People’s Democratic
Republic) and Cambodia on the east and north respectively, and the Union of
9
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Myanmar (formerly Burma) on the north and west, and on the south deep to
the Peninsula between the China Sea and the Sea of Bengal connecting
Malaysia. Topographically, she has the Gulf of Thailand and China Sea on the
east of the Peninsula as well as the Bay of Bengal on the west. The total area
of Thailand is approximately 513,000 square kilometres and can be divided
into four regions: the Central, Northern, Northeastern and Southern. Each
region has different topographical characters and varied ethnic groups, which
have led to cultural diversity throughout the country. One example is the
Central Region, which is a large fertile plain with numerous rivers and canals.
Thus, it has become an important settlement area of many ethnic groups,
such as the Mon (Lower Burma) and Tai-Long, in Thailand since the 5th
century (Anuman Rajadhon, Phaya, 2001, p.11). Additionally, archaeologists
have discovered a prehistoric settlement, the Baan Chiang Archaeological
Site – one of the four World Heritage Sites in Thailand, in the Northeastern
region dated back for more than 5,000 years.
“What is true ethnically is also true culturally”.
(Anuman Rajadhon, Phaya, 2001, p. 7)
Based on the facts and evidence, the area of present Thailand was occupied
by different ethnic groups like the Mon – Khmer linguistic groups, the
Indonesian linguistic groups, the Malays and the Cham (Anuman Rajadhon,
Phaya, 2001, p.7), as well as immigration of southern Chinese in the later
period of history of Thailand. Through the course of time, wars, migrations
and mixtures of those ethnic groups have gradually become a part of Thai
cultural and identical, although there are variations and differences in different
areas due to the predominant race (Anuman Rajadhon, Phaya, 2001, p.7).
Through the long history of the area, the history of Thailand has based on
some reliable records and documentation dated back to the 13th century about
the Thai in Northern Thailand, Laos and other kingdoms. Some of the old
kingdoms in the area will be mentioned are the Dvaravati and Sri Vijaya.
Based on the archaeological remains and studies, the Dvaravati kingdom
covered central Thailand from the 5th to 7th centuries and came under the
10
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Javanese-Sumatran Empire of Sri Vijaya, which located in southern Thailand
and the Peninsula in the 11th century, and under the Khmer Empire from the
12th century (Anuman Rajadhon, Phaya, 2001, pp.10-17). Since then, the
beginning of history of Thailand was distinguished. Due to the declination of
the Khmer Empire in early 13th century, the Thai fought against the Empire
and became independently i.e. the Sukhothai kingdom, which recognised as
the first Thai kingdom. For almost 200 years as an independent kingdom,
Sukhothai is regarded as one of the highest periods in cultural, political,
religious and social aspects. Since the Sukhothai period, Buddhism has
become an important foundation in Thai society and culture. In middle of the
14th century, there was a new Thai power in the south of Sukhothai, the socalled Ayutthaya kingdom, which subdued and overcame Sukhothai,
subsequently.
The secondary peak period in the history of Thailand was recognised with
Ayutthaya as its capital. Under its succession of 33 kings, Ayutthaya achieved
the highest points in many aspects i.e. politics, culture, architecture, religion,
social, economy and foreign affairs, which finally become a model for modern
Thai society. It endured for 417 years until it ended in 1767 through a war with
Burma. In 1782 the Thai capital moved from Ayutthaya to the right bank of the
Chao Phaya River, the present City of Bangkok, by King Rama I of the
present Chakri Dynasty.
For more than 220 years of her modern stage, Thailand has passed through
her medieval period – the reign of King Rama IV and his great son King Rama
V (1851–1910), and entered into a new phase of progressive revolution
following the Western trend, which was stated by Phaya Anuman Rajadhon
(2001, p.17) as “a matter of modern history”.
2.2 Conservation Movement in Thailand
Since the reign of King Rama V, an influx of western influences has spread
through the Thai society, especially the elite class, in different aspects e.g.
political, social, educational and economic issues. Similar to those in the
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
West, initiatives of conservation and protection of Thai heritage, particularly
tangible heritage, have arisen among the elite group i.e. nobles and scholars.
With backing from this elite group, the Fine Arts Department (FAD), a national
authority responsible for the protection and conservation of Thai tangible and
intangible culture was founded in 1911. With the awareness, initiatives of
related activities were begun e.g. establishment of the first national museum
in 1926. In 1949 the department has become a member of different
international organizations related to protection and conservation of the arts
and culture, such as ICOM, ICCROM. Nevertheless, as most attention only
existed in the elitist group, there was no statutory legislation to provide for the
protection and conservation of the cultural heritage in Thailand, while local
people were also lacking of interest in the issue.
It was not until the later half of twentieth century that the related mechanisms
were established, particularly statutory legislation. In 1961 the ““Act on
Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums,
B.E.2504 (1961 A.D.)” was declared as the main statutory means for the
protection and conservation of the national heritage. Recognition of the
conservation issue has led to inclusion of the cultural conservation and
development programmes in the fourth National Economic and Social
Development Plan since 1977 (1977-1981). Apart from this, Thailand has also
joined the membership of different international organisations i.e. UNESCO
and ICOMOS. This has led to different cooperation and implementation of
programmes in Thailand, based on the supports from those organisations.
One of which was the protection and development programme in the Historic
Town of Sukhothai and associated historic towns in 1978 supported by the
UNESCO and Japanese Government. Consequently, the Thai government
has also declared and practised in various international conventions and
charters such as the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1987, the Venice Charter, etc. Under the
UNESCO Convention, three cultural heritage sites in Thailand have been
inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1991 and 1992, which are: the Historic
Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Towns; the Historic City of
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Ayutthaya and Associated Historic towns; and Ban Chiang Archaeological
Site.
From the last decade, changing of the roles among the key players related to
the protection and conservation of the cultural heritage in Thailand has been
recognised. Since 1992 the FAD is no longer the only national authority
responsible for, particularly, tangible cultural heritage. (Pimonsathean (2)) The
issuance of the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental
Quality Act has provided opportunity for the National Environment Board
(NEB-under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment) to be able
to manage the area, which declared as “environmental conservation of
cultural heritage zone”. This also includes applying of essential protective
measures such as building height and density. Moreover, the Act also
requires local commitment to participate in management of the area.
Therefore, increasing of local participation in the conservation and related
issues, based on the national administration and support from the statutory
means and national authorities, is obviously. Therefore, different programmes
for raising awareness, educating and training of the local people have applied,
while local initiatives concerned to the issues have increased in different parts
of Thailand today.
2.2.1 The Fine Arts Department (FAD) and Conservation in
Thailand
Before 1911 Thai cultural heritage in the fields of archaeology, history,
literature, drama, music, artistic works, archives and museums were under the
care of various government agencies. The wide range of responsibilities
tended to be scattered and left unattended. Until 1911, during the reign of
King Rama VI who regarded art and culture as the root of the Thai and their
Kingdom, the Fine Arts Department was founded by the royal command on
27th March 1911 and was entrusted with the cultural affairs of the Thai nation
(The Fine Arts Department (FAD), 1999).
In 1926 during the reign of King Rama VII, the FAD was dissolved, due to the
world economic crisis at the moment and the Thai government’s inability to
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
fund for cultural affairs (FAD, 1999). However, the FAD was reinstated in
1933 and has undergone continuing changes since then so as to keep up with
changing circumstances. Before September 2002, the Department was under
the Ministry of Education, as one of the 14 Departments. Until September
2002, based on the reformation of the governmental structure, the
Department has transferred to the Ministry of Culture, whose responsibilities
are dealing with the national religious and cultural affairs. Nevertheless,
despite the new ministry, policies and the internal structure of the Department
were relatively unchanged (See Appendix A).
Nowadays, the FAD is responsible for more than 2,000 registered monuments
and sites. Currently, under the present constitution and policy, introduction in
terms of decentralization and democratisation has taken into account of the
present conservation-related plans of the Department (FAD, 1999) (See
Appendix B). Participation of local organisations in dealing with their specific
cultural needs was initiated, while the FAD assumed a new direction for
cultural management via supervision, guidance and budget assistance.
The FAD is responsible in various subjects, as inscribed in the “Act on Ancient
Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums, B.E.2504 (1961
A.D.), Amendment B.E.2535 (1992 A.D.)”, which called “the Monument Act”
thereafter. The mission of the Department includes the protection and
conservation of monuments, artefacts, art objects, the national museums, and
the research and promotion of intangible Thai culture (e.g. performing arts,
craftsmanship and literature, educational services, etc.).
Under the statutory legislation, the FAD is the sole national organisation for
the conservation and preservation of national heritage. Based on the
Monument Act, the main objectives aim to guide, control and implement the
conservation and preservation of ancient monuments, antiques, objects of art
and museums in Thailand. Obviously, the Director-General of the department
is responsible to define and control ancient monuments, antiques or objects of
Art, including registration of any monuments, artefacts and places as
“National Monument”, as stated in section 7 of the Monument Act:
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
“Section7. The Director-General shall, for the purpose of keeping,
maintaining and controlling ancient monuments under this Act, have the
power to cause, by means of notification in the Government Gazette, any
ancient monument as he thinks fit to be registered, and to determine such
area of land as he thinks fit to be its compound; which area shall also be
considered as ancient monument. Cancellation and modification of the same
may likewise be made.”
As well as other sections in the first and second chapters of the Monument
Act, the Director-General is empowered to demarcate the extent of a
monuments’ area where any construction is limited, and to preserve and
excavate of registered monuments and archaeological sites whether they
belong to public or private owner (Pimonsathean (2), p.2). Although in practice
the owner of the monuments, artefacts or places can appeal against the
registration notification within 30 days, most of appeals are rejected and the
registration continually proceeded. Therefore, the Monument Act intends to
preserve national monuments, while development is limited under the Act
(Pimonsathean (2), p.2). Moreover, the FAD has been improved its
conservation-related actions based on the international standard such as in
1985 the FAD issued departmental ordinance on the preservation of
monument, which set up guidelines followed definitions and preservation
methods in the Venice Charter (Pimonsathean (2), p.2).
The Monument Act has been adjusted a few times to be up-to-date and more
effective in the present-day context. Additionally, the Monument Act is also
used with other laws to provide effective conservation and preservation of
Thai cultural heritage. There are at least five laws related to the protection and
preservation of national monuments, although they are different ranges of
control and issued by different state agencies (Pimonsathean (2), pp.2-3).
These laws are the Act on Town and Country Planning B.E.2518 (1975 A.D.)
and B.E.2535 (1992 A.D.)-By the Department of Town and Country Planning1,
Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act
1
Under Ministry of Interior
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
B.E.2525 (1992 A.D.)-By the National Environment Board2, and Local-By-Law
by local government.
For more than 40 years since the Act, the FAD has compiled a list of
registered national monuments. In 1999 the list of national monuments in
Thailand consisted of 2,126 registered monuments, which comprised various
types of monuments and can be divided into 15 categories (See Table 2.1).
Obviously, religious buildings, particularly of Buddhism and Hinduism,
dominate more than a half of the list (1,220 from 2,126-about 57 per cent).
Table 2.1 List of National Monument in Thailand in 1999
Type of Monument
1. Objects
2. Religious Buildings
§ Buddhism and Hinduism
§ Other religions
3. Residences
§ Monastic
§ Dynastic
§ Manors
§ Shophouses
4. Historic structures in natural sites
5. Ancient cities and archaeological sites
6. Public buildings
7. Military structures
8. Amenities
9. Canals, castles, city pillars, city gates and lighthouses
10. Structures for vehicles and draught animals
11. Parks, ponds and conservation areas
12. Historical sites
13. Statues
14. National Museums
15. Remnants
Total
(Source: Tiamsoon Sirisrisak, 2002)
2
Number
113
1,218
2
3
42
17
4
89
169
53
4
41
71
6
228
14
5
20
27
2,126
Under Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (now Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment)
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
2.2.2 Problems in Conservation and Management of Cultural
Heritage in Thailand
Due to the centralised power and statutory legislation of the Department,
these have led to many problems in practice between individuals or local
authorities and the department. Such problems are related to different issues
e.g. political, cultural, social, educational and economic issues. One example
as mentioned by ICOMOS Thailand (ICOMOS, 2000, p.172) is in the historic
area of Khao Khok, Saraburi province, where the governmental agency
wanted a community which has lived there for a hundred years to relocate
from the area but the community disagreed. Lack of effective communication
and awareness among the local community and national agencies has
caused such a conflict. These have become more problematic in many
national monuments and heritage sites of both national and international
significance, such as the Historic Towns of Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, and the Old
Town of Phuket. Furthermore, as the main authority in charge of cultural
heritage, the FAD has faced difficulties in allocation of limited resources i.e.
personnel, budget and related supports to carry out the effective conservation.
Furthermore, based on recently decentralised administration that empowers
the local authorities in practicing the conservation-related activities, the
problems have become more complicated and critical. One reason comes
from the political and administrative structures such as overlapping of
responsibilities and tasks in the cultural heritage. On the other hand, lack of
sufficient preparation, as well as resources, also causes the problem in
practising and implementing the conservation and management of the cultural
heritage.
Therefore, there are many problems in conservation and management of the
cultural heritage in Thailand, particularly at the operational level among local
authorities as follows:
§ Lack of sufficient and effective resources in implementation of
conservation at the operational level, particularly professional,
expertise and financial supports;
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
§ Lack of adequate cooperation between central and local authorities
in both planning and operational level;
§ Lack of adequate preparation in the local authorities in carrying out
the conservation and management of the heritage;
§ Lack of effective management plan for the cultural heritage, as well
as for the community and surrounding;
§ Lack of adequate data of cultural heritage, both registered and nonregistered, which can be used for future planning; and
§ Lack
of
awareness
and
understanding
in
protection
and
conservation of the cultural heritage in both the national and local
authorities.
2.3 Monument Grading System in Thailand
Due to such problems, there are difficulties in managing conservation-related
actions such as allocation of resources, staff and budget, and priority of
conservation needs. To react to these problems, the FAD proposed a
Monument Grading System, as a part of the decentralisation process (See
Appendix B). This system aims to set up a standard and priority in relation to
management of conservation at each national monument and heritage site,
based on the grade order. Additionally, this can help the department to
allocate its resources for effective conservation of the heritage in coordination
with the local authorities.
2.3.1 Concept of the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Based on statutory legislation, the department is responsible in protection the
monuments, buildings and sites from any deterioration, which implies mainly
to preserve rather than to restore, conserve or manage changes, alterations
or demolitions of the monuments. Additionally, the FAD also compiles the
sites and objects of historic value and of architectural interest, as well as
manages the conservation-related actions for the cultural heritage.
In Thailand, there are numerous monuments of different historical periods,
from the Prehistoric to the present, which are either completely intact or
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
damaged or even ruined. Types of monument, characteristic, construction
technique, craftsmanship, size, building materials and causes of decay and
damage implies different conditions among the monuments in the concept
and implementation for protection and conservation (Eim-Anant, 2002, p.1).
Each type of monument e.g. single, group of monument, and urban area,
therefore requires an appropriate approach. These concern economic, social,
traditional and cultural patterns of each locality as well. Thus, the FAD has
proposed the Monument Grading System with respect to differences of the
monuments since November 1996. Firstly, the FAD has established a
Committee on the Monument Grading, whose duties are:
§ To set the criteria for monument registration and monument grading;
§ To grade the monument;
§ To set a standard for personnel, budget and management of
monuments in each grade; and
§ Other relevant duties
(Eim-Anant, 2002, p.1)
The committee is responsible to designation, applying and monitoring the
grading system directly. The system will be used for both registered
monuments and newly proposed monuments. By general agreement, the
committee has proposed the classification and selection criteria for the
monuments based on international organisations and charters, which are
widely recognised such as ICOMOS, UNESCO, Venice Charter, Florence
Charter, Washington Charter and Charter of Lausanne (Committee on the
Monument Grading, 1999).
Moreover, the monument grading system aims to provide effective and
sufficient management of conservation–related actions, particularly allocation
of the FAD’s resources i.e. staff, expertise, budget, equipment and tools. The
standard and priority of conservation and development are fixed according to
different grades to design an appropriate conservation programme of each
monument, in relation to proper allocation of the resources. The grading
system is focused on the value of the monument, potential for conservation,
and the risk of damage or deterioration of each monument (Eim-Anant, 2002,
p.2). Moreover, the system will be an important official tool in solving the
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
problems, previously mentioned, of the FAD and the local authorities in
conservation and management of the national monuments and cultural
heritage. Consequently, the graded monuments and related implications are
taken into account during the planning of conservation policy and project in
each fiscal year.
2.3.2 Monument Classification
(Ancient) Monument, based on the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques,
Objects of Art and National Museums, B.E.2504 (1961 A.D.), means “an
immovable property which, by its age or architectural characteristics or
historic evidence, is useful in the field of art, history or archaeology and shall
include places which are archaeological sites, historic sites and historic
parks.” Age, architectural characteristics and historic evidence are three main
criteria in selection and registration of the monument. By these criteria,
monuments more than 50 years old are selectable for the registration of
national monument, and also for grading. However, according to the Act,
there is no classification of the monuments. Currently, they are merely divided
into two types of monuments: registered, as National Monument, and nonregistered monuments.
Therefore, under the proposed monument grading system, the grading
committee has given six different types of monuments, in order to set up the
appropriate criteria for grading as follows:
1. Isolated Structure: Monuments in this type are the lone-standing, or
isolated structures which may comprises monuments, buildings,
bridges, pagodas, stupas, mosques, and etc.
2. Group of Buildings: This type comprises the monuments, which are
situated in groups. There may or may not be a principal, or central
structure within each group. These are such as temples, schools, civil
centres, etc.
3. Urban Area and Historic Town: This type is characterised by the
component of each area, which must be sufficient to serve the needs of
each community. Such area, if it has a distinguished history, is
considered a historic town.
4. Archaeological Site: is divided into:
Excavated Archaeological Site
Unexcavated Archaeological Site
Rock Art Site, such as the paintings or reliefs found on cave walls
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
5. Historic Site: This type comprises historically important areas, such as
Thung Makham Yong, the battlefield of Thai-Burmese War, and etc.
6. Historic Landscape: This type comprises the areas which have been
planned and landscaped such as the garden in the ancient palace,
Ayutthaya, and the garden in Narai Ratchanivet, Lopburi, and etc.
(Eim-Anant, 2002, p.2)
2.3.3 Monument Grading System
From the Operational Guidelines in the Conservation of Monument and
Environment in June 2000, the grading committee and FAD (2000, p.5) have
set up three principles in evaluation the monuments, which are: Cultural
Values, Functional Values and Aesthetic Values. The different detailed issues
of the values will be applied to assess various types of the monument.
Practically, there are three criteria in marking: the values of the monument,
potential for conservation, and the risk of damage or deterioration of each
monument. Different charts of the three issues are used for evaluation (See
Appendix C). Each issue will be marked: from zero (lowest) to five (highest),
in relation to its importance, value, and urgency. The results will be concluded
by averaging the marks of each issue. The result of grading in each issue
implies different levels of value, potential, and priority of each monument.
These can be summarised as follows:
1. Value Grading
The value grading is used for registration of the monuments, which can be
categorised into four levels of national to local importance (Eim-Anant, 2002,
p.3):
National Treasure: monuments with highest value of national importance.
The average mark of this grade is 4 and above.
Significant Cultural Heritage: monuments of regional importance. The
average mark is between 3 and 3.99.
Cultural Heritage: monuments of provincial importance, with an average
mark between 2 and 2.99.
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Conserved Building and Site: this category comprises buildings and
sites with historical art or architectural values of local importance. The
average mark is between 1 and 1.99.
Graded monuments can be divided into two groups: national importance - the
first, second, and third grades, and local importance being the fourth grade.
The first group of monument is protected under the “registration” status, while
the second group is protected under the “listing” status. However, the grade
can be revised when the relevant information is changed or more information
is obtained.
In case the average mark of the monument is below than 1, the monument is
not qualified for registration and grading. This means that the unqualified
monuments will not be protected by the statutory legislation. Therefore, local
authorities and communities are important players in the protection and
conservation of the fourth-grade and unqualified monuments, in coordination
with the FAD.
2. Conservation Potential Grading
The second grading considers the potential of conservation of each
monument with respect to its value and present conditions. The result will be
used to propose of conservation and development plans, particularly the high
grade. There are three grades in this issue as follows (Eim-Anant, 2002, p.3):
High Potential: monuments with high readiness or the most appropriate to
be conserved. The average mark is between 3.33 and above.
Moderate
Potential:
monuments
with
moderate
readiness
and
appropriate to be conserved, with an average mark between 1.67 and 3.32.
Low Potential: monuments with low readiness and appropriate to be
conserved. The average mark is 1.66 and below.
3. Urgency Grading
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Urgency grading considers the present situation and the risk of deterioration
or damage of each monument. The grade is taken into account for prioritising
conservation planning and other actions. These grades are divided into 3
grades with the same range of score as the Conservation Potential Grading
as follows (Eim-Anant, 2002, p.3):
Urgent: monuments with high risk of deterioration or damage, which are
urgency needed of conservation actions. The average mark is between 3.33
and above.
Necessary but not Urgent: monuments with lower level of risks than the
first grade, but necessarily need conservation. The average mark is between
1.67 and 3.32.
Not Necessary: monuments with low risks and are not necessary for
providing conservation action immediately. The average mark is 1.66 and
below.
In practice, the department and its 15 regional offices will carry out the
evaluating procedure. If monuments are under the central responsibility, the
evaluation will be done directly by the experts and divisions in the central
FAD: Monument Registration Section, Archaeological Science Section and
Monument Preservation Division. On the other hand, if the monuments are
situated in regional area, the FAD regional office, which is in-charge of the
area, is required for evaluation. The marking process will be decided by the
Director of the regional office, the Head of the Scientific Section and the Head
of Monument Section. Moreover, local values have to be taken into account in
the evaluation, which concerns different issues such as social, religious and
cultural.
The result of the evaluation and marks would be approved and monitored by
the central Committee on the Monument Grading as authorised by the FAD.
This procedure is to ensure the fairness and impersonality of evaluation.
Consequently, the approved result will be submitted to the Director-General of
the FAD, whose responsibilities are to approve and register the monuments.
By order of the Director-General of the department, the grading is officially
designated and authorised.
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
At the beginning of implementation, the first priority for implementation of the
grading system will be given to the registered national monuments, which
have been surveyed and collected data. Meanwhile, the monuments
proposed for registration should be gradually evaluated and graded under the
same procedure and standard.
2.3.4 Implications of the Monument Grading System
Graded monuments are managed and protected differently, based on different
grades. Based on the value grading, monuments are divided into four grades:
National Treasure, Important Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage and
Conserved Building and Site. Therefore, the protection and conservation of
each grade of monument is different, based on its degree and level. Proposed
by the grading committee, conservation and management of graded
monuments are respectively defined (FAD, 2000) as follows:
1. National Treasure: Any change or alteration to the monuments in this
grade requires careful scrutiny. Permission for any change and
alteration to the monument must be given and controlled by the central
office of the Fine Arts Department.
2. Important Cultural Heritage: Work on this group of monuments shall
be provided as necessary to maintain the significant value and
characteristics of the structure. Similar to a first-grade monument, the
central FAD office must be consulted and approve any change and/or
alteration.
3. Cultural Heritage: Any work on the monuments in this grade is
necessary and depends on local needs. The action can be made
directly by the local authority following the consultation and guidelines
of the FAD, with permission given by the regional office of the
Department.
However,
these
monuments
must
maintain
their
significant values and characteristics.
4. Conserved Building and Site: Any work and change can be made, if
necessary, to both physical and functional features. In case of
demolition, permission must be given by the regional office of the FAD.
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Documentation of the significance of the monuments i.e. history,
archaeology and physical features, is required.
Graded monuments have different issues: protection tools, degree of
conservation, approval authorities, implementers or operators, and inspectors
(FAD, June 2002). Those issues range from the most to the least strictness of
protection and conservation. Additionally, different players e.g. FAD central
and regional officials, local authorities and individual are recognised in
different levels of implementation. Different degrees of control and
responsibilities of each grade can be summarised in the Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Summary of proposed management of Monument Grading System
Management
of
monuments
Protection
Tool
st
1 Grade
Grade of Monuments
2 Grade
3rd Grade
nd
4th Grade
Registration
Registration
Registration
Listed
Degree of
Conservation
The most
strict
Moderately
strict
Less strict
The least
strict
Approving
Authority
FAD central
office
FAD central
office
FAD regional
office
FAD regional
office
Implementer
or operator
FAD
authorized
agency
FAD
authorized
agency
Owner or
local
authority with
the FAD
guidelines
Owner or
local
authority with
the FAD
guidelines
Inspector
FAD central
office
FAD central
office
FAD regional
office
FAD regional
office
(Source: The Fine Arts Department, June 2002)
The procedures and actions in conservation of the graded monuments, which
cover surveying, registration, maintenance, protection, conservation and
management of monuments, are financed and supported in different degrees,
based on the grade order. With the guidelines of the FAD, different levels of
financial support are provided by grade order as shown in Table 2.3.
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Table 2.3 Financial support in conservation-related action of graded
monuments
Grade of Monuments
1st Grade
National
Importance
Local
Importance
Financial Support from the Fine Arts
Department
Possibility of financial support available
for up to 100 per cent
2nd Grade
Possibility of financial support available
for up to 75 per cent
3rd Grade
Possibility of financial support available
for up to 50 per cent
4th Grade
Possibility of financial support available
for up to 25 per cent
(Source: The Fine Arts Department, June 2002)
However, while different financial incentives such as tax relief and grant aid
are not yet considered and planned in Thailand, the financial resources and
the funding system are merely dependant on the fiscal budget of the Fine Arts
Department
and
partially
supported
by
international
organisations.
Furthermore, the priority of any monument, which is eligible for financial
support, is based on the “Urgency Grading” evaluation. Significantly, the
development of monument evaluation and grading inventories will increasingly
play a more important role in protection decisions, not only as management
tool but also as an aid in prioritising the allocation of resources, particularly
finance.
In conclusion, the monument grading system in relation to its implications can
be depicted based on the grade and condition of the monument. (See figure
2.1) From figure 2.1, the grading system, particularly, value and urgency
evaluations, can be applied to set up the priority of conservation and
management for monuments in Thailand. First priority is given to the
monument with the highest grade (value), which is in risk of deterioration,
while then based on successive grades and conditions within the grades (i.e.
second, third and fourth).
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Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the Monument Grading System in Thailand
Grade
Grades of monument
st
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
2
grade
Central
authorities
1
nd
rd
3
grade
th
4
grade
Poor
Moderate
Fine
Local
authorities
Listing
Registration
1
grade
Condition of
monument
Legend (No.)
Description
1
The first priority of implementation conservation-related
action, in the most strict condition
The second priority of implementation conservationrelated action, in moderate strict condition
The third priority of implementation conservation-related
action, in less strict condition
The fourth priority of implementation conservation-related
action, in the least strict condition
2
3
4
Figure 2.1 Relationship between grading system and conservation priority of
monuments, based on the Table 2.2
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Chapter 3: Implementing the Grading
Lessons from a Selected Country: England
System:
The genesis of the conservation movement in Europe will be investigated in
this chapter in terms of the development of ideas and actions that influenced
legislation in various countries in the last two centuries. European attitudes on
heritage and its significance are manifested through numerous actions in
protection and conservation at both of international and national levels since
the 19th century. Such actions included the establishment of conservationrelated organisations, initiative of cultural conferences and declaration of
related charters, policies and programmes. One effective action for the
protection and conservation, on a statutory basis, is the listing and grading
system. Thus, this section explores the listing and grading system of cultural
heritage in the western and international contexts such as World Cultural and
Natural Heritage, specifically in England. These will be examined through their
administrative structure, legislative mechanism, implementing procedure, and
positive and negative effects, with respect to the protection of buildings and
sites of historical importance.
England is selected for review and detailed study because of its long history
and success
on
conservation-related actions.
Different
constitutional
structures in protection and conservation are considered as one important
issue. In case of England, the initial responsibilities and chief authorities are
central authorities with subdivisions. However, during the last few decades,
local authorities and public amenity organisations have played an important
role in protection and conservation in England. Thus, centralised constitution
and structure in relation to the conservation and grading system are
comparable and can be used as the reference to an initiative of the system in
Thailand.
3.1 Cultural Heritages and the World Heritage List
“Cultural heritage” was first recognised in the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972. The convention
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
has become a basis of international awareness and initiatives among state
parties in the protection and conservation of cultural and natural heritage, as a
member of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO). The definition of cultural heritage has evolved
through the course of time, since the Italian Renaissance period until today,
an emphasis of “Cultural Heritage” as stated by UNESCO (Jokilehto, 1996,
pp.59-61). The heritage of “outstanding universal value” has considerably
expanded to include both of tangible and intangible aspects e.g. language,
rites, beliefs, historic places and monuments, literature, work of arts and
libraries. Thus, these heritages of universal significance are listed as the
World Cultural or Natural Heritage under the World Heritage List, which is
recognised as an important tool in protecting those heritages.
Under the definition set out in Article 1 of the Convention, “Cultural Heritage”
is described as:
“Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and
painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave
dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal
value from the point of view of history, art or science;
Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings
which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the
landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history,
art or science;
Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and of man, and
area including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value
from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological points of view.”
However, under the present condition, definition, and interpretations of the
cultural heritage, particularly World Cultural Heritage, has changed and
extended to various categories of tangible properties, as follows: sculptures;
monuments; archaeological sites; historic buildings and structures; historic
towns; historic areas; and cultural landscapes.
These cover from the small and movable objects to the large areas of historic
and cultural importance and its environment. Moreover, the historic towns and
cultural landscape have embraced various characteristics in relation to
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
“groups of buildings” and “combined works of nature and of man”,
respectively.
Based on the operational guideline (UNESCO, 1999, pp.7-8), historic towns in
respect to “groups of buildings” are categorised into 3 types: un-inhabited
historic, inhabited historic, and Twentieth-Century. Therefore, historic towns
may remain in actual use of historic fabric or consist of partial remains and
evidence of the past.
In a wider sense, the cultural landscape has adopted especially “a diversity of
manifestations of the interaction between humankind and its natural
environment.” (UNESCO, 1999, pp.9-10) This has illustrated cultural elements
of human societies, which has embedded and enhanced the natural
environment as well as maintained biological diversity. Therefore, an evolution
of the cultural heritage has extended and become more comprehensive in
protection of the heritages.
Certain criteria must be met before the selected heritage is included in the
World Heritage List. The World Heritage Committee, together with the
advisory organisations (e.g. ICOMOS, IUCN and ICCROM), has full power to
evaluate and designate properties as World Cultural or Natural Heritage Sites.
In the year 2002, the List consists of 730 World Heritages, which divided into
563 of World Cultural Heritage, 144 of World Natural Heritage, and 23 of
mixed properties (in 125 State Parties). (UNESCO, -)
3.2 Listing and Grading System in European Countries
At the initial stage, conservation-related actions in Europe were mostly
concerned with the past. This idea can be described by respecting to those
past and precedents (Larkham, 1996, p.33). However, those early efforts and
legislative actions were exceptional and relatively ineffectual. In European
countries, significant change towards the monuments and heritage of the past
began in the mid- to late 18th century among the social elite groups’ attitudes
(Larkham, 1996, p.33).
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Some renowned architects and writers of that time such as Augustus W.N.
Pugin (1762-1832) and John Ruskin (1819-1900) in England, and Eugene
Emmanuel Viollet–le–Duc (1814-1879) in France, have contributed great
knowledge on architecture and conservation that is still recognised today. An
initial phase of conservation legislation was derived from those attitudes and
activities of the group, through the 19th century (Larkham, 1996, pp.34-37).
At the moment, the legislation has spread to other fields such as urban
planning, building regulation, economic and social infrastructure development.
Furthermore, this legal instrument also expands to facilitate urban renewal
and preservation measures, which contain specific and related fields of
activity, such as defining protection and conservation of the monuments, the
structure of land ownership, the rights and duties of owners and responsible
authorities, and the financial support. Enacted into law by many European
countries, the listing and grading of properties worthy of protection has
obviously been implemented, despite different systems and details in actions
of each country (German Commission for UNESCO (GCU), 1980, p.9-10).
a. Definition of the Cultural Heritage in European Countries
Mostly, among the European countries, the heritage properties also comprise
the concept of monuments (individual buildings), groups of buildings, and
sites that are spread over several categories and governed by a number of
legal systems. The Council of Europe1 specified three categories of heritage
items to be protected by Convention for the Protection of the Architectural
Heritage of Europe (Granada), ETS No. 121, on 3rd October 1985, which are:
Monuments, Groups of buildings and Sites that are similar to the definition by
UNESCO
(http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/121.htm,
and
see also the Glossary).
1
The Council of Europe is an inter-governmental organisation, founded in 1949 to 'achieve a
greater unity between its Members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals
and principles which are their common heritage, and facilitating their economic and social
progress'.
(Source: The Council of Europe. http://www.coe.int/. 21.11.2002)
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
However, categories vary from country to country based on various
international charters and recommendations (Jokilehto, 1996, pp.62-63). For
instance, in France, heritage is divided into historic monuments, which covers
movable and immovable property, historic sites, supplementary property of
special interest, and the area and environment around the historic
monuments. In the United Kingdom there are different categories such as
monuments, buildings, ecclesiastical buildings, conservation areas, which
cover historic towns, villages and industry archaeology and transport areas,
historic parks and gardens, and agricultural archaeology and dispersed
settlements (GCU, 1980, pp.105-111 and Larkham, 1996, pp.125-131).
b. Listing and Grading System in European Countries
Listing is a procedure for protecting monuments, buildings, groups of
buildings and urban planning from danger of destruction, whether by nature or
human beings.
In addition to the listing process, the grading system is implemented to
represent relative importance, status, priority of protection, conservation and
development, and support in conservation-related actions e.g. grants and
funds. The grading system is also used as a tool to identify the right of the
owners and the conservation-related authorities. However, in some countries
such as Germany, Denmark and Spain, there is no other level or grade, which
is “the basis that all monuments should be equally eligible or for other
reasons.” (Pickard, 2002, p.351) However, the grading system has initiated
and practised in many European countries, since the 20th century, such as in
France and particularly in the United Kingdom where the system has become
an essential means of conservation and management of heritage of national
importance, particularly in the prioritisation and allocation of resources to the
heritage.
France was the first pioneer that officially listed historic buildings in 1831.
However, it was not until early of the 20th century that the listing system was
recognised as a powerful tool for conservation, and implemented in legitimate
actions. The listing and grading of buildings usually implies restrictions that
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
relate to structural modifications. Meanwhile, provisions for the protection of
the environment as well as the buildings has also been extended under the
system such as in France, and the Netherlands (GCU, 1980, p.10).
Generally, the criteria that determines the nature of properties to be protected,
enlisted and graded are the same in all countries’ legislation, particularly
artistic, historical, scientific and social criteria. In addition to those criteria,
local interest is regarded as a special factor in evaluating the heritage. Some
countries give protection on a chronological basis. In some countries all
buildings and sites more than 50 years old are automatically and legally
protected under the list, but not in all cases. In England, the monuments just
over 10 years old may be listed if they are under threat and are of significant
quality to merit Grade I, II* or II status.
Administrative structure is also an issue in considering the conservation
procedure. In Europe2, sub-national governments, particularly local authorities
are taken into account as the key player for initiating and planning the
conservation plan, as well as implementing the listing and grading
procedures. Thus, the local authority usually undertakes decision-making
processes. Nevertheless, this is still the case as in France, Germany and the
Netherlands; conservation and development plans have to be submitted to a
higher authority for approval (GCU, 1980, p.10). However, there are obvious
advantages of central authority-based responsibility, such as the systematic
establishment of common criteria, comprehensive plans, assessment of
heritage and uniformity in the distribution of funds to the listed heritages
(GCU, 1980, p.11).
There are a few types of legal controls concerning the listing and grading
procedures. These include the concurrent responsibilities of the federal
constitution, regional planning, and town planning. The administrative
responsibilities for cultural heritage are always in the hand of the Ministry for
Culture, but in some countries the administrations may be sub-divided into
2
In this Master’s Thesis, some western European countries are selected to study.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
components such as regional subdivisions of different ministries. The
protection legislation may take the form of: a decision embodied in a decree
or regulation, statutory list, official publication, or a combination of these
procedures.
Finance is one important issue that closely relates to the listing and grading
system. Based on the list, there are different grades of heritage. Each of the
grades has various possibilities of financial support, based on status and
priority. Various systems of grants, tax relief and other forms of assistance
have developed in all of the European countries. Due to scarcity of funds for
conservation of heritage, one common feature is that only a small proportion
of the actual costs can be covered by such grants and in most the cases, the
funds only serve to stimulate private initiative for conservation measures
(GCU, 1980, p.13). Different categories of heritage also influence availability
and scope of financial support. Fewer funds are usually available for urban
conservation than there are for individually historical buildings. Based on a
study on Cultural Policies (GCU, 1980, p.13), the size of grants also varies
between “indefinite”, such as in Germany and the UK, and “up to 100 per
cent” in France. This is related to different conditions of each country. Mostly,
the grants are directly provided by the central government and partially by
local authorities.
The other factor is public participation. Today, extensive public involvement
has greater influence on protection and conservation. Most public participation
is based on personal interests affected by conservation planning. There are
two different characteristics of public involvement: cooperation between
government and local authorities, and a citizen’s action groups such as in the
form of foundations. The United Kingdom has the longest tradition in this
respect, as initiated since the late 19th century: the SPAB in 1877 (GCU,
1980, p.13 and Cullingworth et al, 1994, pp.155). Moreover, such activities
are mostly extensive in the UK, the Netherlands and Germany, which
effectively influence conservation and planning on national and local levels.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
3.3 Listing and Grading System in England
Conservation in England has evolved and practised for more than a century.
Many governmental and voluntary (private and semi-private) organisations
have played important roles in protection and conservation of heritage.
Particularly, a common feature of the English conservation system is the role
played by local authorities because they have the power to give permission
for planning and demolition. Additionally, the English statutory conservation of
heritage is one aspect that has greatly practised and resulted, particularly
statutory mechanisms, which are: Scheduling for historic monuments,
Listing and Grading for historic buildings, and Conservation Area3.
To study and examine the listing and grading systems in England, one must
keep in mind the difference and complexity of administrative structures as well
as social and cultural characteristics, in comparison to Thailand. In the next
section, different issues of the English system, which are statutory
mechanisms, categories and selection criteria, grading system, main players,
financial resources and the impact of the system, will be studied separately.
a. Statutory Legislations and Mechanisms
Under the “Ancient Monuments” concept, statutory conservation of heritage in
England was begun in late of the 19th century by initiatives of elitist groups
such as establishment of the SPAB in 1877, and the Ancient Monument
Protection Act in 1882, remarked an initial of conservation measure by
legislative protection on 29 monuments in England and Wales, and 21 in
Scotland (Suddards and Hargreaves, 1996, p.1). From early of the 20th
century, many conservation statutes and actions in England have generated
and practised which become an important base of present conservation
policies and activities by the English government and different authorities
such as Department of the Environment (DoE, est. 1971) and Department of
3
In this Master’s Thesis, as only the listed buildings are graded, therefore, listing and grading
procedure will be concentrated and explained mainly.
35
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Culture, Media and Sport4 (DCMS, est. 1992) (Cullingworth et al, 1994, pp.2124). (See Table 3.1)
Table 3.1 Legislative periods in English conservation
Date
Legislation
Effects on conservation
1882
Ancient Monument
Protection Act
Conservation
measure
by
legislative
protection on 29 monuments in England and
Wales, and 21 in Scotland.
1932
Town and Country
Planning Act
Conservation measure extended to buildings
other than ancient monuments, and provided
power for local authorities to make
preservation order to the buildings.
1944
Town and Country
Planning Act
Introduction of listing and grading of historic
buildings.
1947
Town and Country
Planning Act
Strengthening the listing as a statutory
protection, which is compulsory to the
Minister of Town and Country Planning.
Initiative of survey of historic buildings.
1967
Civic Amenities Act
Introduction of Conservation Areas. Grants
and loans for repair and maintenance of
listed and unlisted historic buildings: grant
aid to local authorities.
1971
Town and Country
Planning Act
Introduction
of
Building
Preservation
Notices, and providing the acquisition of
derelict listed buildings.
1972
Town and Country
Planning Act
(Amendment)
Introduction of grants and loans for
promotion, preservation and enhancement of
conservation areas, and of control over
unlisted buildings in the areas.
1974
Town and Country
Amenities Act
Controlling of demolition in all conservation
areas, duty of local authorities to publish
proposals for preservation in the areas.
1979
Ancient Monuments
Introduction
4
of
a
new
provision
for
The Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) was created in April 1992. The
responsibility for the listing of historic buildings and scheduling ancient monuments passed
from Department of Environment to the DCMS in July 1992. However, controls over works to
historic buildings, listed building consent, and conservation area consent remain the
responsibility of the Secretary of State for the Environment, while English Heritage acts as an
advisor for both departments (Suddards et al, 1996, p.8)
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
and Archaeological
Areas Act
designation of “areas of archaeological
importance.”
1980
The Local Government,
Planning and Land Act
Introduction of “certificate of immunity” from
listing, which made to the Secretary of State
that a building would not be listed for five
years.
1987
Circular 8/87 Historic
Buildings and
Conservation Areas
Policy and Procedures
Town and Country
Planning
Consolidation of various amendments of the
1971 Act. Current wording of provisions
relating
to
historic
buildings
and
conservation areas.
1990
Town and
Planning Act
Country Supersedes most of the 1971 Act such as
listing, rights of owners, enforcement, and
finance provisions, and issues a Planning
Policy Guidance Note (PPG), especially:
• Policy Guidance Note on Planning and
Historic Environment (PPG 15)-final
version in 1994
• Planning Policy Guidance Note on
Archaeology and Planning (PPG 16)
(Source: Adapted from Larkham, 1996, pp.46-51)
From the Table 3.1, the conservation-related actions in England have
gradually evolved in statutory legislations, particularly Town and Country
Planning Act. Additionally, the definition of the monuments and buildings has
gradually changed and expanded, from monuments and historic buildings to
cover unoccupied buildings, groups of buildings, urban area, landscape and
historic environment, as in present. Furthermore, financial and ownership right
issues have added in those statues, as well as the role of the voluntary and
local authorities which have increasingly recognised in conservation of the
built heritage in England. Currently, there are three main statutory
mechanisms in England: Scheduling, Listing and Conservation Area.
Scheduling
It was firstly introduced for a handful of sites in the Ancient Monuments
Protection Act 1882. Scheduling is concerning to archaeological monuments
and ruined structures of national importance (Ancient Monuments and
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Archaeological Area Act 1979, section 61(12), cited in Cullingworth et al,
1994, p.156). The Secretary of State for National Heritage is responsible to
the scheduling, with advice from English Heritage (Cherry, 2000, p.249).
Aiming to preserve those monuments as unchanged as possible, therefore,
any work, alteration, repairs and minor works have to be approved by the
Secretary of State, so-called “scheduled monument consent” (Cullingworth et
al, 1994, p.157).
Today, there are 18,360 scheduled monuments in England in 2000 (Cherry,
2000, p.249). Recently, English Heritage has developed a Monuments
Protection Programme in order to survey and evaluate all unscheduled
archaeological remains, which estimated more than 600,000 sites in England
(Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.157).
Listing
Listing system concerns those “buildings of special architectural or historical
interest”. It was firstly introduced as a part of the Town and Country Planning
Act 1944 and it was strengthened by the Planning Act in 1947. The owners of
the buildings had to be notified of inclusion of their properties in such a list, via
two-month notice and preservation order from local planning authority and the
Secretary of State, respectively (Suddards, et al, 1996, pp.9-10). However,
there was no appeal against listing, as well as no compensation if a building
was listed.
Listing aims to ensure that buildings are carefully considered before any
alteration is agreed upon (Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies (IAAS),
1993, p.12). Therefore, the system is a continuing process to update
information of and to manage the buildings, particularly in terms of their
condition and use.
The procedure for listing a building is a duty of the Secretary of State for
National Heritage, although, in practice, local authorities may encourage
central government to do so. There are three methods for listing the buildings
(Suddards, et al, 1996, p.8) as follows:
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
1. Result of normal procedures following the methodical re-survey by
English Heritage investigators;
2. Spot Listing: this process is used for buildings which appear to be in
danger of being demolished; and
3. Result from a building preservation notice, as a service by the local
planning authority, which last for 6 months for the Secretary to consider
for listing.
By the result of the Town and Country Planning Act 1968, the statutory list
became a building preservation order of the buildings and introduced a
provision: “listed building consent” that had to be applied for from the local
planning authority in respect of any alteration, extension or demolition to the
listed buildings (Suddards, et al, 1996, p.10). Moreover, it is a chance to
purchase the buildings, which neglected by the owners, while the owners can
serve the notice to the local planning authority to purchase their properties,
so-called “listed building purchase consent” (Cullingworth et al, 1994, pp.159160). Recently, listing is also provided supports from the central government
such as grant towards the cost of repair and maintenance.
Listing has become more effective due to increasing of awareness and power
of the local planning authorities and owners. Today, there are 453,111 listed
buildings in England (Hanna cited in Schuster, 2002, p.11), divided into three
grades: I, II and II*, under responsibility of the DCMS and English Heritage.
Conservation Area
The third mechanism is an emphasis on “any areas of special architectural or
historical interest the character or appearance of which it is desirable to
preserve or enhance” (PPG 15, paragraph 4.1, Cited in Suddards et al, 1996,
p.427). The first introduction of conservation area concept was in the Civic
Amenities Act 1967, by Duncan Sandys, MP (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.160).
Local planning authorities have a duty to designate conservation areas,
although the Secretary of State for National Heritage has theoretical power to
designate the area (See Sanders, 1996, p.22 and Cullingworth et al, 1994,
39
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
p.160). By the Town and Country Planning Acts of 1972 and 1974, when a
conserved area has been designated, special attention has to be paid in all
planning decisions to preserve or enhance its character or appearance, as
well as demolition of any building and tree (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.160).
Since 1992 most of the responsibilities in conservation have been transferred
to the DCMS, while the DoE still responds to any demolition and alteration in
the areas, by conservation area consent. And since 1995 the local planning
authorities have gained their power in restricting any damage and change in
the areas.
Generally, there is no formal designation procedure and no criteria of what
qualifies for conservation area status. It depends on recognition of local
planning authorities, as well as the central government (DCMS), to designate
such areas. By the year 2000, there are 9,324 conservation areas in England
(Echter, 2001 and Suddards, 1996, p.5). The designated areas have become
more popular as a means to protect the areas, as well as used for a
channelling of grants (Sanders, 1996, p.22). There are different grant-aid
programmes of the area, particularly from the English Heritage and local
authorities (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.160-161).
Practically, the three mechanisms should be seen as complementary
legislations in order to carry out the proper form and level of protection to the
historic entity. Additionally, different legislations and non-statutory procedures
such as of ecclesiastical buildings and registering of historic parks and
gardens should be taken into account for protection and conservation of the
whole range of the cultural heritage.
b. Categories and Selection Criteria
Due to various types and designation approaches of heritage in England,
different categories of heritage and selection criteria of each procedure have
developed for a century.
Based on section 61 of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Area Act
1979 (Suddards et al, 1996, p.1-2), ancient monument is defined and may
40
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
include “the site of monument, or a group of monument or any part of a
monument or group of monuments”, as well as archaeological sites (See
Cullingworth et al, 1994, pp.157-158). The ancient monuments are based on:
survival and condition, period, rarity, fragility and vulnerability, diversity,
documentation, group value and potential (Ross, 1996, pp.142-143).
Although listed buildings and conservation areas are described by the same
criteria, that “of special architectural or historic interest”, the category and
detailed criteria of listed buildings are more complicated than those of the
areas, particularly since the Second World War which increasing of modern
buildings-“Twentieth-Century buildings”- has created a number of interesting
situations in relation to their characteristics i.e. aesthetic, economic, social,
scientific and technological (Delafons, 1997, pp.201-202). The recent criteria
has stated in PPG 15, paragraph 6.10-Principle of Selection, which are:
“- Architectural interest: the lists are meant to include all buildings
which are of importance to the nation for the interest of their architectural
design, decoration and craftsmanship; also important examples of particular
building types and techniques (e.g. buildings displaying technological
innovation or virtuosity) and significant plan forms;
- Historic interest: this includes buildings which illustrate important
aspects of the nation’s social, economic, cultural or military history;
- Close historical associations: with nationally important people or
events;
- Group value: especially where buildings comprise together an
important architectural or historical unity or a fine example of planning (e.g.
squares, terraces or model villages).”
(Suddards et al, 1996, pp.443-444)
Additionally, age and rarity are considered as a relevant factor to the criteria,
as stated in PPG 15, paragraph 6.12 (Suddards et al, 1996, p.444).
Particularly for buildings erected after 1914, the English Heritage has
introduced thirty-year and ten-year rules since 1987. Currently, listing of
historic buildings are divided into five groups (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.161
and Delafons, 1997, pp.201-202):
(a) All buildings built before 1700 which survive in anything like their
original form;
(b) Most buildings of 1700-1840, although selection is necessary;
41
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
(c) From 1840-1914, only buildings of definite quality and character;
(d) Between 1914 and 1939, selected buildings of high quality only; and
(e) After 1939, a few outstanding buildings (under thirty-year and ten-year
rules).
Despite the same selection criteria as those of the listed buildings, the criteria
of the conservation areas are less complicated and based on the local
authorities’ interest. The category of conservation areas is variable as
mentioned in Circular 8/87, that:
“They may be large or small, from whole town areas to squares, terraces and
smaller groups of buildings. They will often be centred on listed buildings, but
not always. Pleasant groups of other buildings, open spaces, trees, and
historic street patterns, a village green or features of historic or archaeological
interest may also contribute to the special character of an area. Areas
appropriate for designation as conservation areas will be found in almost
every town and many villages. It is the character of areas, rather than
individual buildings, that (…) seeks to preserve of enhance”.
(Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.160 and see Larkham, 1996, pp.125-132)
Moreover, Jones and Larkham stated (Cited in Larkham, 1996, p.125-132)
that designated areas can be: historic towns, town centres, residential areas,
villages, industrial archaeology and transport areas, historic parks and
gardens, agricultural archaeology and dispersed settlements.
Despite different interpretations of those terms in the criteria, Cherry (2001,
pp.250-251) commented that such terms are intentionally indifferent, which
principally assume a degree of rarity, architectural quality, social, cultural,
economic and technological significance, interest as part of a planned group
of buildings, and of regional importance.
c. Grading System
Among the three mechanisms, only listings are categorised by grade order. If
a building selected under principles of selection, it will be listed and, then,
graded. Grading system classifies the listed buildings in order to show their
relative importance. Grading system is also considered as “…a material
42
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
consideration for the exercise of listed building control.” (PPG 15, paragraph
3.6, cited in Suddards et al, 1996, p.47)
Grading system was firstly applied to the listed buildings by the Maclagan
Committee in 1945, followed the Town and Country Planning Act 1944
(Delafons, 1997, pp.65-66). The committee was an advisory committee to the
Secretary of State before the listing of any buildings. At the moment, there
was a classification system for listed buildings, which divided into three
categories: Grade 1, 2 and 3. However, it was not recognised in later statutory
legislation (Delafons, 1997, p.201). Until 1987, the Circular 8/87, official
criteria of grading was re-publicised into four grades as follows:
Grade I
These are buildings of exceptional interest (only about 2 per
cent of listed buildings so far are in this grade).
Grade II*
These are particularly important buildings of more than special
interest (some 4 per cent of listed buildings).
Grade II
These are buildings of special interest, which warrant every
effort being made to preserve them.
Grade III
A non-statutory and now obsolete grade. Grade III buildings
were those which, whilst not qualifying for the statutory list, were
considered nevertheless to be of some importance. Many of
these buildings are now considered to be of special interest by
current standards – particularly where they posses “group value”
– and are being added to the statutory lists as these are revised.
(Delafons, 1997, p.203 and Suddards et al, 1996, p.47)
There were only Grade I, II* and II which were put on the statutory list.
However, due to PPG 15, there was no mention about the Grade III list to any
further extent and the English Heritage has responded for grading and
suggestion to the Secretary of State. Since then, some local planning
authorities have a “local list” for the Grade III buildings or those unqualified.
This also includes vernacular buildings, “which are value for their contribution
to the local scene, or for local historical associations…” as stated in PPG 15,
paragraph 6.16. Nevertheless, the buildings of local importance are also
protected under certain standards on the alteration, extension and demolition
by the local planning authorities (Suddards et al, 1996, p.48).
43
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Based on the grade order, the priority of protection and preservation of the
buildings is justified into different degrees, which major attention is put on
those Grade I and II* buildings, as mentioned in paragraph 3.17 of PPG 15
(Suddards et al, 1996, p.50).
d. The Main Players
In England there are various efforts in every sector of society. Central to those
efforts are those made by the English government, through different
departments and planning and property services agencies. Moreover, there
are the efforts of voluntary and local authorities over the wide fields such as
civic societies and local trusts, private property and development companies,
and individual owners, although some of them may not be supported by
statutory legislation. Cooperation among those organizations, therefore, has
led to an effective protection and conservation of built heritage in England.
Central Organisations
Stated in PPG 15, paragraph 1.1, governmental power and responsibilities on
conservation of heritage in England can be implemented through the
departments and agencies within the machinery of government (Cullingworth
et al, 1994, pp.21-22). In England, there are two departments and one state
body concerning listing and grading system i.e. Department of Culture, Media
and Sport (DCMS), and Department for Transport, Local Government and the
Regions (DTLGR), and an advisory organisation, the English Heritage.
Department of Culture, Media and Sport
Separated from the Department of Environment-DoE in May 1992, the
Department of National Heritage was formed and has renamed to Department
of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) since July 1997 (Delafons, 1997, p.156).
The DCMS took over responsibilities for conservation and English Heritage
from the DoE, although the responsibilities for town and country planning still
responded by the DoE (currently DTLGR).
The department is responsible “to conserve, nurture and enhance, and make
more widely accessible the rich and varied cultural heritage of the countries of
44
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
the United Kingdom” (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.23). These are including
sponsorship responsibilities for English Heritage, the National Heritage
Memorial Fund, the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of
England, and other heritage public bodies (Delafons, 1997, p.156).
Additionally, the department is responsible for wide range of casework i.e.
listing, grading, scheduling, repairs notices, reserve powers to designate
conservation areas, grants to heritage bodies, responsibilities relative to
ecclesiastical exemption, and responsibility for the protection of nautical
archaeology (Delafons, 1997, p.156). Another aspect of the Department is to
grant many heritage bodies in England, since 1994, by its revenue source of
“National Lottery”. By the year 2000/2001, more than 50 public bodies
received funding from the department. Recently, the department emphasises
private sector funding and spending on economic regeneration of historic
buildings and monuments. Statistically, it granted about 110 million pounds in
the year 2000/2001 for the cultural and conservation purposes (English
Heritage, 2001). Today the DCMS is responsible for more than 500,000 listed
heritage in the UK, which mostly are in England.
Department for Transport, Local Government and the
Regions
Dating back to 1971 the DoE was established and its first responsibilities were
concerning to “the whole range of functions which affect people’s living
environment” (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.22). These included urban policy,
planning, environmental protection and local government. After separation of
the DCMS in 1992, the DoE was reformed and divided into two new
departments in June 2001. One of them is the Department for Transport,
Local Government and Regions (DTLGR).
DTLGR has taken over the responsibilities of town and country planning, local
policy and transport from the DoE. The department is partly responsible for
the former conservation functions of the DoE, which are: decisions on call-in
and appeal relating to listed building and conservation area consent
applications, all related enforcement, modification, revocation, purchase
45
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
notice and compensation procedures, and proposals for demolition of
churches (Delafons, 1997, p.156).
Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission of England
(English Heritage)
Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission of England (generally known
as English Heritage) was founded under the National Heritage Act 1983
(Delafons, 1997, p.26). Since then, it has become the most influential
organization in protection and conservation of heritage in England. Its official
functions include (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.156):
§ Advising the Secretary of State on the selection procedure for listing,
grading and scheduling, respectively;
§ Advising the Secretary of State on applications for permission to work
on listed buildings and scheduled monuments, as well as research and
documentation of the buildings and monuments in England;
§ Making grants to individual and bodies in respect of historic buildings,
conservation
areas,
town
schemes,
ancient
monuments
and
archaeological investigation (“rescue archaeology”); and
§ Providing educational facilities and services to the public as well as
advising any person in relation to the monuments, buildings and
conservation areas.
There are various actions by the English Heritage, one of which is to compile
the lists of the buildings and monuments. Recently, the list includes more than
500,000 heritages. For the future strategy, the English Heritage has planned
an emphasis on the role of local authorities, as stated in the strategic plan
2002/03-2006/07 (See Saunders, 1996, p.28 and English Heritage, 2001).
Furthermore, it also plans to provide stronger policy and professional
leadership for both national and regional level, and to develop the capacity of
the fostering public-private-voluntary sector partnerships.
Public Voluntary Organisations and Local Authorities
In England the local participation in conservation-related actions is
significantly regarded in the form of public, voluntary, and local authorities.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Initiative of voluntary organisation was firstly remarked in mid of the 19th
century. However, most of the organisations were formed after 1960s, when
the government allowed public involvement within the planning process, and
number of them reached the peak in the mid of 1970s (Larkham, 1996, p.65).
The voluntary bodies can be divided into two categories: those whose aim is
practical conservation work, and those whose purpose is to lobby
governmental or concerned departments (Ross, 1996, pp.66-67). These
bodies are also funding towards the conservation in England. The first
voluntary body in England is the Commons Preservation Society, founded in
1865 (GCU, 1980, p.356). The SPAB was formed next in 1877. It reacted
largely on restoration of churches and cathedrals, as well as the monuments
of art. Without statutory legislation, both societies were only lobbying
organisations. For the second type of voluntary bodies, the first one was
founded in 1895 under the Companies Acts, the National Trust for Places of
Historic Interest and Natural Beauty, which began to acquire and to purchase
property of special historic interest (GCU, 1980, p.357).
Obviously, since the end of the First World War the concept of conservation
has extended largely to modern architecture, urban and rural conservation.
Since then, different bodies of both types were founded. Examples of the first
category e.g. the Landmark Trust in 1965, and the Architectural Heritage
Fund in 1975, and of the second category e.g. the Ancient Monuments
Society in 1924, the Georgian Group in 1937, the Victorian Society in 1958,
and, recently, the Twentieth Century Society in 1992 (Ross, 1996, pp.67-71).
Apart from those voluntary bodies, the local amenity organisations have
increasingly registered with the Civic Trust formed in 1957. These local
amenity organisations are effective within their own areas, particularly on
designation of conservation area (GCU, 1980, p.357).
At the local level, English local authority is organised differently in each “home
country”, and consists of unitary, county and district authorities that provide
conservation services as local plans. The authorities practically prepare
structure plan and framework for controlling within their area, particularly the
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
local planning authorities which are the primary custodian of the historic
environment and heritage. Most of them are responsible for registering their
heritage on a local list, most of which are listed Grade II (ICOMOS, 2000,
p.181-183). Their functions also include to monitor and protect the heritage
under their policies, as well as to reconcile any conservation conflict between
the owners and state. In relation to listed buildings, today the local planning
authorities are increasingly responsible for grant of Grade II listed buildings.
However, the local authorities are required to cooperate closely with those
voluntary organisations that provide practical advice and resources to the
conservation of the heritage.
e. Financial Resources and Funding Systems
In the past, the financing of conservation was concentrated mainly on historic
buildings, especially listed ones. Presently, the issue of balancing the
conservation needs of the national built heritage with its economic viability has
been considered as a new concept (McLaughlin, 1996, p.278). The main idea
of this concept is to effectively use a finite amount of money available for the
care of the built heritage, although this hardly suffices in the current situation
due to many demands from different interest groups. The concept of
conservation as an economic base is also increasingly recognised, as stated
in PPG 15, paragraph 1.4 and 1.5 that:
“…conservation and sustainable economic growth are complementary
objectives and should not generally be seen as in opposition to one another.
Most historic buildings can still be put to good economic use…They are a
valuable material resource and can contribute to the prosperity of the
economy, provided that they are properly maintained: the avoidable loss of
fabric through neglect is a waste of economic as well as environmental
resources.”
In England, the local planning authorities and voluntary bodies have
encouraged the owners and localities “to identify the optimum viable use that
is compatible with the fabric, interior, and setting of the historic buildings.”
(PPG 15, paragraph 3.9) Recently, there are different forms of financial
supports to protect and conserve built heritage in England, particularly the
monuments, listed buildings particularly Grade I and II*, and conservation
48
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
areas. Moreover, the grading system has been used for applicable grants
since 1992, as stated in PPG 15. Today, there are two main sources of grants
and funding: National Heritage Memorial Fund, and grant aid from the English
Heritage.
National Heritage Memorial Fund
The National Heritage Memorial Fund (NHMF) was established under the
National Heritage Act 1980 (Cullingworth et al, 1994, p.163), which is
including: the Heritage Memorial Fund and the Heritage Lottery Fund. English
Heritage has administered the funds since 2001, although the main source of
funds derives from the National Lottery, under the DCMS. The Heritage
Memorial Fund operates generally to preserve, acquire and maintain the
national heritage, while the Heritage Lottery Fund is divided into four
recipients: charities, heritage, arts and sports (McLaughlin, 1996, p.291).
Today the NHMF is the main source of grant aid for the conservation of
various types of heritage in England, and is only provided to public and
voluntary organizations.
In the 2000/01 Plan, the NHMF granted about 70 million pounds for repairing
historic buildings and landscapes. Recently, the fund has extended to grant
different types of heritage such as places of worship, conservation area
partnership schemes and historic environments (English Heritage, 2001).
English Heritage Grant Aid
After 1983 the English Heritage has administered grant schemes that, apart
from historic buildings and monuments, widen to include churches,
cathedrals, conservation areas, historic garden, the “Buildings at Risk” and
industrial heritage (Suddards et al, 1996, pp.388-394). Most of the grants are
provided mainly to those designated heritage, particularly Grades I and II*,
while a relatively small proportion of grants are available for Grade II buildings
and unlisted buildings. Such grants are used mostly to support and continue
work, as a partial funding, due to limited amounts of monies. In relation to the
graded buildings, the grant is in the form of “Outstanding Historic Buildings”.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Outstanding Historic Buildings
Due to limited grants, the conservation of historic buildings has always had to
be prioritised, particularly Grade I and II*, and ancient monuments. However,
the English Heritage also applies three factors in considering a grant
application, which are: “how important the building or monument is”, how
urgent or essential of the work is”, and “how much the building or monument
cost and its economic value.” (McLaughlin, 1996, p.287) Additionally, the cost
effectiveness of a grant scheme is required to measure, which is not only in
financial terms but also in the amount of increased space, the number of
functions created in the building and even of properly repaired buildings. As
shown in “Heritage Dividend”, a study commissioned by the English Heritage
in 1999 (Cited in Cherry, 2001, p.253), it revealed that every 10,000 pounds
invested by public bodies on conservation “leverages average almost five
times in matching funds…creates 177 square metres of commercial floor
space, and delivers one new job, one safeguarded job, and one improved
home.”
Recently, the English Heritage has reviewed grant conditions which
emphasize maintenance work as a key issue for the future well being of the
building after repaired, and the utilisation of the heritage e.g. public access
arrangements (Suddards, 1996, p.389).
However, within the present legislative and economic situation, all grants to
repair and maintain listed buildings are “overshadowed and burdened by
Value Added Tax (VAT)” (McLaughlin, 1996, p.279), which has been levied on
all building repairs from 1979 (17.5 per cent in 1995), while alteration and
extension work received the tax incentives, as zero-rated VAT (See
Saunders, 1996, p.27 and McLaughlin, 1996, p.279). An impact of VAT is the
“Facadism”5 of historic buildings (McLaughlin, 1996, p.279-280). The VAT
exemption or incentive should be offered to grant eligible work, which can
then enable the grant to be used more effectively and prevent the facadism.
5
“Facadism“ is to retain the facade of the building, while the interior is altered or renewed.
50
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Apart from English Heritage, other bodies such as local authorities, building
preservation trusts, the Architectural Heritage Fund, SPAB, and private trusts
and foundations e.g. Railway Heritage Trust and Getty Foundation, also
provide various grants for the conservation of built heritage in England.
f. The Effect of Listing and Grading System in England
Today, the number of the designated heritage in England is gradually
increasing, especially the listed buildings. The premise of the system is based
on protection and conservation, social functionality, and economic viability of
the heritage. However, problems have arisen from processes and
consequences of the system, particularly social and economic impacts.
Effects of the systems can be described as follows:
Misleading designation criteria and process
The purpose of designation is to ensure that the special interest of the
heritage, particularly physical feature, is considered and properly assessed
when planning for alteration or development. However, as mentioned by Sir
Andrew Derbyshire (1996, p.117) in the case Gray’s Inn, significance of the
place and its gardens were not recognised, although the experts had been
suggested towards listing and conservation of the place. However, Delafons
(1997, p.184) suggested that the system should be reviewed and selection
criteria
should
include
“importance
in
cultural,
aesthetic,
historic,
environmental and economic terms.”
Lack of local participation
The other issue is the process of identifying preservation-worthy buildings and
areas, which are now decided by the English Heritage inspectors, who have
to recommendations to the Secretary of State for designation. Without local
attitudes towards the heritage, interpretations of selection criteria by the
inspectors in practice can cause improper designation and devaluation of the
heritage.
Lack of local awareness and knowledge has caused many problems such as
appeals against the designation, and improper conservation and building
51
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
modification in relation to the context. To react to such problems, local
participation incorporated with the state officers in grading process is
necessary for raising local awareness and knowledge.
Imbalance in the resources for conservation
Based on listing and grade order, conservation of Grade I and II* buildings, as
well as listed buildings in conservation areas, are considered as the first
priority to be supported by the central government. This concept implies
discrimination, as Grade II buildings and unlisted buildings are considered
separately and have less resource in protection and conservation compared
to the first category. Thus, the conservation of this category requires
coordination between local and central authorities, which will result in a more
rational distribution of responsibilities and a more effective use of resources
(Delafons, 1997, p.185).
Financial and Economic Ineffectiveness
The financial issue has become more problematic for the government, public
bodies, local authorities and individuals, due to limited funds, VAT impact, and
increase conservation costs. In England, listing and grading systems are
being criticised for their impacts, as more of the financial burdens of
conservation are being put on the owners and local authorities, while available
grants have become more restricted and limited. Moreover, many cases such
as in the case of Battersea, have revealed negative impacts on the listed
buildings,
conservation
areas
and
their
context, particularly
without
circumspect study of cost effectiveness from the conservation work and viable
use of the listed and graded buildings (Derbyshire, Andrew, Sir, 1996, pp.117118).
One solution is “regeneration”, which is to find new uses for historic buildings,
based on the “sustainability” of the buildings on economic viability”, as today
research has revealed that listed buildings perform economically better than
unlisted ones (Cherry, 2001, p.252). One explanation can be seen in a
research of the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (Cited in Larkham,
1996, p.8-9) (see Table 3.2). Nevertheless, in practice, these dilemmas are
52
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
often overlooked. Therefore, the heritage, its new functions, and context have
to be considered together.
Table 3.2 Gains and loses in a financial analysis of conservation
Private cost or benefit
Neighbourhood loses, owner gains
The enhance prestige of the listed
property exceeds the costs of rights
loss, but neighbour’s options are
limited. To protect the listed building,
planning
policies
may
restrict
neighbours; values of neighbouring
properties may fall
Widespread amenity enhancement
Listing increases the value of the
building itself and the attractiveness
of the neighbourhood. Both owner
and society accrue benefits.
Widespread loss of rights
Values of both the listed building and
neighbouring properties are reduced
by listing.
Owner loses, neighbourhood gains
Loss of property rights in the listed
building decreases its market value
but the property attracts business
activity to the area, thus raising
neighbours’ property values.
Social cost or benefit
(Source: Larkham, 1996, p.9)
3.4 Comparison of the Grading System and Implications
in Thailand and England
As previously mentioned, the Monument Grading System in Thailand is at the
initial stage. Although the FAD has collected various experiences from
different countries, the system is not yet completed or fully defined. There are
difficulties in the conceptual and practical processes, which, in comparison to
the English listing and grading system, can be divided into different issues:
designation mechanisms, grading of monuments, legislative mechanisms,
grading evaluation, players, and financial resources and funding systems.
These can be summarised in Table 3.3.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
Table 3.3 Comparison of Grading system and implications in Thailand and
England
Issues
Grading Mechanism in comparison
Thailand
England
Designation
Mechanisms
Registration and Listing Scheduling of monuments
Listing of historic buildings
of cultural heritage
Conservation Area
Grading System
4 Categories:
• National Treasure
• Important Cultural
Heritage
• Cultural Heritage
• Conserved Buildings and
Sites
Only listed buildings
3 Categories:
• Grade I
• Grade II*
• Grade II
Main Legislative Act on Ancient Monuments, Town and Country Planning
Mechanisms
Antiques, Objects of Art
Act in 1990
and National Museums, Circular 8/87
1961 (Amendment in Planning Policy Guidance
1992)
(PPG) 1, 15 and 16
Grading
Evaluation
By central and regional By English Heritage and
FAD officials, and approved approved by Secretary of
by FAD Director-General
State for National Heritage
Main Players
Central bodies: FAD
Local authorities: BMA,
Pattaya City, PAO,
Municipality and TAO
Central bodies: DCMS,
DTLGR
and
English
Heritage
Voluntary bodies
Local amenities bodies
Local authorities: Unitary,
County
and
District
authorities
Financial
Resources and
Funding
Fiscal budget from the
Government
National Heritage Memorial
Fund
English Heritage grants:
Conservation areas
partnership, and
outstanding historic
buildings
Taxation: VAT and
inheritance tax
54
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
a. Designation Mechanisms and Grading of Monuments
Although there are different categories and approaches in the designation of
monuments in comparison to the English system - scheduling, listing and
conservation areas, the registration of national monuments in Thailand has
covered and provided full statutory legislation in protection and conservation
of every type of monuments. Nevertheless, in practice, the monument in
Thailand mainly concentrates on the single monument, most of which are
religious structure. There is less awareness towards another types of cultural
heritage, particularly vernacular or traditional Thai architecture, group of
monuments, and conserved area.
These also require cooperation among different state agencies e.g.
Department of Religious Affairs, Department of Public Works and Urban
Planning, Department of Treasury, and Crown Property Bureau, due to the
fact that many heritage are belong to and/or under control of those agencies.
Moreover, the proposed grading system in Thailand is used fro the whole
range of monuments e.g. single building, group of buildings and even the
historic town. Compared to the English grading system which only used for
the historic buildings, the proposed grading system in Thailand requires a
comprehensive procedure in order to cover the significances and different
structures of the heritage site. Particularly the group of buildings, historic town
and area, and historic site, grading of the heritage sites may require
evaluations of single building, group of the buildings, and also the historic
area as the whole context.
The proposed grading system is intended to protect and preserve monuments
rather than to control changes as in the English system, particularly in historic
buildings. Such concept has caused conflicts among the owners, local and
governmental authorities. One crucial conflict is property and ownership rights
of the monuments. Based on the Monument Act, any work or changes in the
registered monuments require the permission from the FAD. This has made
the owner of the monument reluctant to protect and conserve the monuments.
Many cases have shown that such problem led to deterioration of the
55
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
monuments, due to less and insufficient interest in protection and
conservation of the monuments of the owners. These may lead to difficulty to
protect and conserve the monument, which has decayed and damaged.
Due to such problems, the concept of registration and grading system in
Thailand should be adopted in relation to changes of the monuments, which
can maintain their values, characteristic and use within the present context
and activity.
b. Legislative Mechanism
Having developed over more than a hundred years, the statutory legislative of
conservation in England has become more effective in the protection and
conservation of its monuments. These are combined with different legislatives
such as Town and Country planning Act and Planning Policy Guidance
(PPG). In contrast, the statutory legislation of conservation in Thailand has
been in use for 40 years, the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of
Art and National Museums, B.E.2504 (1961 A.D.), amended only one time in
1992. Therefore, the Act hardly covers all the new issues in the protection and
conservation in the present situation. Revision of the Act with respect to
related legislations, authorised by different governmental agencies, is
important for the effective implementation of the grading system. This includes
the registration and grading procedures, roles of state and local authorities,
management and supports in conservation of graded monuments.
Meanwhile, the decentralisation policy is influencing the role of state and local
authorities in conservation of the monuments. An updated Act is required for
the registration and grading system of the monument in Thailand. This will be
examined in the next chapter of decentralisation policy.
c. Grading Evaluation
Based on the proposed grading system by the FAD, the local authority is
encouraged to take part in proposing and evaluating the monuments. While
state organisations and public bodies are taking part as consulting units for
the listing and grading system in England, the grading system in Thailand is
56
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
administered solely by the FAD. The local participation and attitude ought to
be taken into account in grading of the monuments. One possibility is to
encourage the local experts and authorities to participate in evaluating and
consulting of the grading procedure. Moreover, cultural foundations or interest
bodies in Thailand should take part in monitoring and examining the grading
procedure.
In practice, social and political impacts i.e. local politic, leader and relationship
between the local people and monument, may affect the grading procedures
and results. The evaluation of the grading system, which is carried out by the
FAD authorised agency, ought to be incorporate feedback from additional
parties such as NGOs and local experts. Furthermore, the interpretation and
implementation of the grading criteria ought to be clearly defined at the
operational level. In view of different contexts and relevant issues of each
monument, the criteria for evaluation and grading should in practice be
coordinated with both significance of the monument and its context e.g. local,
social, religious and economic issues.
d. The Main Players
Under the new decentralisation policy and the mission of the FAD, local
authorities are important players in the conservation and protection of
monuments. The governmental authorities act as advisory units through their
supervision, expertise, staff and financial support. A close cooperation among
different governmental and local authorities has led to effective work in
protection and conservation of the monuments in England. The English local
planning bodies have widely practised in the field of conservation and
management of the heritage such as controlling of modifications in the area of
monuments,
designation of conservation area
and
granting of
the
monuments.
Similarly, the Thai local authority is essential in carrying out the central policy.
Preparation of the local authority is important such as preparation of staff,
planning tool and means in conservation. The role of local authority is
required for continually management and preventing any planning or work
57
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Implementing the Grading System: Lessons from a Selected Country: England
affecting to the monuments. The other player in implementation of grading
system is the public body. There is a small number of such bodies, most of
which are those professional groups such as architects, urban planners, and
experts in cultural issues. Based on the role of those public and amenities
bodies in England, input from such bodies in grading process of any
monument has to be developed. A close collaboration among the FAD, public
bodies
and local
authorities
plays
an
important
role
for
effective
implementation of the grading system.
e. Financial Resources and Funding Mechanisms
The main source of finance of monuments in Thailand is the governmental
budget via the FAD. Due to the limited budget in each fiscal year,
conservation work is hardly complete and does not cover all the monuments.
It is unlike the English system, where different sources of finance are
available through the governmental, public and private organisations.
Under the proposed grading system of the FAD, allocation of the financial
resource is based on the grade of monument. This will cause difficulty for
conservation and management of monuments of local importance, for which
most of the responsibilities rest on the local authority.
An increase in financial and funding support would be important to the
registered and graded monuments
in Thailand. Public and private
organisations are necessary in supporting the conservation work. Grant, aid
and subsidy system for national monuments should be developed
systematically according to criteria, conditions, application and consent.
Moreover, the Thai government should encourage the owners to conserve
and protect their monuments through financial incentive and tax relief
programme. Such tax exemption and incentive of any conservation work on
national heritage should be implemented. These programmes will not only
assist the allocation of resources of the FAD, but also balance and share out
the funding scheme among monuments more extensively.
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Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Chapter 4: Local Authorities and Conservation of
Cultural Heritage in Thailand
In view of the present situation and problems of conservation of the cultural
heritage in Thailand, the local authorities have been given more power in
carrying out conservation-related actions. This has also been mentioned in
the recent mission of the FAD, as mentioned in the section 2.1.1.
Corresponding to this, the Thai government has also initiated and
implemented the local-participation policy, so-called “Decentralisation”, since
1999, by the “Decentralisation Plan and Process Act”. It has led to the
establishment of local authorities and their duties that concern different
issues, including administrative structure, functions and powers of the
authorities. One important issue is protection, conservation and management
of the cultural heritage of national, regional and local importance, which is
under the administrative territory and power of the local authorities.
Therefore, this chapter focuses on the Thai local authorities and their
functions in relation to the conservation of cultural heritage. There are two
main elements this chapter is concerned with, namely the “Decentralisation
Policy” - the national administrative policy related to the local administrative
structure, and the local authorities and their functions in the conservation of
heritage.
4.1 Decentralisation Policy in Thailand
a. Definition
The concept of “Decentralisation” in the area of national administrative
structure has firstly been introduced during the 1980s, which was “about the
balance of power and distribution of functions between national and local
governments.” (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements: UNCHS, 1996)
Furthermore, Parsons (cited in Mawhood, 1983) defined “Decentralisation” to
mean “the sharing of part of the governmental power by a central ruling group
with other groups, each having authority within a specific area of the state.”
This indicates also the existence of a formal political structure in a defined
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
area, which represented local interests as well as the central interests, local
sharing of power, and primary exercise of formal decision-making by local
representative councillors or officials.
Mawhood (1983) also mentioned that the decentralised local body should
consist of five characteristics: (1) Its own budget, (2) A separate legal
existence, (3) The authority to allocate substantial resource, (4) A range of
different functions, and (5) The decisions being made by representatives of
the local people.
Based on the UNCHS (1996), there are different forms of decentralisation that
concerned “the delegation of authority from a higher or more general of the
state to a lower, or more specialized unit (or area)” Four different variants
have been identified (UNCHS, 1996):
§ Deconcentration, or the transfer of functions, but not power, from a
central government to a local administrative unit.
§ Delegation, the transfer of certain powers to parastatal agencies of the
central
government,
which
are
autonomous
for
day-to-day
management and ultimately controlled by the government.
§ Devolution (or Real Decentralisation), the power and functions are
transferred to sub-national political entities, which have real autonomy
in many important issues.
§ Privatization, which transfers the power and responsibilities for certain
state functions to private groups or companies.
Based on different concepts, some have categorised into two major principles,
which are “Decentralisation” and “Deconcentration”. Mawhood (1983) had
summarised and compared the characteristics of “Decentralisation” and
“Deconcentration”, which shows the significant features of the terms including
organising principles, structures in which the principles dominate, and
practice. (See Table 4.1)
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Table 4.1 Characteristics of Decentralisation and Deconcentration
Terms associated
with:
Organising principle
Decentralisation
Deconcentration
Décentralisation
(French writers)
Déconcentration
(French writers)
Devolution
(United Nations Report)
Deconcentration
(United Nations Report)
Democratic
decentralisation
Bureaucratic
decentralisation
Political decentralised
Administrative
decentralised
Structure in which the Local government
principle dominates
Local-self government
Practice
Field administration
Regional administration
Municipal administration
Prefectoral
administration
Devolution of powers
Delegation of powers
(Source: Mawhood, 1983)
b. Decentralisation in Thailand
In Thailand, Decentralisation policy was introduced in the early 1990s. One
strong influence was an international policy: the “Local Agenda 21”, which
was committed and extended from the Second United Nations Conference on
Human Settlements, at Istanbul, Turkey in 1996. Based on the conference,
the local government was recognized as an important player in carrying out
the actions following the Agenda, while the central government of each
country
should
democracy,
encourage
and
establish
the
decentralisation,
decentralised administration and resources
local
in the local
government (Pimonsathean, 2000, p.88). In Thailand, there were different
mechanisms contributing to the decentralisation policy, two of which were the
promulgation of new constitution in 1997, and the National Economic and
Social Development Plan since the 5th plan (1982-1986)
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
The decentralisation policy has been practised since 1992 by the Thai
government (Suwanmala, 2002, p.9). There were “signs of change” in policies
and mechanisms of many state agencies such as promulgation of the
Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act 1992,
which was recognised as a strategic tool for decentralisation and allows
provincial and local authorities to formulate their own environmental
management plans. However, the official decentralisation in Thailand did not
begin until the new constitution was promulgated in 1997 (Pimonsathean,
2000, p.88 and Tummakird, 2001).
Under
the
new constitution,
there are at
least nine sections
for
decentralisation and its process, which are section 78 and 283-290
(Suwanmala, 2002, pp.9-10). These sections concern three main issues as
follows:
§ Local self-government and key principles of local autonomy;
§ Local services and functions; and
§ Allocation of taxes and duties
Thereafter, based on the new constitution, section 284, the Thai government
promulgated the Decentralisation Plan and Process Act in 1999, which has
become effective since 18th November 1999. The Act aims at functioning as
the backbone for the decentralisation policy in Thailand. Under the Act, there
are five main sections as follows (Suwanmala, 2002, p.11):
§ The National Decentralisation Committee;
§ Local services responsibilities;
§ The allocation of taxes and duties;
§ The Decentralisation Plan; and
§ Measures for Transitional Period.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
The other sign was revealed in “the National Economic and Social
Development Plan” (so-called the “National Plan” hereafter).1 Thailand has
gradually strengthened the capacity of local government since the 5th and 6th
National Plans (1982-1986 and 1987-1991), which stated the role of local
government in setting up of development priorities of the local authorities’
structure, under the approval by the central government (W. Tummakird,
2001). Further enhancement of local government and local development
efficiency has continually put in the 7th and 8th National Plans (1992-1996 and
1997-2001) that called for the decentralisation of fiscal authority and asset
holding to local administration. Recently, the 9th National Plan (2002-2006) will
concentrate on improving the capability of the local authorities, which includes
monitoring systems, information systems, and human resource capability.
From the changes and evolutions during the last decades, the local authorities
in Thailand have increasingly recognised and participated in development of
different local issues, based on the constitution and the Decentralisation Act.
4.2 Local Administration in Thailand
Under the recent administrative structure, local authority is delegated from the
central government (capital) to the region and then to local areas. The Royal
Thai Government administration consists of three levels: central, regional and
local administration (See Figure 4.1). In general, development policy and
planning in Thailand is a combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches,
while the public administration system of the country is highly centralised. The
central administration concentrates on policy formulation, through different
ministries, departments and state agencies. Meanwhile, the regional
administration i.e. provinces and districts, administers on behalf of the
national government and policy. In this section, it focuses on the local
1
The National Economic and Social Development Plan is a five-year plan, which is
emphasizing on the economic and social development, under the National Economic and
Social Development Board (NESDB), which established in 1959, followed the
recommendation of the World Bank.
(Source: The NESDB. http://www.nesdb.go.th. 13. 01. 2003)
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
administration and structure in Thailand, which has become an important
sector in the present constitution of Thailand.
Central Administration
Local Administration
The Parliament
Independent
Agencies
The Cabinet
Office of the
Prime Minister
Functional
Ministries
Departments and State
Enterprises
Ministry of
Interior
Bangkok
Metropolitan
Administration
Department of Local
Administration
Regional
Units
Regional Administration
Provincial Governor
Provincial
Departments and
State Enterprises
Provincial
Department of Local
Administration
Provincial
Administrative
Organisations
Municip
alities
Pattaya
City
District Heads
Sub-District
Administrative
Organisations
District Departments
Figure 4.1 Administrative structure of the Royal Thai Government
(Source: Suwanmala, 2002, p.2)
The local administration in Thailand is a statute of the national government
and has evolved more than a hundred years since the reign of King Rama V.
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Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
By the year 2001, there are 7,951units of local authorities. There are several
forms of local authorities in Thailand, which can be divided into three typical
and two special forms: Provincial Administrative Organisation (PAO),
Municipality, Sub-District (Tambon) Administrative Organisation (TAO),
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), and Pattaya City (Suwanmala,
2002, p.1). However, the latter two forms are special forms that differ from the
others, therefore, only the first three typical forms of local authorities will be
examined in this Master’s Thesis.
a. Typical forms of Local Authorities
Provincial Administrative Organisation (PAO)
Provincial Administrative Organisation (PAO) is established in every province,
due to the constitution in 1997, except Bangkok (BMA). It is regarded as
“Supra local authority”, as its territory covers the whole province (Suwanmala,
2002, p.3). The functions of PAO are “to promote coordination among local
jurisdictions and to carry out functions…overlapping across boundaries of
many local entities (i.e. municipalities and TAOs) within a province.”
(Suwanmala, 2002, p.3) The PAO also supports other local authorities, as
well as public agencies, concerning local service provisions.
However, due to its large-scale structure, the PAO is relatively distant from its
residents and the fiscal budget of PAO is different, from less than 100 million
to more than 500 million Baht (Suwanmala, 2002, pp.3-4). Today, there are
75 PAOs in Thailand.
Municipality
Municipality is recognised as the most well -established and developed one
among the three typical forms of local authorities (Suwanmala, 2002, p.4).
Municipality is not established in every province but followed the Municipal Act
in 1953. Currently, there are 1,129 municipalities (See Table 4.2), which are
categorised into three categories: Metropolitan (Tessaban Nakorn), City
(Tessaban Muang) and Town (Tessaban Tambon) (Suwanmala, 2002, p.4).
The structure of a municipality is divided into six main sections: office of the
city clerk, planning and technical support, finance, civil works, community
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Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
health and environment, and education. The metro municipality may have
additional sections such as social welfare, water supply, etc (Suwanmala,
2002, p.4).
Table 4.2 Municipalities in Thailand
Major
Stratification
Totals
Location
Population
Metropolitan
(Nakorn)
20
Not applicable
50,000
Population
Density
(Persons per
sq. km)
3,000
City (Muang)
86
Where the
office of
provincial
administration
is located
10,000
3,000
1,023
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not applicable
Town
(Tambon)
(Source: Suwanmala, 2002, p.4)
Primarily, municipal territories occupy urban areas, the size of which are used
to classify the categories
of the municipalities. Furthermore,
many
municipalities are developed to work with the general public on broader issues
e.g. environment and social welfare, which can be seen in different
municipalities such as in Rayong and Nakorn Sri Thammaraj provinces
(Suwanmala, 2002, p.5).
Sub-District (Tambon) Administration Organisation (TAO)
Sub-District Administration Organisation is the smallest unit among the three
typical local authorities, and it was firstly established in 1994 due to the SubDistrict Administration Organisation Act (Boramanun, 2002, p.149). It aims at
decentralising the administration to the rural areas. By the year 2002 there are
6,745 TAOs (See Table 4.3), which can be classified into five categories
based on the local revenue (Suwanmala, 2002, p.5). Most of the TAOs are
small and less developed communities, although more than 70 of the first-
66
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
category TAOs are superior to many municipalities, in term of population,
urbanization and revenue levels.
Table 4.3 TAOs in Thailand
Categories
Annual Revenues
Number of TAOs
(Fiscal Year 1997)
More than 20 million
Baht
12-20 million Baht
74
Third Category
6-12 million Baht
205
Fourth Category
3-6 million Baht
853
Less than 3 million Baht
5,535
First Category
Second Category
Fifth Category
Totals
(Source: Suwanmala, 2002, p.5)
78
6,745
TAO’s administration is mostly regarded as the least developed, as the local
politics are occupied and limited only in a small group of local leader.
Suwanmala (2002, p.6) stated that most of the TAOs are facing difficulties
and problems in administrative procedure, such as lack of transparency,
accountability and trustworthiness, as well as cronyism by political powers.
b. Functions of Local Authorities
Under the constitution in 1997, there are different sections that mentioned
about the Decentralisation, responsibilities and functions of the local
authorities, particularly in section 284, 285, 289 and 290. Firstly, it mentioned
an autonomous power of the local authorities in “policy formulation,
administration, finance and personnel management”, which are elaborately
defined in the Decentralisation Act (Boramanun, 2002, p.95 and Suwanmala,
2002, p.10)
Secondly, based on the Decentralisation Act, there are additional functions
stated in section 289 and 290: functions in local management, and in
enhancement and preservation natural resource and environment. These
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
enable local authorities to carry out preservation of local culture and heritage,
to provide education and training, to preserve and manage the natural
resource
and
environment,
and
to
promote
a
liveable
community
(Suwanmala, 2002, p.10)
Under the Act, functions of the municipality and TAO are inscribed in section
16, includes 31 functions, while the PAO’s functions are inscribed in section
17, in relation to the previous section, includes 29 functions (See Appendix
D). In summary, there are six main issues of those functions:
1. Fundamental Structure, transportation, infrastructure and urban
planning and building regulations.
2. Social Welfare, social welfare, promotion of employment, education,
training, public health and recreation.
3. Local Administration and Regulations, promotion of democracy and
local participation, and promotion of public safety.
4. Local Investment, Commercial and Trading Plan, which are:
promotion
of
local
development,
technology,
investment,
and
commerce, particularly tourism.
5. Preservation and Management of Local Natural Resources and the
Environment.
6. Preservation of Local Culture, Arts and Heritage.
Therefore, functions of the local authorities are different from those of the
local authorities. While the PAO has more functions in controlling and
responding with general policies and actions, the municipality and TAO hold
less power concerning local issues at the operational level.
However, due to the complexity and rapid change of administrative structure
in Thailand, there are different problems and obstructions in applying and
implementing a decentralised policy. These can be divided into two levels,
theoretical and operational levels. Firstly, at the theoretical level, Pennink
(Cited in Pimonsathean, 2000, pp.90-91) stated five problems as follows:
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
§ Local authorities can be weak, due to different potential in selfadministration in each authority, particularly local politic and financial
management
§ Local administration can create more bureaucracy, due to a lack of
monitoring
and
controlling
procedure,
and
of
personnel
in
administrative processes
§ Loss of control, the local authorities gain more power and may
become more independent from the central government, resulting in an
ineffective and weak administration
§ May not facilitate national coordination, which is related to the
previous issue
§ Local administration can be susceptible to political influence, local
administrative power, particularly in developing countries, is mostly
undertaken by political groups, which can lead to decisions that are not
in the public interest and political in nature
Secondly, at the operational level in Thailand, the main problems of
management and administrative practice in local authorities are as follows
(Pimonsathean, 2000, p.91):
§ Lack of transparency in decentralisation process, due to former
centralised structure of the central government, which has led to slow
process of transferring power and functions from the central to local
authorities
§ Changes in policy implementation at the local authorities, due to a
lack of preparedness and understanding of local authorities, and lack of
sufficient coordination between central and local authorities
§ Performance gap at the operational level, which is one crucial issue
of local authorities, caused by a lack of knowledge, skills and abilities
among local authorities to carry out new functions and responsibilities
Therefore, the development and preparedness of local administrative
structures, central-local relationships, financial support, and staff resources
are important for strengthening local authorities. Close coordination of local
69
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
and central authorities is also important for an efficient local administrative
system.
4.3 Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural
Heritage
Local authorities have increasingly been recognised in protection and
conservation of cultural heritage in Thailand. There have been two forms of
local participation: state authority under the statutory legislation, as previously
mentioned, and public or private organisation. Today public- and privateinitiated organisations have played an important role in the field of
conservation in Thailand. These public and private organisations are mostly
initiated by local people and individuals, specifically local scholars and
leaders.
The local authorities are important players in conservation of heritage, under
their structure, resources and supports from the central government,
particularly FAD. Although today there are a small number of cases initiated
by the local authorities, particularly municipality and TAO, conservation of
cultural heritage has become one significant commitment of the authorities.
For the new fiscal year of 2003-2004 the Thai government has allocated more
than 40,000 million Baht (about 8,333 million Euro; 48 Baht per one Euro) for
local authorities i.e. TAO, Municipality and PAO, to carry out the protection
and conservation of local arts and culture (Puek Ron, 2003). Heritage is also
regarded as an economic-base development for the local community. Hence,
conservation of cultural heritage by local authorities is becoming widely
practised in different parts of Thailand.
It is significant that there are statutory legislations backing up the roles of the
local authorities such as the constitution in 1997 and Decentralisation Process
and Plan Act in 1999. Based on the Decentralisation Act, section 16 and 17,
functions of the local authorities in relation to protection and conservation of
cultural heritage and its environment are defined as follows (Boramanun,
2002, pp.101-103):
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
§ Provincial and local development plan
§ City planning
§ Promotion of arts and culture
§ Provision of public museum and libraries
§ Promotion of tourism
§ Natural resource and environmental preservation and management
In contrast, the public and private organisations are initiated based on the
interest and awareness in conservation of their arts, culture and heritage.
These can be seen in different forms i.e. local-interested group, private and
public foundation and Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO). Although
these organisations are mostly not supported by statutory legislation, such
organisations have increasingly been founded in different parts of Thailand
such as the local historic interest groups of the Old Commercial Quarter in
Phuket, of the communities in Rattanakosin Island (Bangkok), and other
provinces. These organisations have represented local interests and potential
in conservation and management of the heritage such as raising local fund for
conservation work and voluntary work to restore historic buildings and the
surroundings.
Therefore, both types of local authorities have become an important actor in
protection and conservation of heritage in Thailand. Public-private partnership
can be found in many cases, which will be studied in various case studies of
the next chapter. To carry out conservation-related actions, there are several
implications related to the local authorities i.e. administrative structure,
legislative mechanisms, human resources, and financial management.
a. Administrative structure
The local authorities’ structures, i.e. PAO, municipality and TAO, are similar
and comprise of the council and executive committee. Under the two-fold
structure, these are divided into various sections of local issues e.g.
administration, social welfare and also protection and conservation of local
culture, arts and heritage.
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Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Nevertheless, conservation-related issues and actions are not much
concentrated in comparison to other issues such as politics, economy and
development of the area. Furthermore, the conservation is rarely officially
recognised by the council and executive committee of the local authorities.
Therefore, initiative of conservation-related programme and action is needed
from the top-level policy and officials of the local authorities.
Similarly, structures of the public and private organizations are normally
formed by different interest groups of local people or public, and generally
comprise of the committee and its leader, which are representatives among
the local leaders or scholars. The organisations normally take part in raising
awareness and promoting conservation and related activities among the
public in a specific local area.
b. Legislative mechanisms
Apart from the constitution and Decentralisation Act, legislative mechanisms
of the local authorities in protection and conservation of the cultural heritage
are laid down in different laws and acts, which are: Act on Ancient
Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums in 1961, City
Planning Act in 1975 and 1992, Enhancement and Conservation of National
Environmental Quality Act in 1992, Building Control Act in 1975 and 1992,
City’s
Cleanliness
and
Orderliness
Act in
1992,
and
Local-by-law
(Pimonsathean (2), pp.1-3). However, other than the local-by-laws, those acts
are issued and implemented through the central government agencies, only
few of them exercised jointly with the local authorities such as the
Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act,
Building Control Act, and City’s Cleanliness and Orderliness Act.
One
example
is
the
Enhancement
and
Conservation
of
National
Environmental Quality Act, issued by the Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment. According to the Act, with any local administration that has its
territory designated as an environmental or cultural protected area, the local
authority is encouraged to initiate and formulate their environmental
72
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
management plan, which will be approved by the National Environmental
Board.
Similarly, the latter two acts are practised by local authorities through local-bylaw procedure. Local-by-law is issued by the local authorities, and applies to
the specific local areas (Pimonsathean (2), p.2). Therefore, local-by-law can
be enacted under the provision of the acts, enabling the local authorities to
carry out conservation of cultural heritage within their territory. The local-bylaw is an important means increasingly recognised and practised in many
local authorities.
However, those legislations are not completely backing the roles of the public
and private organisations in conservation-related action. The public
organisations normally act with respect to the provision of those legislations.
c. Human resources
To carry out conservation-related action, the local authorities require skilful
staff and personnel. Due to rapid change and lack of sufficient human
resource of the local administrative structure, there is difficulty in
implementing the action by the local authorities at the moment.
As a result of the Decentralisation Act, officials of the three local
administrative units vary from less than 10 (in TAO) to more than 70 officials
in PAO. However, those officials are divided into different sections such as
administration, finance, and planning and civil works, which normally include
the conservation work. Conservation issue is less recognised among the local
authorities, as most of which have no special section for conservation and
personnel in such issue. Officials from different sections have to come
together for conservation work to be done. Apart from the insufficient officials,
shortage of expertise and professional personnel in conservation at the local
level is also one key problem.
Therefore, development of human resource has to be officially recognised in
the local administrative policy and plan, which will enhance development
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
programme for human resource. Promotion of education and training of the
local authorities’ members in relation to conservation and protection of cultural
heritage should be initiated and regularly practised by initiative of the FAD
experts and local scholars. Based on an interview with the FAD official
(Boonpinon, 2003), currently, there are several training programmes arranged
by the FAD for local people since 1982, and local officers such as TAOs’ and
officer of Department of Urban Planning since 2000 and 2002, respectively.
This can enhance basic skill, knowledge and capacity of local authorities’
personnel to carry out the proper conservation and management of cultural
heritage.
d. Financial management
As one critical issue at the present, financial resource and management is
less developed in conservation of cultural heritage in Thailand. However,
based on the Decentralisation Act, it has enabled the local authorities of
autonomous power in administration, politic and finance. Thus, management
of local revenue has become an important issue of self-governing local
authorities. As stated in the Act, section 30, local revenue shall be at least 20
and 35 per cent of the government’s revenue by the fiscal years of 2001 and
2007, respectively (Boramanun, 2002, pp.263-264), which is expected to be
sufficient for various functions of the local authorities.
The Act has given different channels for local authorities’ revenue, which will
be spent for different purposes, including protection and conservation of
cultural heritage and environment. Stated in section 23, 24 and 28 of the
Decentralisation Act, there are different sources of local authorities’ revenue,
particularly taxes and duties from local affairs (Boramanun, 2002, pp.258263). Additionally, local revenue can be derived from grants, loans and funds
from national and international organisations, as well as from exploitation of
local culture, arts and heritage, which is basically in a form of tourist activities
such as entrance fee of the monument. However, reviewing and monitoring
systems from the central government such as the FAD is also required for
transparency and effective use of the heritage-generated revenue, particularly
for conservation purpose.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Grants and funds from national and international organisations can be
exploited by the public-private organisations concerned with the heritage as
well, as these organisations depend largely on limited fund and revenue.
Therefore, effective financial management of local authorities is important for
conservation of the heritage.
Moreover, the functions, personnel and financial capacities of the local
authority are important factors in carrying out conservation and management
works. Due to different types and capacities of local authorities, there are only
some of them with sufficient capacity such as the BMA, the metro and city
municipalities and the first-category TAO, to implement the conservation and
management of the cultural heritage in Thailand (See Figure 4.2).
Capacity of Local Authorities
High
BMA, Metro and City municipalities,
PAOs and the 1st-category TAOs
nd
Moderate
th
Low
rd
City municipalities, 2 - and 3 category TAOs
Problematic cases
th
Town municipalities, 4 - and 5 category TAOs
Local
Regional
National
Importance of
monument
Figure 4.2 Relationship between capacity of local authorities and monuments
in Thailand
These include highly potential public and private organisations, which make
up less than 5 per cent of the local authorities in Thailand. On the other hand,
there are many monuments of national importance under control of small and
ineffective local authorities. These have led to deterioration and damage of
the monuments, due to lack of well structured, preparedness and resources of
the local authorities. Examples of such case are Historic Towns of Sukhothai
and Ayutthaya, which are administered by the Muang-Kao TAO and
75
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Local Authorities and Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Ayutthaya Municipality, respectively. Due to lack of sufficient skilled personnel
and financial resources, the TAO and municipality cannot effectively manage
and properly conserve the historic towns.
Thus, although functions of some local authorities in relation to conservation
of cultural heritage are not yet fully practise, protection and conservation of
cultural heritage have shifted to the local authorities, while the central
government, particularly the FAD, acts as an advisory unit. Close relationship
and collaboration among those players are needed. The proposed monument
grading system is one mechanism with respect to the roles of the local
authorities in Thailand. Feasibility of implementation of the grading system at
the local level in Thailand will be studied and analysed in the next chapter,
through different case studies, types of local authorities and stakeholders.
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
Chapter 5: Assessing the Feasibility of Monument
Grading System at the Local Authority Level
Based on the proposed monument grading system since 1996, obviously that
there are many problems in preparation and putting the detailed system in
practice. Although there were several tests and assessments by the FAD,
final concept and procedure of the system are not yet summarised and
defined. Therefore, this chapter aims at investigating and exploring feasibility
of the grading system in relation to different stakeholders, particularly local
authorities and relevant group of FAD officials, scholars and experts, local
leaders and people, and representatives of relevant public-private bodies.
The attitude survey is designed to gather the attitude of those stakeholders
towards various aspects of the selected heritage sites and grading system.
The main issue focuses on the significance of the heritage to the
stakeholders, perception on the heritage sites, current situation and problems
in conservation and management of the heritage sites, attitude towards the
monument grading system and its implications, and the role of local
authorities in heritage conservation. Consequently, the results obtained from
the interviews will be analysed and used as the basis for recommendation of
the grading system (Chapter 6).
Selection of heritage sites as case studies is based on the competent of the
local authorities in managing the heritage. Different levels and capacities of
local authorities and significance of various cultural heritage i.e. single and
grouped monuments are considered as important criteria for selecting case
study. Conditions and constraints in each case are explored in order to show
the actual situation and problems in conservation of the heritage sites, as well
as feasibility in implementation of the monument grading system. Based on
these criteria, there are three cultural heritage sites selected as follows (See
Figure 5.1):
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
2nd case: Lampang
1st case: Ayutthaya
3rd case: Bangkok
Figure 5.1 Map of Thailand and location of case studies
(Source: http://www.csmngt.com/thairegions.htm, accessed on 12th February
2002)
1st Case: Wat Khun Saen community in Historic City of Ayutthaya, one of
the World Heritage Sites in Thailand. The site locates in the central district of
Ayutthaya province, under the Ayutthaya municipality. It has faced different
problems and constraints in conservation and management carried out by the
FAD since 1996, e.g. conflict between the FAD and municipality, and
relocation of the local people residing in the monument.
2nd Case: Wat (Temple) Phra That Lampang Luang, Lampang province,
situated in the northern region of Thailand. This temple represents the most
beautiful and complete Lanna-style (northern) architecture, as well as local
arts and craftsmanship. The temple is one of the most important temples in
Thailand and has been listed as “National Monument” by the FAD since 1935.
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
Recently, a conservation plan has implemented in the temple and the
surrounding, which involves different stakeholders i.e. FAD, TAO, monks and
local people. Thus, there are conflicts in management and use of the area for
the religious and tourist purposes.
3rd Case: Tha Tian community in Rattanakosin Island, one of the oldest
areas of Bangkok, was declared a “conserved area” by the BMA and OEPP in
1992. This community founded more than a century ago and has become one
important commercial area in the inner area of Bangkok. However, the
conservation plan carried out by Rattanakosin Conservation Committee and
BMA has encountered many problems with conserving the local culture and
heritage e.g. relocation of inhabitants, and change of local activities.
5.1 Method for Interview and Analysis
The method of semi-structured interview is selected and designed for the
survey, based on the objectives of the study. It aims at studying the possible
characteristic and implementation of the grading system by local authorities
and public bodies.
Thus, designation of questions attempts to examine the relationship between
the stakeholders and the cultural sites; existing condition and various
problems; and attitudes towards the roles of each stakeholder in conservation
and management of the sites. These are factors influencing the present action
and possible implementation of the grading system at the local level of this
Master Thesis (See Table 5.1). List of the respondents in each case is
different due to different relevant state agencies, local authorities and related
public bodies in each case, as shown in Appendix E:
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Table 5.1 Interview issues and target respondents
Interview issues
• Significance of the heritage
• Perception on the heritage
• Existing situation and problems
in conservation and
management
• Attitude towards the monument
grading system
• Attitude towards the
Decentralisation policy and
local management based on
the system
Target respondents
• Representatives of
relevant state agencies
Number of
respondents
3
• Experts
• Local scholars
3
• Representatives of local
authorities
• Representatives of public
conservationist groups
• Local people
6
Open-ended questions are designed in respect to those previous mentioned
aims. Answers of most questions are evaluated in a rating pattern i.e. agree,
indifferent and disagree. Qualitative answers i.e. opinion, attitude and
suggestion, are conducted on two main interview issues: general attitude and
perception on significance and existing situation in each case study; and
attitude and suggestion towards the monument grading system and
implications. Main questions and rating of answers are shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Questions and rating of answer
Main question
Rating of answer
Significance of the heritage
1. Tangible significance
2. Intangible significance
3. Classification of the heritage
Perception on the heritage
1. Positive impact on variety issues
2. Negative impact on variety issues
Existing situation and problems in
conservation and management
1. Well-conserved
physical
and
cultural condition
80
Important
Moderate
National
Regional
Not
important
Local
Descriptive answer
Agree
Indifferent
Disagree
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
2. Appropriate conservation plan and
action
3. Proper allocation of resources
4. Sufficient public awareness and
participation
5. Proper use of the heritage i.e. local
economy and tourism
Attitude
towards
the
proposed
monument grading system
1. Objective of the system
2. Appropriateness for implementation
the system at the local level
Attitude towards the Decentralisation
policy and local management following
the system
1. Capacity of the local authorities i.e.
well-organised structure, legislative
means,
financial
and skilled
personnel resources
2. Proper role of the state agencies
3. Effective implications towards the
system i.e. legislative means,
public-private partnership,
personnel and funding
Agree
Indifferent
Disagree
Agree
Indifferent
Disagree
Descriptive answer
Those answers are grouped and presented in rating order, depending on
each set of question. The answers of each issue will be analysed by scoring
method in order to quantify the “opinions”, unify results of each case and
enable comparison among different case studies.
Firstly, the rating of answer is coded in three-category scale to indicate how
much the respondent agree or disagree with the questions, i.e. agree: +1,
indifferent: 0, and disagree: -1. In this case, answers from each group of
respondent are separately calculated. Consequently, scores from the three
groups will be calculated as an average score (mean). The number of
respondent in each answer is taken into account and multiplied with the coded
scale (see an example of scoring). Then the multiplied score is divided by a
number of respondents, as the score of the group.
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
The average score of the three groups represents the direction of the opinions
towards the question, in the range from +1 to –1. Thus, final result will be
compared and analysed in the section 5.3.
Example of Scoring:
Issues
Question 1
Groups of Respondent
First group (3
Second group
Third group (6
persons)
(3 persons)
persons)
A.
In.
D.
A.
In.
D.
A.
In.
D.
1
2
2
1
4
2
-
Remarks: A.: Agree, In.: Indifferent, and Dis.: Disagree
Thus, score of the first group is: [(1x1)+(0x0)+(-1x2)]/3 = -0.33
Score of the second group is:
[(1x2)+(0x1)+(-1x0)]/3 = 0.67
Score of the third group is:
[(1x4)+(0x2)+(-1x0)]/6 = 0.67
Then, average score of the question 1 is: [(-0.33)+0.67+0.67]/3 = 0.33, which
is in the range of +1 to –1.
Moreover, it should be noted that answers on the situation and suggestion
towards the case and the grading system are separately analysed, because of
descriptive answers of respondents. The variety of comments and
suggestions are collected and summarised as recommendation in the next
chapter.
5.2 Practice of Monument Grading System: Case Studies
in Thailand
Various monuments in Thailand are selected to study, from single and group
of monument, and historic area. Different conditions and roles of the
stakeholders in each case are considered. In each case study, there are
various efforts to conserve the area from different stakeholders. Various
issues in relation to the monument grading system and local management of
the selected cases will be studied and analysed.
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
Case 1: Wat Khun Saen community, Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya is situated in the central region of Thailand. It is an island in the
junction of the three rivers: Chao Phaya, Lopburi and Pasak Rivers. These
rivers facilitated internal and international transportations, which made it
become a centre of commercial and trade centre of the region from the 14th to
18th century (1350-1767). Ayutthaya’s culture, arts and architecture have
strong influence and can still be seen nowadays. On 13th December 1991 in
Carthage, Tunisia, the Historic City of Ayutthaya and associated towns were
inscribed as the World Cultural Heritage, based on significances of its arts,
architecture, river system, and water-based settlement and culture (See
Appendix F).
Conservation plan was firstly implemented in the area in 1996 by the FAD,
which included eight major works such as work-plan for archaeological,
historical research and restoration of monuments, for landscape improvement,
and for the development and improvement of residential communities
(Phengtako, -). One crucial problem the conservation plan encountered was
local communities, as some of which located within or close to the
monuments. Thus, relocation of those communities was implemented. Since
then, it has led to conflict between the FAD and local people in conservation
and management the monuments. Local attitude towards the monument and
conservation has changed in both positive and negative directions.
One example is “Wat (Temple) Khun Saen” community (See Figure 5.2), part
of which formerly resided in the monument area. However, according to the
conservation plan, the FAD relocated of eleven inhabitants that had
encroached the area in 1995-1996 (FAD, 1996, p. 14). Then, the Community
Development section of Ayutthaya municipality initiated to establish a
committee of the community in 1997, which aims at strengthening the
community as a result of the decentralisation policy in Thailand. Much effort
was put into the community to integrate and maintain the harmony between
the community and the monument and surroundings e.g. establishment of
local committee, initiative of local activities, and development of neighbouring
buildings and landscape.
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
Wat Khun Saen
community
Historic Park of
Ayutthaya
Figure 5.2 Map of Historic City of Ayutthaya and Wat Khun Saen community
(Source: http://north.sawadee.com/central/ayutthaya/map.htm, accessed on
1st June 2003)
Therefore, in this case, perception of the respondents towards the
significance of the monument is positively recognised. However, negative
attitude towards the FAD and its actions are still recognised by some local
people, due to relocation and conservation work in the area. Moreover, the
local authorities was encouraged and empowered to carry out proper
management of the monument, function and cooperation between the central
and local bodies. These are important issues. Thus, the survey concentrated
on the result of the conservation work, role and capacity of the local and
central bodies, and the obstacle in conservation and management of the
temple within the present condition of the community and the whole area,
which was inscribed as the World Cultural Heritage.
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Table 5.3 Summary results of attitude survey, Wat Khun Saen community,
Ayutthaya
Groups of Respondents
Mean
State
Experts
Local
Agencies
Stakeholders
Significance of and perception on the heritage
1. Tangible significance
1.00
0.67
0.67
0.78
2. Intangible significance
0.33
0.33
1.00
0.56
3. Positive impact on
0.67
0.33
1.00
0.67
varieties aspect
4. Negative impact on
-1.00
-0.67
-1.00
-0.89
varieties aspect
Existing situation and problems in conservation and management
1. Well-conserved physical
0.67
0.67
1.00
0.78
and cultural condition
2. Appropriate
1.00
0.67
1.00
0.89
conservation
3. Proper allocation of
-0.67
-0.67
0.67
-0.22
resources
4. Sufficient public
-0.33
-0.67
0.67
-0.11
awareness and
participation
5. Proper use of the
-1.00
-0.67
-1.00
-0.89
heritage
Attitudes towards the monument grading system
1. Concept of the system
0.00
0.67
-0.33
-0.33
2. Appropriateness for
1.00
0.67
-0.50
0.39
implementation of the
system at local level
Attitudes towards the Decentralisation and local management following the
system
1. Capacity of the local
-1.00
-0.67
-0.33
-0.67
authorities
2. Proper role of the state
0.00
-1.00
-0.33
-0.44
agencies
3. Modification of the
0.67
1.00
0.33
0.67
legislative means
4. Increasing of public1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
private partnership
5. Increasing of funding
0.33
1.00
1.00
0.78
6. Increasing of personnel
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Issues
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Specific comments and suggestions
• An important place for cultural and local activities, as
well as a green area of the community and northern
area of Ayutthaya Island
• Bearing a unique architecture and history from
Ayutthaya period
Towards the
• Conflict between the FAD and local people in
existing
conservation and improvement of the monument
problems of the
• Lack of visitor’s facilities and services i.e. information
site
sign, parking area, and toilet
• Lack of support from FAD in maintenance of the
monument
• Lack of public awareness in management and
promotion of the monument
Towards
the • The main objective of the monument grading system
concept of the
is a database of the monument
grading system
• The result of the system should be simplified to the
local people and authorities
• The system reveals a top-down procedure, which may
not be suitable to local authority’s structure and
resources
Towards the
• The municipality and local committee have inadequate
decentralisation
resources i.e. skilled personnel and budget, to carry
and local
out conservation-related actions
authorities
• Lack of local awareness, due to daily life and career
Reasons for
expected positive
impact
Based on the result of survey, the respondents mostly recognise the
significance of the heritage, particularly its tangible importance and positive
impact of the monument to the locality. Nevertheless, intangible significance
of the heritage is merely recognised by the local respondents as an important
cultural heritage and meeting place of the community and neighbouring areas
in special events e.g. Thai New Year, and Buddhist events.
Moreover, most of the respondents are satisfied with the conservation plan of
the FAD, although there were some inhabitants relocated. Nevertheless, the
survey has pointed out main problems of management and maintenance of
the monument in present day, i.e. lack of public awareness and resources,
skilled personnel and budget. This can be seen from the negative scores
towards the role of the state agencies, local capacity and awareness. Local
activity i.e. private business also arouses little public awareness, as people
cannot join regularly in local meeting.
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
Therefore, those local respondents do not agree on the grading system, which
requires strong commitment and competent of the local group and local
authority i.e. municipality. Furthermore, local respondents concur with the role
of the FAD as the main actor in conservation and management of the
monument, while the local people and local group prefer supporting the action
of the department. Therefore, raising local awareness is an important
programme for continuous conservation-related action in this case.
Figure 5.3 Existing condition of the Wat Khun Saen
(Source: Author, May 2003)
Additionally, based on a research of local scholars (FAD, 1997, p. 14), the
monument is the least well-known monument in Ayutthaya Historic City. Thus,
attractive programmes and improvement of facilities for visitors are necessary
for short- and long-term development plan of the local bodies i.e. municipality
and the local group. Other suggestion is an initiative of public-private
partnership i.e. fund raising from local business group and non-governmental
organisations, in supporting conservation and management of the monument.
Finally, educating and training of local personnel by the FAD is also urgently
required i.e. municipality officers and members of the “Wat Khun Saen” group.
These are based on local suggestions that the monument can functionalise
particularly for educational, economic-generated and cultural purposes.
Case 2: Wat Phra That Lampang Luang, Lampang
Wat Phra That Lampang Luang is situated in the east of the central district of
Lampang. It is in the territory of Lampang Luang TAO, Koh Kha District. Its
history can be traced back to more than 600 years. The Lampang Luang area
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
and the temple were historical area in relation to the first governor of
Lampang in the 18th century. Together with a historic community character,
the temple has recognised as the centre of the community, religious and
historic place of the northern region (former Lanna Kingdom area).
The temple was built in Lanna style. It comprises of several structures, whose
planning represents the Buddhist principle such as sandy ground around the
temple that symbolised the ocean. However, there were several changes
threatened the temple since the last decade. Reported by the ICOMOS
Thailand in Heritage at Risks in 2000, the temple has been changed from
Lanna- to the central-region architecture, as well as changes of various
elements e.g. floor and roof tiles, wall and unique elements. This caused lost
of both tangible and intangible values of the temple i.e. local beliefs, traditions,
and craftsmanship. Lack of awareness and understanding of the monks who
are residing and utilising the temple were mainly responsible for such
problem.
Figure 5.4 Front view of the Wat Phra That Lampang Luang, front area of
which will be developed for new activities
(Source: Author, May 2003)
Presently, a plan for development of the front area of the temple, previously
used for commercial activities, has proposed. Different opinions from
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
stakeholders have been taken into account in re-designing the area and its
function.
In Thailand, religious property, particularly Buddhist temple, is dominantly
declared as “National Monument”. Most of them are still lived and used by the
monks who are main stakeholder and responding all the activities in the
temple. Thus, it is a difficulty for the state officials, interest groups, and local
people to propose and implement any conservation-related action to the
temple. Such conflict is one of the main threats of the religious heritage in
Thailand. To react to such problem, awareness and understanding of the
heritage among the monks, particularly the abbot, are important factors for
conservation and management of the religious heritage.
The attitude survey of this case, therefore, concentrates on the problem of
managing the temple, which depends mainly on attitude and action of the
abbot. Various suggestions towards the role of local stakeholders and the
FAD have pointed out for appropriate conservation and management of the
temple, incorporating with the abbot and monks. Increasing of public
participation is recognised by the respondents for future actions.
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Table 5.4 Summary results of attitude survey, Wat Phra That Lampang
Luang, Lampang
Groups of Respondents
Mean
State
Experts
Local
Agencies
Stakeholders
Significance of and perception on the heritage
1. Tangible significance
1.00
0.67
0.83
0.83
2. Intangible significance
0.67
0.67
1.00
0.78
3. Positive impact on
0.67
1.00
1.00
0.89
varieties aspect
4. Negative impact on
-1.00
-1.00
-1.00
-1.00
varieties aspect
Existing situation and problems in conservation and management
1. Well-conserved physical
1.00
0.67
0.67
0.78
and cultural condition
2. Appropriate
-0.33
-0.67
-0.33
-0.45
conservation
3. Proper allocation of
-1.00
-0.33
-0.33
-0.56
resources
4. Sufficient public
-0.33
-0.67
-1.00
-0.67
awareness and
participation
5. Proper use of the
0.00
0.67
1.00
0.56
heritage
Attitudes towards the monument grading system
1. Concept of the system
0.33
0.67
-0.33
0.67
2. Appropriateness for
1.00
0.67
0.67
0.78
implementation of the
system at local level
Attitudes towards the Decentralisation and local management following the
system
1. Capacity of the local
-1.00
-1.00
-0.33
-0.56
authorities
2. Proper role of the state
0.33
-1.00
-1.00
-0.56
agencies
3. Modification of the
0.67
1.00
0.33
0.67
legislative means
4. Increasing of public1.00
1.00
0.83
0.94
private partnership
5. Increasing of funding
-0.33
0.33
-0.33
-0.11
6. Increasing of personnel
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Issues
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
Specific comments and suggestions
• An important place for religious, cultural and local
activities, as well as centre for locality
• Bearing priceless arts, architecture and history of the
northern region
• An important source for local revenue, particularly the
tourist activity
• Representing local identity and pride in relation to its
history
Towards the
• Conflict between the monk and local people in using
existing
the temple and surroundings
problems of the
• Lack of support from FAD in conservation of the
site
temple
• Lack of building control around the monument, due to
lack of effective town planning and law
Towards
the • The main objective of the monument grading system
concept of the
is a database of the monument
grading system
• The result of the system should be simplified to the
local people and authorities
• The system can be used only for FAD to allocate its
resources, but should not be used for defining local
responsibility
• The system reveals a top-down procedure, which may
not be suitable to local authority’s structure and
resources
Towards the
• The TAO has inadequate resources i.e. knowledge,
Decentralisation
personnel and budget, to carry out conservationand local
related actions
authorities
• The TAO has no control plan for building and structure
around the temple
• Lack of local awareness
Reasons for
expected positive
impact
The attitudes survey shows that the respondents strongly recognise the
significances of the heritage of both tangible and intangible aspects. The
temple has played an important role for the community and neighbouring
area, as it is used for the centre place of local religious activities and
traditions, which are publicly recognised.
However, the problems in conservation and management of the temple are
obviously mentioned by different respondents. Attitudes and comments focus
on inadequate supports from the FAD, insufficient capacity and ineffective
means of local bodies, lack of local participation, and limited role of the local
people in management of the temple. These are mainly caused by, on one
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Assessing the Feasibility of Monument Grading System at the Local Authority Level
hand, strong sense of belongings and power of the abbot and monks that are
residing in the temple, and, on the other hand, less awareness among the
local people.
Furthermore, due to limited personnel and financial resources of the FAD,
cooperation among the FAD, abbot and monks, and the local stakeholders is
poor. Lacking of such supports and initiatives from the FAD, it has caused
ineffective conservation-related action, although the temple and local people
can contribute sufficient financial support. Professional collaboration is one
aspect to improve and develop the conservation and management of the
temple by the local authority and people.
Most respondents accepted the monument grading system, although there
are comments towards actual practice of the system at the local level i.e. the
TAO, as well as local capacity in different aspects i.e. resources, budget and
skilled personnel. Moreover, the system should not be used to classify the
responsibility of state and local authorities, which is not reconcile with
decentralisation policy and prospect role of local authority. However, there are
several public bodies i.e. “Lankhum Lampang” group, educational institute,
and conservationist groups in Lampang, which are capable of supporting
education and training local people,
and practising protection and
conservation programmes.
Regarding to local authority and its capacity, opinions focus on increasing of
local expertise, public-private partnership, and practising of local legislative
means by the local authority. A further aspect that can contribute to an
effective conservation and management of the temple is practising of local-bylaw by the TAO, which is to control the new development and change in the
area. These can be adopted in the form of building-control regulation or urban
plan, or both of them.
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Case 3: Tha Tian community, Bangkok
The Royal Field
The Grand palace
Tha Tian Community
The Chao Phaya River
Figure 5.5 Map of Tha Tian community and significant places
(Source: http://www.into-asia.com, accessed on 2nd June 2003)
Based on the Rattanakosin Conservation Document [in Thai “Jod Mai Haet
Karn Anurak Krung Rattanakosin”] by the FAD in 1982
(cited in
Pimonsathean (1)), Tha Tian area was firstly mentioned in the royal literature
of the King Rama IV. It was used for the royal barge house since the Thonburi
period (1767-1782) and for the palace of the prince in the reign of King Rama
I (1782-1809). However, during the reign of King Rama IV (1851-1868) there
was a big fire, which razed the buildings to the ground. It then became a
foreign court and accommodation for foreigners, and later was replaced with
market and shophouses during the reign of King Rama V and VI. Since then,
it has become an important commercial area for inner area of Bangkok, as
well as one of the water-transportation centres. Although today water
transportation is not popular and goods trading are limited only to dried food
and products e.g. rice, sugar and dried seafood, the community is still the
centre of trading of such goods in Bangkok and nearby areas.
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Shophouses in Tha Tian represent a mixture of European- and Asian-Styled
architecture, which is similar to those found in nearby communities i.e. Tha
Chang and Na Phra Lan areas (See Figure 5.6). Tha Tian shophouses are
good examples of the early market development in Rattanakosin area where
fresh market is enclosed by rows of shophouses. The area was defined as the
“Conserved Area” together with the Rattanakosin Island since 1990s. A
research by the Faculty of Architecture, KMITL (Pimonsathean (1)) has shown
that there are about 490 units of shophouse, 3 piers and 1market in the
community. Nevertheless, the ownership of the area belongs to the Crown
Property Bureau, which has leased the land and buildings to the inhabitants
for more than a century.
Figure 5.6 A row of shophouses at Tha Tian community
(Source: Author, May 2003)
In 1992 the Royal Thai Government has approved the conservation plan of
the Rattanakosin Island proposed by the Rattanakosin Committee1. Since
then, several proposed plans have been proposed to the Tha Tian area,
which mainly plan to decrease and change the trading activities, to relocate
1
Rattanakosin Committee was established in 1978 and consists of 4 sub-committees. The
FAD and BMA are 2 main agencies in carrying out the actions. The committee has responded
conservation and development of various areas in Rattanakosin Island, an oldest area of
Bangkok. There are 4 from 20 projects concerned to the Tha Tian community that proposed
to relocate the community and develop for cultural and tourist activities.
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the tenants, and to re-develop the area for tourist activities. However, in 1996
a committee of the community has founded and reacted to the plan. The
committee has also organised and managed the local activities e.g. fire
protection unit, cleaning unit, and building maintenance unit. Therefore,
problems and conflicts among the BMA, Crown Property Bureau, the
committee and tenants have arose and led to difficulties in conservation and
management the area.
In Tha Tian the attitude survey was conducted mainly based on the impact of
the development plan to the area. Its significances comprise of both physical
and cultural. As the area presently used for commercial purpose, its negative
impact is recognised due to trading activities. While development plan of
Rattanakosin Committee was already proposed and implemented to the area,
attitudes towards the actions following the plan are one main issue, which can
be reviewed and examined among the local stakeholders. Additionally, the
local competent in management of the community is also considered in
relation to capacity of the Tha Tian community.
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Table 5.5 Summary results of attitude survey, Tha Tian community, Bangkok
Groups of Respondents
Issues
Mean
State
Experts
Local
Agencies
Stakeholders
Significance of and perception on the heritage
1. Tangible significance
1.00
0.67
1.00
0.89
2. Intangible significance
0.67
0.67
1.00
0.78
3. Positive impact on
0.67
1.00
1.00
0.89
varieties aspect
4. Negative impact on
0.33
0.67
-0.33
0.22
varieties aspect
Existing situation and problems in conservation and management
0.33
0.67
1. Well-conserved physical
-0.33
0.22
and cultural condition
-0.33
-0.67
2. Appropriate
-0.33
-0.44
conservation
-1.00
-0.33
3. Proper allocation of
-0.33
-0.56
resources
1.00
0.67
4. Sufficient public
1.00
0.89
awareness and
participation
-0.67
5. Proper use of the
-0.33
-0.06
0.83
heritage
Attitudes towards the monument grading system
1. Concept of the system
0.67
-0.33
0.83
0.39
2. Appropriateness for
1.00
0.67
0.67
0.78
implementation of the
system at local level
Attitudes towards the Decentralisation and local management following the
system
1. Capacity of the local
0.67
0.67
0.83
0.72
authorities
2. Proper role of the state
-1.00
-0.67
-0.67
-0.78
agencies
3. Modification of the
0.67
1.00
0.67
0.78
legislative means
4. Increasing of public1.00
1.00
0.83
0.94
private partnership
5. Increasing of funding
0.67
1.00
0.83
0.83
6. Increasing of personnel
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
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Specific comments and suggestions
• One of the oldest communities in Bangkok
• Bearing unique form of traditional community and
architecture of shophouse, from the reign of King
Rama V
• A centre of wholesale and retail trading of various
goods in Bangkok, as well as an attractive area for
Thai and foreign tourist in Rattanakosin Island
Reasons for
• Improper activity i.e. wholesale trading, which causes
expected
damaging of buildings, and traffic jam
negative impact
• Uncontrolled extension of the buildings along the
Chao Phaya river bank
• Consequently, cause of unpleasant scene and
environment around the significance places i.e. the
Grand Palace, and the river
Towards the
• Conflict among the Crown Property Bureau-the owner
existing
of the land and buildings, the Rattanakosin
problems of the
Committee, and local people in conservation and
site
development of the area
• Lacks of sufficient infrastructure and management of
activities existed in the community
• Lack of building control
Towards
the • The main objective of the monument grading system
concept of the
is a database of the monument
grading system
• The result of the system should be simplified to the
local people and authorities
• The community should be able to participate in
grading process
Towards the
• The BMA should collaborate with Crown Property
Decentralisation,
Bureau and the committee in carrying out
local authorities
conservation-related actions i.e. restoration and
and public bodies
improving the buildings and landscape
• BMA and Crown Property Bureau should initiated
conservation programme e.g. incentive programme for
maintaining the buildings, and regulation for
controlling activities in the community
• The community committee is officially registered body,
which actively performs cooperation works with the
state officials, and has sufficient potential in such
actions
• Public participation should be initiated and taken into
account in planning of conservation and management
of the community
Reasons for
expected positive
impact
The local committee and people are important players in this case. Obviously,
the role of local body is recognised importantly for conservation of their area.
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Establishment of the local committee has generated many efforts and actions
i.e. arrangement of local activities to attract the visitors, cleaning the buildings
and surrounding area, improvement of infrastructure and public services e.g.
footpath, lighting, and fire protection unit. The local awareness of Tha Tian
community in conservation is clearly shown to the public.
Furthermore, those respondents agree on historical and economic importance
of the Tha Tian community. Nevertheless, present activities i.e. shop, cargo
and trading, have caused negative impacts to the area and its surrounding
such as traffic jam caused by different vehicles in conveying and loading
goods, dirtiness of the market and shops, and poor management of trading
activities. Such negative impacts are perceived by most of the respondents
(See Table 5.5 and Appendix G).
For the problem in conservation and management of the site, appropriateness
of conservation and allocation of financial resources to the area are regarded
as the most problematic issue. Furthermore, public participation in planning
and making decision within their area are less regarded. The local people
require a channel and opportunity for conservation planning and development
of the community, i.e. public hearing and meeting.
The survey shows that the other crucial problem is an ownership right in
development of the area, although the Crown Property Bureau is the owner of
the area and buildings. A comprehensive plan in conservation and
development of the area is required, which should be collaborated among
those relevant stakeholders i.e. the Rattanakosin Committee, Crown Property
Bureau, BMA and local committee. Meanwhile, the local committee is actively
performing and collaborating with those state organisations to deal with such
problems.
Moreover, the monument grading system was considered as the channel for
local participation in conservation and management of the Tha Tian
community. Further comment focuses on the appropriate function of the FAD
and another relevant state agencies i.e. the Rattanakosin Committee, Crown
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Property Bureau and BMA, in initiating and supporting conservation and
management of the area. Respondents also claim that one main concept of
conservation of the Tha Tian community is to focus on adaptive reuse of the
shophouses and its unique urban pattern for new commercial activities,
particularly for tourism, and limitation of present trading activities.
Consequently, increasing of financial and human resources in relation to
conservation-related action is needed, but mainly to support the local action
and arouse local awareness in continuous conservation practices.
5.3 Analyses and Summary of the Case Studies
Based on the case studies, each case contributes different aspects regarding
to the monument grading system, decentralisation and the local authorities.
To compare those results of case studies, an overall score sheet is plotted as
shown below in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Overall score sheet of the three case studies
1
0.8
0.6
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Question of Attitude Survey
Case 1
99
Case 2
Case 3
Q. 4.6
Q. 4.5
Q. 4.4
Q. 4.3
Q. 4.2
Q. 4.1
Q. 3.2
Q. 3.1
Q. 2.5
Q. 2.4
Q. 2.3
Q. 2.2
Q. 2.1
Q. 1.4
Q. 1.3
Q. 1.2
-1
Q. 1.1
Score
0.4
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Based on the overall score sheet, there are various aspects that can be
concluded as follows:
1. From the overall score sheet, it clearly shows the difference of relationship
between various groups of respondents (or stakeholders) and the type of
heritage sites. Firstly, dead monument i.e. Wat Khun Saen has less attached
to the local interest and action, while the living heritage sites i.e. Wat Phra
That Lampang Luang and Tha Tian community are well collaborated with the
local activities. For the dead monuments, role-play of state agencies such as
the FAD is still dominant and recognised.
Secondly, in the case of heritage sites of national importance, i.e. cases of
Wat Khun Saen and Wat Phra That Lampang Luang, the respondents,
particularly local sector, are less involving in conservation and management.
In comparison to the case of Tha Tian community, local people and
committee has much involved and actively performed in conservation and
management of the heritage site. Compared to the case of dead and single
monuments, because of close relationship between the heritage and
stakeholders, sense of belonging, and beneficial use of the heritage, local
awareness and motivation in the living monuments and urban area are rather
high.
Therefore, an effective role of the local stakeholders has to be improved and
encouraged to participate in conservation and management of the heritage
sites, no matter what type of the heritage and how significant the heritage is.
2. An overview of the attitude survey and overall score sheet show that the
relationship between external respondents (or stakeholders) i.e. state officials
and experts, and the heritage sites is mainly based on educational point of
view; while the internal respondents (or local stakeholders) i.e. local scholars
and people focus on cultural, social and economic aspects of the heritage
sites.
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Perception towards the cultural heritage is different between the official and
local views. From the comparative table of question 1-4, those external
respondents have less understand in the cultural and social significances of
the heritage, as well as existing problems and constraints. This has led to a
conflict in conservation and in the use of the heritage sites, such as proposed
use of heritage site for tourist activities in the case of Wat Phra That Lampang
Luang, and Tha Tian community.
As most “National Monument” in Thailand are religious buildings and sites,
particularly Buddhist temple, whether dead or living heritage, as in the case of
Wat Khun Saen and Wat Phra That Lampang Luang respectively, which are
characterised with traditional craftsmanship, beliefs, sacredness and unique
features, which embed in the heritage; conservation and management of
these heritages are different from other types of cultural heritage. Thus,
religion (Buddhist)- and local-expertise-based approaches in conservation of
such heritage are essentially needed.
Hence, within the Thai context, local factor i.e. norm, tradition and economy
are important factors for conservation of the cultural heritage. Thus,
sustainability and new development viability of the heritage sites in the future
has to be fit harmoniously with the heritage, its significance, and also the
condition and activities of local stakeholders.
3. Obviously, conservation of cultural heritage in Thailand focuses mainly on
single monument, which are often registered as a “National Monument”.
Group of monuments and urban area are less considered and assessed, as in
the case of Tha Tian community. Therefore, as the negative results of the Tha
Tian community case show in the question 2.1, 2.2 and 4.2 of the overall
score sheet, conservation to the community is not well recognised and solely
depends on the local people. Thus, historic town, area and landscape have to
be more evaluated and registered as well.
4. Based on the overall score sheet, problems and constraints in the three
case studies are similarly and mostly related to inappropriate conservation,
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improper allocation of necessary resources i.e. budget, expertise and
professional personnel. These are due to the centralised and top-down
conservation policy in Thailand.
Top-down conservation policy employed by state agency i.e. the FAD plays
an important role in conservation and development of the entire cultural
heritage in Thailand. Whereas the local people and public bodies cooperate
only at the operational level e.g. surveying, excavation and regularly
maintenance work. Such policy takes little consideration of local needs and
values at conservation planning and implementation of the heritage.
Although in the case studies some localities are satisfied with the role of the
FAD and other state agencies, however, it is also found that local respondents
want to take part in conservation and management of their heritage. A topdown policy is therefore obviously an obstacle at the operational level of
conservation.
5. Well-educated and active local leaders or governmental officials are
normally the key players in conservation of cultural heritage in Thailand. Such
people are usually rich local politician, and are recognised due to their power
and influence in community. These “hidden-power” groups are an important
force and key players of conservation initiative in Thailand, such as head of
Wat Khun Saen group; Lampang Luang TAO member; Lankhum Lampang
group and head of Tha Tian group.
One significant key player in the case of religious heritage i.e. Buddhist
temples both dead and particularly living heritage, is the abbot who is centrally
responsible for any activity in the temple. Several cases have revealed
difficulties in conservation of such heritage due to the abbot and monks.
However, there are several problems caused by the monk such as changes of
the temple structures and materials in Wat Phra That Lampang Luang.
Furthermore, based on the case studies, there are two different forms of local
initiative: firstly, local-based initiative, as in the case of Tha Tian group; and,
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secondly, official-based initiative, as in the case of Wat Khun Saen and
Lankhum Lampang groups. The latter form is originated by the official bodies
such as the Ayutthaya municipality and Lampang Luang TAO, which
encouraged and supported the local people to establish the local bodies.
Therefore, the political will and strong commitment of the local leaders and/or
state officials is a driving force of the local initiative and action in conservation
and management of the heritage sites.
6. Framework of each governmental agency such as the FAD, OEPP, BMA,
Department of Urban Planning, and local authorities is one crucial issue at
present. Due to separation, sometimes repetition and overlaying of working
plan and lack of coordination among those relevant bodies, as mentioned by
the respondents, a comprehensive conservation and management plan of the
cultural heritage can hardly be constructed and implemented.
Modification of relevant legislations in protection of the heritage and its
context, adjustment of urban plan at the local level, and preparation of
essentially financial and personnel resources involved the above-mentioned
agencies can contribute to a comprehensive heritage conservation plan.
Thus, development of cross coordination among those agencies has to be
improved and integrated in planning and implementation of conservation of
the cultural heritage.
7. The monument grading system is not well accepted by those respondents,
as shown in the table of question 3.1. However, in the case of urban area
local respondents are well accepted the system. Additionally, local needs in
practising the grading system are highly agreed, although the preparation and
resources of the local people and authorities are still in doubt, as shown in the
negative score of the local awareness and capacity issues (question 2.4 and
4.1).
Suggestions towards the grading system focus on the function of the grading
system, the roles of state agencies and local authorities. Simplifying of and
accessibility to the grading result are important for properly local practice in
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conservation and management of the heritage sites. Providing the grading
result and documentation of the heritage sites within territory of every local
authority i.e. municipality, TAO, BMA and another types of local authorities, is
necessary. The grading result, as a database of the heritage site, can be used
in planning and controlling of new development by the local authorities.
Further suggestion is participation of grading procedure by the local
stakeholders. Local interest and involvement i.e. social and cultural aspects
should be taken into assessment and grading of the heritage.
8. Consequently, preparation of local people and authorities in practice the
grading system is pointed out as shown in the summary table of question 5.15.6. Lack of local awareness, participation, motivation and sufficient
resources, therefore, local people and authorities are less recognised in
conservation of cultural heritage. Based on the suggestions of the
respondents, improvement towards the capacity of local authorities are
summarised and can be divided into 4 main aspects:
•
Modification of legislative means at the central and local levels which is
suitable for practising and applying in relation to conservation of the
cultural heritage;
•
Increase of local awareness and participation in heritage conservation;
•
Increase of skilled and professional personnel, which includes training and
educating local people; and sufficient allocation of professional person
related to heritage conservation; and
•
Increase of financial support, in order to carry out conservation-related
actions e.g. surveying and documentation of heritage.
Increasing of skilled and professional personnel and development of publicprivate partnership at the local level are the central attitudes of the survey.
These can increase the potential of local authorities, and arouse the private
sector of both local and external in carrying out proper conservation and
viable use of the heritage sites. Recommendations towards the improvement
issues are explained in the chapter 6, Future Direction of Monument Grading
System in Thailand.
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Chapter 6: Future Direction of the Monument Grading
System in Thailand
This chapter summarises and recommends various aspects of monument
grading system and local management of cultural heritage in Thailand, based
on the comparative study of the monument grading system in Chapter 3, and
analysis of case studies in Chapter 5. The recommendations entail the
characteristic of the grading system and development of local authorities in
relation to implementation of the grading system in the future.
6.1 Conclusions
For more than 90 years that the Fine Arts Department has played an
important role in protection and conservation of cultural heritage in Thailand.
Due to limitation of its framework and resources, several problems have
occurred and affected the condition of heritage. Development growth in
Thailand also causes the deterioration and lost of cultural heritage in both
tangible and intangible aspects. To react to such problems, the FAD has
practised registration system of heritage of national significance. Recently, the
FAD has also proposed a monument grading system, which has practised in
numerous, particularly in European countries.
Meanwhile,
decentralisation
policy
has
been
implemented
in
every
governmental and local authority in Thailand. The FAD is no longer the only
governmental agency responsible to conservation and bottom-up policy has
increasingly been practised in local issues. As well as the protection and
conservation of the cultural heritage, local authorities are recognised and
becoming more important in conservation of cultural heritage.
Therefore, the monument grading system, which aims at better classification
and allocation of the resources for effective conservation and management, is
extensively considered as the means to identify functions and responsibilities
of local authorities in carrying out conservation-related actions as well. No
matter how significant and what kind of grading a heritage has, local
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Future Direction of the Monument Grading System in Thailand
authorities are encouraged to practise conservation and management of
cultural heritage in coordination with the FAD and relevant governmental
bodies.
However, an actual and successful implementation of the grading system is
still in doubt. The future characteristic of monument grading system and its
implications are still being developed and defined. The attitude surveys of
case studies have revealed existing condition and problems of the local
authorities i.e. lack of local interest, awareness, well-prepared structure, and
financial and personnel resources. Thus, study of various cases of cultural
heritage in Thailand provides different views towards the present competence
and constraints
in conservation and management
of
the heritage.
Alternatively, studying of existing models in different countries can provide
essential concepts for adaptation and establishment of the appropriate
grading system in Thailand.
Improvement of legislative mechanism, financial system, and functions of
local authorities are essential components in actual implementation of the
grading system. Based on the monument grading system, the local authorities
will have a channel in participating and carrying out effective conservation and
management of cultural heritage. The autonomous power of local authorities
is given through the process of structural and administrative decentralisation.
Nevertheless, the most important component still lies on the local people,
particularly their awareness and support.
6.2 Recommendations
The recommendations for further development of the monument grading
system in Thailand are proposed in various aspects such as concept of the
system, practical procedure, implications relevant to the system, and
development capacity of local authorities. Above all, the grading system can
be used as a database, in form of analytical data of the cultural heritage.
Furthermore, the grading result can be applied to a comprehensive
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conservation and management plan, which is a mixture of effective role-play
of the relevant governmental and local authorities. Therefore, the grading
system
is
useful
for
future
development
of
cultural
heritage.
Recommendations on various aspects are listed as follows:
a. Concept of monument grading system
Based on the objective of the monument grading system defined by the FAD,
resources are to be allocated properly for conservation of cultural heritage.
However, as it is a top-down process, the monument grading system is less
considered the local functions. Therefore, local authorities should be put in
actual assessment and their input must be taken into account for grading of
the heritage site.
Then, the monument grading system should be adopted as an accessible
database for the future conservation and management of the heritage. Based
on its grading aspects, the grading result can provide data on value, potential
and needs for conservation of the heritage, which are particularly important for
development of the heritage site. Therefore, the grading result of each
heritage site must be provided and accessible by the public, particularly at the
local level i.e. PAO, municipality, TAO, BMA and Pattaya City.
Additionally, the monument grading system should not be used as the
principle of classifying function and responsibility of central and local
authorities. Based on decentralisation policy of the Royal Thai Government,
the local authorities are increasingly recognised and encouraged to initiate
and carry out conservation-related actions in every cultural heritage.
Therefore, regardless of grade and significance of the heritage, the local
authorities must increase their capacities such as improvement of skilled
personnel and financial management, to initiate and carry out such actions, as
well as the grading process. The local authorities can practise the grading
system by listing the heritage of local significance, identifying and evaluating
the heritage, and providing the local view in grading procedure. These can be
done by cooperation among the local representatives, local scholars, member
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of local authorities, and the officers of the FAD and relevant state agencies
i.e. OEPP and Crown Property Bureau.
Local participation in evaluation process of the heritage is another aspect in
grading of the cultural heritage. Due to the case studies, there are different
points of view towards the significance of the heritage among the
respondents, particularly among official and local respondents. Therefore, not
only the tangible significance of the heritage has to be assessed, but also
historical, cultural, social and economic association of the heritage. A group of
local representatives consisted of local people, scholars, and local authority
member should be set up and collaborated with the official evaluation team.
Different approaches can be used and developed in setting up mechanism
and channel for local participation in evaluation process such as attitude
survey among the local people, public hearing, and meeting between the
evaluation officers and local people.
Based on the English system, local authorities in Thailand are strongly
recommended to propose and enlist heritage of special interest or importance,
and to establish the local list that can be adopted and further adjusted for
registration as “National Monument” and grading order. The listed monument
in the local list may cover different types of monument, which may not fit to
the definition of the FAD such as well-kept local architecture, structure or
landscape. A cultural heritage indicated in the local list should be put in
relation to a local plan policy, which means any alteration or demolition might
be imposed and examined by the local authorities, although it may not
protected under the statutory legislations by the FAD. Such local effort will be
the first step for conservation practice by the local authorities together with
FAD official expert team. The local list and its data can also serve the FAD in
conservation planning of heritage of local importance and the surroundings,
as well as in revising the grade of the heritage in the future.
b. Implementation of monument grading system
Unlike the conservation mechanisms of cultural heritage in England,
registration is the only means for protection and conservation of the Thai
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cultural heritage. Furthermore, it mainly focuses on single monument.
Therefore, attention should be paid more on registration and grading of
grouped monuments, historic urban area and landscapes. As these types of
monument comprise of various elements such as buildings, landscape and
archaeological site. Therefore, grading of such heritages requires a
comprehensive approach which assesses different characteristics of heritage
i.e. single objects, group of objects and area featured with the following:
•
Group of monuments e.g. religious temple, this type of heritage can
be evaluated and graded as of individual monument, landscape, and
an urban scale
•
Urban area and historic town, evaluation and grading of which may
include grading of individual monument and/or object, archaeological
site, landscape, and an urban scale
•
Historic site and landscape, which may include grading of landscape,
archaeological site, and an urban scale.
Furthermore, apart from religious heritage, traditional and local Thai heritage
are less concerned and left to deterioration particularly in rapid change of
present Thai context of development. Traditional Thai houses, western-styled
shophouses, historic community and settlements, and landscape of historic
significance, which have a relatively short history of national consciousness
and little public awareness, should be more emphasised and practised in
registration and grading as well.
Selection criteria for registration and grading can be classified in
accordance with the historical period of the cultural heritage. Similar to the in
English system, various periods of heritage can be used to register and grade
the cultural heritage, based on the proposed criteria of the FAD, as shown in
Table 6.1.
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Table 6.1 Proposed criteria for registration and grading of cultural heritage in
Thailand
Type of the cultural heritage
Action/Means
Cultural heritage built in Prehistoric, Lopburi, The
heritage
Dvaravati, Sri Vijaya, Sukhothai, Chiangsaen, protected
must
under
be
the
U-Thong and Ayutthaya periods, or before registration and grading
1767 A.D.
Cultural heritage built in early Rattanakosin The selection is necessary
period, or between 1768-1910 A.D.
and focuses on buildings of
high
architectural
and
historical values.
Cultural heritage built in the late Rattanakosin The selection concentrates
period, or after 1910 A.D.
heritage of high quality and
character
Age of heritage has to be adopted as a criterion of selection, as well as
modern technology and techniques associated with the heritage, for those
heritage built after 1910.
Spot Listing used for buildings that appear to be in danger of being
demolished, is one of good lessons of the English experience. Spot listing is
an important process of the local authorities in protecting those threaten
heritage. This may be initiated in every local authority in Thailand, and carried
out by a professional team formed by the FAD and assisted by
representatives from local authority. Local practice in listing and grading of
such heritage is more accurate in the actual situation of any endangered
heritage.
In relation to the listing and grading procedure, the effects of the system are
necessary for continuous process in conservation and management of the
heritage, particularly where there is a threat of demolition, alteration or
extension in such a way that would affect the character of the heritages. The
idea of issuing Preservation Notice and granting Listed Building Consent
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Future Direction of the Monument Grading System in Thailand
(LBC) should be applied in order to ensure that any proposed demolition
works are controlled and approved by local authority and public bodies such
as Siam Society and/or the Association of Siamese Architects (ASA).
Severely penalties, or a fine to the amount of the current market value of the
site, or both in case of carrying out of unauthorised work are needed.
Currently, there are several efforts made by the central organisations to
protect and conserve heritage of significant value. One major organisation is
the OEPP, which is presently launching a research programme in waterbased settlements (in Bangkok, Nontaburi and Samut Songkham). The
project, so-called “Thailand Cultural Environment Project”, is incorporated
and financially supported by the Danish Government. It aims at setting up a
standard system of listing heritage and a comprehensive management plan of
the significantly cultural property and area, which is applied not only in the
project sites, but later on also throughout the country. The project is modified
on the “SAVE” (Survey of Architectural Values in the Environment)1
programme, which is one conservation mechanism in Denmark. Based on the
“SAVE” programme, the project is in collaboration with the OEPP, local
authorities- the BMA, municipalities and TAOs, and localities, to survey,
identify and evaluate the significance of cultural property and the area.
Obviously, the programme is implementing similarly to the registration and
monument grading system by the FAD.
Thus, cross cooperation among various state agencies is important to set up
a comprehensive conservation-related action. In this case, sharing of the data
and making use of registration, listing and grading system between the FAD
and OEPP can lead to an effective conservation of the heritage. Such
cooperation can extend the protection and conservation issues not only to the
monument, but also its surroundings.
1
SAVE is a system of evaluating buildings and urban structures from a preservational point of
view by the local consultative group in Denmark, which began in 1987. The result of the
system is produced in a form of a „Preservational Atlas“ at the local level. (Ministry of
Environment and Energy, Denmark, 1997, pp. 3-5)
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Future Direction of the Monument Grading System in Thailand
c. Implications relevant to the monument grading system
To implement effective monument grading system, it is important to have
proper implications in relation to the grade order. Firstly, it is necessary to
have strong legal protection and modification of legislative means for the
sake of the heritages in future. As the main law in protection of the cultural
heritage in Thailand, the Monument Act has to be adopted in respect to the
registration and grading system i.e.
•
Adaptation of definition of the monument and cultural heritage;
•
Responsibility in registration and classification of heritage;
•
Notification and appeal to the registration and grading;
•
Consent to the changes of the heritage; and
•
Roles of central and local authorities in relation to the heritage.
Further modification is concerned to various legislations i.e. Act on Education,
in order to address significance and conservation of local heritage and
educational programme locally and publicly; Act on building control that can
help to protect any alterations and threatens to the heritage and its
surroundings; Act on urban planning, which is a means of protection in a
larger scale of the historic area and landscape through buffer zone, guideline
and land use indication; and finally local-by-laws and specific plan which are
practised and controlled by the local authorities i.e. PAO, municipality and
TAO, in protection and conservation of the heritage within their boundary.
Secondly, providing of basic knowledge and training to the local people
and authorities is important in order to raise the awareness and capacity of
the local authorities. Increasing the skilled personnel in local authorities can
assist the conservation-related actions of the central organisation. On the
other hand, shortage of professional personnel is also a crucial problem of the
state organisations, such as in the case of Historic City of Ayutthaya in which
only two archaeologists are available for archaeological activities. Thus,
increase in skilled and professional personnel i.e. historian, archaeologist and
conservation expert is urgently needed. Furthermore, local expertise like
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craftsmanship has to be promoted and provided through local training and
sharing of conservation knowledge with state officials.
Practically, the training and educating programmes can be provided through
cooperation between the FAD, local educational institute and local authorities,
which can be for example an annual training programme for local people and
member of local authorities; and educational programme for the young
generation, e.g. student in the local educational institute. One example is
initiated by the OEPP to establish the Natural and Cultural Environment
Conservation Office in every province and locates in a centrally local
educational institute, which provides the cultural and social studies e.g.
university and/or Rajjabhat Institute. The office concerns cultural and
environmental issues in each province, such as the case of Wat Phra That
Lampang Luang which the office has taken part in raising awareness of and
providing knowledge to local people in conservation and management the
temple and surroundings.
Thirdly, financial and incentive programmes in relation to the monument
grading system are necessary for conservation of the heritage. Due to present
fiscal constraints of the Royal Thai Government, the limitation of budget has a
serious impact on protection and conservation of the heritage. Thus, financing
the conservation programme by means of direct subsidy from the central
government seems to be not possible in Thailand. There are several means to
react such problem as follows:
•
Development of economic viability of heritage, which mainly concerns
with the future use of the heritage i.e. cultural and social, educational
and tourist purposes. The revenue from such activities can generate
various programmes in conservation and management of the heritage.
Nevertheless, usage and adaptation of the heritage has to be
measured and monitored regularly in order to avoid the damage and
negative impact on both tangible and intangible significances of the
heritage.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
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•
Development of grant and incentive programme that aims at
attracting the local stakeholders and public to protect and conserve
their heritage. Different forms of grant and incentive programmes can
be developed by the central and local government, and public bodies
e.g. Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Finance, FAD, OEPP, etc. Tax
exemption of historic buildings should be provided to the privately
owned property, which will encourage the owner to conserve and put it
in a properly new use. Moreover, the local authorities can provide the
tax incentive directly through income tax, property tax, and VAT. For
the financial resource, one possible form is the “heritage tax”, which
applied to the tourist activities such as hotel and tourist services.
Revenue from such tax can directly use in conserving and managing
the heritage.
Additionally, grants aids from the central, local government, and private
sector should be developed, which are given to those heritages with a
poor condition and/or high potential of conservation and new use. Such
grants can boost the local and private interest in protection and
conservation of their heritage. The grants can be prioritised according
to the grading of the heritage, specifically Urgency Grading, and its
condition.
•
Establishment of National Trust, or public fund, such as the National
Trust in England, is one possible method that can provide sufficient
financial source in conservation of heritage. The trust may be
established in the form of public company or state enterprise, which is
organised and managed by a combination of private or local bodies
and the FAD representatives. However, strong commitment and
capacity of private sector are necessary for establishing and
sustainable use of such fund. Moreover, strong political will and
powerful initiator are also important for initiating and sustaining the
fund.
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The last issue is development of public-private partnership in conservation
and management of heritage. Due to the grade order, cultural heritage
regardless of its significance and grade can be transferred and used for new
function, which can sustain the heritage in the modern context of
development. Based on the approach of “adaptive reuse”, the private sector
should be encouraged to lease historic buildings with economically viable
activities, such as residential and commercial purposes. Nevertheless, any
change to the cultural heritage should be assessed under the guidance of the
FAD. On the other hand, the concept depends on the public sector i.e.
governmental organisations, which can facilitate the adaptive reuse of
heritage by providing financial and investment-related support, such as tax
incentive, proper conservation support and infrastructure improvement.
Government organisations should also take the initiative by direct public
investment on reusing cultural heritage and stimulating the private sector in
such action.
d. Local management and capacity of local authorities, based on the
grading order
Local management is an important component for conservation of the graded
heritage. Regardless of the grade of the heritage, local participation is a main
issue, as showed in England where local planning authority participates
various issues such as listing, building consent, and providing of funding.
Therefore, local authorities in Thailand need more practising of their power in
relation to conservation and management of the heritage. There are several
issues that local authorities have to set up such as preparing legislative
mechanisms, guideline and master plan for management of the heritage, as a
result of the decentralisation process of the FAD (See Appendix B).
In further extent, as mentioned in chapter 4 and 5, the main problem of the
local authorities in Thailand are inadequacy and limitation of essential
resources. Therefore, local authorities require more skilled personnel, wellprepared structure, and competent administrative structure.
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A comprehensive conservation and management plan of the heritage is
one issue that should be practised by the state and local bodies. Based on the
monument grading system, significant monuments and features have to be
prioritised and emphasised. The grading result can be used for planning of the
new development of the heritage and surrounding area. However, the plan is
made at the national level and related to different state agencies such as the
FAD, Department of public works and Urban Planning, and OEPP. To achieve
an effective conservation and management of the heritage, therefore, the plan
has to be integrated with the local plan, which made by the local authorities.
This includes land-use planning, development direction, and future expansion
of the area, which are derived from locally based decision. Hence, the proper
conservation and use of the heritage have to be comprehensively constructed
and implemented.
One example of such plan is the “Preservational Atlas” by the “SAVE”
programme in Denmark. The atlas is an integrated conservation plan, which is
made by the local authorities with representatives from local people,
governmental authorities and interest public groups, has developed and
practised an inventory and evaluation processes of their historic buildings,
groups of buildings and urban structures. Therefore, data of that cultural
heritage has documented and placed in the local planning policy. In this way,
local authorities can carry out the protective measures which can fulfil their
requirement and proper use of the heritage.
Based on the “SAVE” procedure, In Thailand this plan and procedure may be
carried out by cooperation of different authorities, which are: the local
authorities, i.e. municipality, TAO, BMA and Pattaya City; representatives of
relevant governmental bodies - FAD, OEPP, Department of Public Works and
Urban Planning; and public conservationist groups such as ASA, Siamese
Society, and local conservation bodies.
Consequently, local authorities should initiate a network of local authorities
and public bodies, which can strengthen the capacity of the authorities and
lead to systematic outline for sharing of problems, approaches and actions.
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Grouping of local authorities can be initiated in each region based on the
responsibility of each regional FAD office, which covers 5-8 provinces.
Establishment of society of representatives of local conservation authorities
can assist the local authorities in improving their actions and practices in the
field of conservation. Based on the registration and grading system, such a
society can help the local authorities in developing the grading evaluation and
other implications in relation to the grading system such as modification of
local legislation, application of new grant-aid and incentive programmes, and
training programmes among the authorities.
Regular meeting is necessary for effective network and sharing of knowledge
and experience among those authorities and state agencies e.g. FAD and the
regional offices.
Although there are several aspects to identify and set up in the context of
Thailand, the monument grading system is a useful means for systematic
conservation and management of heritage of international, national and local
significances. However, implementation of the grading system to various
types of cultural heritage in Thailand needs to be tested and studied, which
will be used for developing an appropriate grading system. The grading result
and database can provide reviewing and monitoring tools for appropriate use
of cultural heritage. Finally, the monument grading system can provide a
channel for Thai local authorities in practising effective conservation and
management of cultural heritage, through the autonomous power as resulted
from the administrative decentralisation.
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix A: Structure of the Fine Arts Department
Appendix B: Decentralisation
Process
in
Management
of
Cultural
Heritage
Appendix C: Drafting of Monument Grading Evaluation Charts
Appendix D: Functions of PAO, Municipality and TAO under the
Decentralisation Plan and Process Act in 1999
Appendix E: Target Respondents of the Case studies
Appendix F: Inclusion Criteria of Historic City of Ayutthaya and
Associated Towns, as a World Cultural Heritage
Appendix G: Attitude Survey Questions and Scoring of the Three Case
Studies
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Appendix A: Structure of the Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture
(Source: URL: http://www.finearts.go.th/zestructure.htm)
Director-General
3 Deputy DirectorsGeneral Interior Auditor
Senior Expert in Music and Drama Auditor
Expert in Civil Engineering
Senior Expert in Arts Auditor
Expert in Architecture
Senior Expert in Archaeology Drama
Expert in Library Science
Senior Expert in Fine Arts Interior
Expert in Interior Design
Senior Expert in Civil Engineering
Expert in Arts
Senior Expert in Architecture Interior
Expert in Ancient Language
Expert in Art and Culture
Education
Office of the
Secretaries
Finance
Division
SubDivisions
SubDivisions
Higher Education
Institute
Personal
Management
Division
SubDivisions
SubDivisions
Institute of Fine Arts
College of Fine Arts
Planning
Division
Literature and
History Division
SubDivisions
National Library
Sub-Divisions
Office of Archaeology and National Museum
National
Archive
SubDivisions
Institute of Music
and Drama
Provincial National
Library
College of
Dramatic Art
Sub-Divisions
National
Theatre
Sub-Divisions
Section/
Group
National
Museum
Bangkok
National
Gallery
Kanchanaphisek 15 Regional Offices
National
of Archaeology and
Museum
National Museum
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Appendix B: Decentralisation Processes in Management of Cultural Heritage
According to the Decentralisation Act, the FAD has proposed and proceeded
the Decentralisation process for local authorities in conservation and
management of the cultural heritage in Thailand from 2001-2010 (FAD, -,
p.38), which consists of 12 processes.
Action
Year (2001-2010)
01 02 03 04
1. Providing education and
knowledge
on
cultural
heritage
2. Research and survey of
the cultural heritage
3. Preparing the master
plan
4. Increasing potential of
local authorities
5. Applying monument
grading system
6. Preparing standard in
management the heritage
7. Preparing guideline for
management the heritage
8. Preparing legislative
mechanisms
9. Transferring to the local
authorities
10.
Monitoring
and
evaluating
11. Improving the plan
12. Implementation to the
potentially local authorities
(Source: The Fine Arts Department, -, p.38)
120
05
06
07
08
09
10
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Appendix C: Drafting of Monument Grading Evaluation Charts, by the Fine
Arts Department
Type 1: Isolated Structure
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
122
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Type 2: Group of Buildings
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
124
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Type 3: Urban Area and Historic Town
125
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
126
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Type 4: Excavated Archaeological Site
127
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
128
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Type 5: Rock Art Site
129
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
130
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Type 6: Historic Site
131
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
132
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Type 7: Historic Landscape
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
134
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Appendix D: Functions of Provincial, Sub-District Administrative Organisation
and Municipality under the Decentralisation Plan and Process Act in 1999
Functions of Provincial Administrative Organisation
1. Provincial development planning
2. Supporting and enhancing other local authorities’ activities
3. Building co-operation among local authorities
4. Allocating resources to local governments as legally mandated
5. Natural resources and environmental preservation
6. Provision of educational services
7. Promotion of democracy, liberty, and civil right
8. Promotion of public participation in local affairs
9. Promotion of technological development
10. Inter-local wastewater treatment
11. Inter-local solid waste disposal
12. Environmental and pollution management and control
13. Provision of the public transit facilities
14. Promotion of tourism
15. Promotion of local trade and investment
16. Provision of inter-local road and water transportation
17. Provision of public market
18. Promotion of athletics and local cultures
19. Provision of provincial hospital, preventive, and health care services
20. Provision of public museum and libraries
21. Public transportation and traffic engineering
22. Provision of disaster prevention and alleviation
23. Provision of public safety, law and order
24. Provision of services that are benefits to many localities and are dedicated
to provincial administrative organisation by other local authorities
25. Supporting government agencies or other local authorities in local
development affairs
26. Providing services to private organisations, state enterprises, government
agencies, and local authorities
27. Provision of social welfare and quality of life of children, women, elderly,
and disadvantages
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Appendix
28. Other local interests that are described in the Act or other laws as the
function of the local authorities
29. Other local interests that are further dedicated by the National
Decentralisation Committee (NDC)
Functions of Municipalities and Sub-District Administrative Organisation
1. Local development planning
2. Providing local roads, walkways, and water transportation infrastructures
3. Providing local market, ports and docks, and drainage system
4. Providing local public utilities and constructions
5. Providing local infrastructures
6. Promotion of incomes and employment
7. Promotion of local trades and investment
8. Promotion of tourism
9. Providing educational services
10. Providing social welfare and quality of life for children, women, elderly,
and disadvantages
11. Promotion of arts and culture
12. Provision of housing and restoration
13. Provision of public park and recreation facilities
14. Promotion of athletics
15. Promotion of democracy, liberty, and civil rights
16. Promotion of public participation in local affairs
17. Promotion of community sanitation and environment
18. Provision of waste treatment
19. Provision of family health care and medical services
20. Provision and control of cremation service
21. Pet control
22. Provision and control of slaughtering
23. Provision of public safety, law and order
24. Natural resource and environmental preservation and management
25. City planning
26. Public transportation and traffic engineering
27. Other local interests that are further dedicated by the NDC
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Appendix
Appendix E: Target respondents of the case studies
Case 1: Wat Khun Saen community in Historic Town of Ayutthaya,
Ayutthaya
1. Representatives of relevant state agencies
•
Ms. Pichya Boonpinon, the Fine Arts Department
•
Mr. Vasu Poshyanandana, the Fine Arts Department
•
Mr. Anon Ruengthet, Archaeologist of Historic Park of Ayutthaya
2. Experts and local scholars
•
Associate Professor Prasong Eiam-Anant, Committee for Monument
Grading
•
Dr. Phisit Chareonwong, Director of SPAFA
•
Mr. Puthorn Bhumadhon, Former FAD official and Instructor at
Rajjabhat Institute, Lopburi province
3. Representatives of local authority, public group and local people
•
Mr. Preecha Jindawan, Community Development section, Ayutthaya
municipality
•
Ms. Supphawan Phiromphanich, Head of “Wat Khun Saen Community”
Group
•
4 local people from Wat Khun Saen community
Case 2: Wat Phra That Lampang Luang, Lampang
1. Representatives of relevant state agencies
•
Ms. Pichya Boonpinon, the Fine Arts Department
•
Mr. Vasu Poshyanandana, the Fine Arts Department
•
Mr. Vichai Khajornpreedanon, Head of the Lampang Office of Public
Works, Urban and Country Planning, Ministry of Interior
2. Experts and local scholars
•
Associate Professor Prasong Eiam-Anant
•
Associate Professor Prasong Saengkaew, Head of Lampang Natural
and Cultural Environment conservation
•
Dr. Phisit Chareonwong, Director of SPAFA
3. Representatives of local authority, public group and local people
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
•
Phra Manop Khantathammo (Monk), Secretary of Wat Phra That
Lampang Luang committee
•
Mr. Pravetch Vikian, Member of Lampang Luang TAO
•
Mr.
Pinyapan
Potjanalawan,
Member
of
“Lankhum
Lampang”
conservationist group
•
3 local people from an elder group of Lampang Luang community
Case 3: Tha Tian community, Bangkok
1. Representatives of relevant state agencies
•
Ms. Pichya Boonpinon, the Fine Arts Department
•
Mr. Vasu Poshyanandana, the Fine Arts Department
•
Ms. Prasertsuk Jamornmaan, Director of Division of the conservation of
natural and cultural environmental heritage, OEPP
2. Experts and local scholars
•
Associate Professor Prasong Eiam-Anant
•
Dr. Phisit Chareonwong, Director of SPAFA
•
Associate Professor Dr. Yongtanit Pimonsathean, Department of Urban
and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, KMITL
3. Representatives of local authority, public group and local people
•
Ms. Suphatthani Phanurattana, Head of the Division of Land
Readjustment and Revitalisation, city planning bureau, BMA
•
Mr. Khamphol Ekkaphan, Conservation office, Crown Property Bureau
•
Mr. Kriangkrai Oranphansakul, Head of Tha Tian community
•
3 local people in Tha Tian community
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Appendix
Appendix F: Inclusion criteria of Historic City of Ayutthaya and Associated
Towns, as a World Cultural Heritage (Pengtako, Prateep, Laws and
Regulations to support conservation and development of Ayutthaya Historic
City.URL:
http://www.tobunken.go.jp/~kokusen/japanese/SEMINAR/7SEMINAR/phengta
.htm. Accessed on 14th November 2002)
The Historic City of Ayutthaya, with all of its remains, is considered to be
property of outstanding universal value and is listed as the World Heritage by
UNESCO, on 13th December 1991 in Carthage, Tunisia, for the following
reasons:
1. Ayutthaya represents a masterpiece of creative genius of perceptive
selection of the location of a site to suit a complex scheme of site planning
that capitalized the natural features of the typically Thai water-based
settlement and culture to satisfy the demanding needs of the capital city to
defend itself with the help of nature against enemy's attacks and to be
blessed with an infrastructure system that would ensure its prosperity in
peace time.
2. The city plan of Ayutthaya exerted a decisive influence on Bangkok. In
fact, Bangkok in its early years was Ayutthaya's resurrection in every
aspect, including the structural arrangements, even the names of places,
the unique houses, boathouses, royal barges and boats, and life styles.
3. The Historic City of Ayutthaya, and for what it was as a capital city, is
distinctive and unique, and there is no historic city anywhere in Asia or any
other arts of the world of its like.
4. The monuments in Ayutthaya are unique and outstanding in architectural
design of the region. Many structures such as chedi, prang, and prasat
have the distinctive character and appearance which cannot be found alike
anywhere else, through the origins were from an earlier period. The
architectural
design
of Ayutthaya
represents
the continuation
of
architectural development irreplaceable now as a traditional Thai style.
5. Architecture, paintings, and art objects of Ayutthaya associated to the
nominated area are unique in their style, design, craftsmanship, materials,
integrity and rarity.
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Appendix
Appendix G: Attitude survey questions and scoring of the three case studies
Interview questions
Set 1: Significance of and perception on the heritage
•
What are the importance and significance of the heritage site in your
opinion?
•
How do you like the heritage site?
•
How does the heritage site relate to you and the surroundings (and
your community - for the local respondents)?
•
In your opinion, what is the positive or negative impact of the heritage
site for the stakeholders and surroundings (for the officials and experts
groups)/to you and your community (for the local respondents)?
Set 2: Condition and problems in conservation and management of the
heritage
•
How does the present condition of the heritage site in your opinion?
•
What is the problem in conservation and management of the heritage
site?
•
What is your opinion about the present conservation and management
of the heritage site?
•
What is your opinion about the present function of the heritage site? Is
it proper, in your opinion?
•
What is your opinion about the function of the Fine Arts Department in
supporting conservation and management of the heritage site?
•
What is your opinion about the local awareness and participation in
conservation and management of the heritage site?
Set 3: Attitudes towards the monument grading system
•
What is your opinion and suggestion for classifying/grading the
importance and significance of the heritage site?
•
What is your opinion and suggestion if the Fine Arts Department will
classify the responsibility of stakeholder e.g. local authorities, in
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Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
conservation and management of the heritage site based on the grade
order?
•
Do you agree if the monument grading system will be implemented?
And why?
Set 4: Attitudes towards the local management of the heritage
•
What is your opinion about the present function of the local
authorities/groups in conservation and management of the heritage
site?
•
Are the present functions of the local authorities/groups in conservation
and management of the heritage site proper and effective?
•
How
many
official/member
in
your
authority/group
(for
the
representative of the local authorities or groups)? And how many of
them are concerning conservation and management of the heritage
site?
•
What is your opinion towards financial management of your
authority/group in relation to conservation and management of the
heritage site?
•
What is the future plan of the conservation and management of the
heritage site by the local authorities/groups?
•
In your opinion, what is the problem of the local authorities/groups in
present conservation and management of the heritage site?
•
Do you have any recommendation for solving the problem?
•
Based on the decentralisation, in your opinion, will the function and
capacity of the local authorities in conservation and management of the
heritage site increase and become more effective?
•
Based on the monument grading system, if the heritage site is graded
as of national/local importance, what is your opinion about potential of
the local authorities/groups in conservation and management of the
heritage site?
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Appendix
Table 1 Attitude towards the grading system, case of Wat Khun Saen
community, Ayutthaya
Issues
3 State
Agencies
A.
In. Dis.
12 Respondents
3 Experts
A.
In.
Dis.
6 Local
Stakeholders
A.
In. Dis.
Significance of and perception on the heritage
1. Tangible significance
3
2
1
4
2
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(4x1)+(2x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
2. Intangible significance
1
2
1
2
6
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ (2x0)+0]/3+[(1x1)+(2x0)+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.56
3. Positive impact on
2
1
1
2
6
varieties aspect
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x0)+0]/3+[(1x1)+(2x0)+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.67
4. Negative impact on
3
1
2
6
varieties aspect
Scoring: {[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[0+0+(6x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.89
Existing situation and problems in conservation and management
1. Well-conserved physical
3
2
1
5
1
and cultural condition
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(5x1)+0+(1x-1)]/6}/3 = 0.78
2. Appropriate
3
2
1
6
conservation
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(6x-1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.89
3. Proper allocation of
2
1
1
2
1
5
resources
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ 0+(1x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[(1x1)+0+(5x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.22
4. Sufficient public
2
1
1
2
2
4
awareness and
participation
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ 0+(1x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.11
5. Proper use of the
3
1
2
6
heritage
Scoring: {[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[0+0+(6x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.89
Attitudes towards the monument grading system
1. Concept of the system
2
1
1
2
2
4
Scoring: {[(2x1)+(1x0)+0)]/3+[(1x1)+0+(2x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = 0.00
2. Appropriation for
3
2
1
1
1
4
implementation of the
system at local level
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(1x1)+(1x0)+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = 0.39
142
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Attitudes towards the Decentralisation and local management following the
system
1. Capacity of the local
3
1
2
2
4
authorities
Scoring: {[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+ [(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.67
2. Proper role of the state
1
1
1
3
2
4
agencies
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ (1x0)+(1x-1)]/3+[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+ [(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.44
3. Modification of the
2
1
3
3
2
1
legislative means
Scoring: {[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(3x1)+(2x0)+(1x-1)]/6}/3 = 0.67
4. Increase
of
public3
3
6
private partnership
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 1.00
5. Increase of funding
2
1
3
6
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ 0+(1x-1)]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
6. Increase of personnel
3
3
6
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]6}/3 = 1.00
Remarks: A.: Agree, In.: Indifferent, and Dis.: Disagree
143
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Table 2 Attitude towards the grading system, case of Wat Phra That Lampang
Luang, Lampang
Issues
3 State
Agencies
A.
In. Dis.
12 Respondents
3 Experts
A.
In.
Dis.
6 Local
Stakeholders
A.
In. Dis.
Significance of and perception on the heritage
1. Tangible significance
3
2
1
5
1
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(5x1)+(1x0)+0)]/6}/3 = 0.83
2. Intangible significance
2
1
2
1
6
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x0)+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
3. Positive impact on
2
1
3
6
varieties aspect
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x0)+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.89
4. Negative impact on
3
3
6
varieties aspect
Scoring: {[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+0+(6x-1)]/6}/3 = -1.00
Existing situation and problems in conservation and management
1. Well-conserved physical
2
1
2
1
6
and cultural condition
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x0)+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
2. Appropriate
1
2
1
2
2
4
conservation
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ 0+(2x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.45
3. Proper allocation of
1
2
1
2
6
resources
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ 0+(2x-1)]/3+ [(1x1)+ 0+(2x-1)]/3+[0+0+(6x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.56
4. Sufficient public
3
1
2
2
4
awareness and
participation
Scoring: {[0+ 0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.67
5. Proper use of the
3
2
1
3
3
heritage
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+(3x-1)]/6}/3 = 0.56
Attitudes towards the monument grading system
1. Concept of the system
2
1
1
2
4
2
Scoring: {[(2x1)+(1x0)+0)]/3+[(1x1)+0+(2x-1)]/3+[(4x1)+(2x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.33
2. Appropriation for
3
2
1
4
2
implementation of the
system at local level
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0)]/3+[(1x1)+(1x0)+0)]/3+[(4x1)+(2x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
144
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Attitudes towards the Decentralisation and local management following the
system
1. Capacity of the local
3
3
2
4
authorities
Scoring: {[0+ 0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.56
2. Proper role of the state
2
1
3
6
agencies
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ 0+(1x-1)]/3+[0+0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+0+(6x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.56
3. Modification
of
the
2
1
3
2
4
legislative means
Scoring: {[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(4x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.67
4. Increase
of
public3
3
5
1
private partnership
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(5x1)+ (1x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.94
5. Increase of funding
1
2
2
1
2
1
3
Scoring: {[(1x1)+0+(2x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+0+(1x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+(3x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.11
6. Increase of personnel
3
3
6
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 1.00
Remarks: A.: Agree, In.: Indifferent, and Dis.: Disagree
145
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Table 3 Attitude towards the grading system, case of Tha Tian community,
Bangkok
Issues
3 State
Agencies
A.
In. Dis.
12 Respondents
3 Experts
A.
In.
Dis.
6 Local
Stakeholders
A.
In. Dis.
Significance of and perception on the heritage
1. Tangible significance
3
2
1
6
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.89
2. Intangible significance
2
1
2
1
6
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x1)+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
3. Positive impact on
2
1
3
6
varieties aspect
Scoring: {[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+ [(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.89
4. Negative impact on
2
1
2
1
2
4
varieties aspect
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x1)+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = 0.22
Existing situation and problems in conservation and management
1. Well-conserved physical
1
2
2
1
4
2
and cultural condition
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ 0+(2x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(4x1)+0+(2x-1)]/6}/3 = 0.22
2. Appropriate
1
2
1
2
2
4
conservation
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ 0+(2x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[(2x1)+0+(4x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.44
3. Proper allocation of
1
2
1
2
6
resources
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ 0+(2x-1)]/3+[(1x1)+0+(2x-1)]/3+[0+0+(6x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.56
4. Sufficient public
3
2
1
6
awareness and
participation
Scoring: {[(3x1)+ 0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 0.89
5. Proper use of the
1
2
1
2
5
1
heritage
Scoring: {[(1x1)+ 0+(2x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[(5x1)+(1x0)+0)]/6}/3 = -0.06
Attitudes towards the monument grading system
1. Concept of the system
2
1
1
2
5
1
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x0)+0)]/3+[(1x1)+0+(2x-1)]/3+[(5x1)+(1x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.39
2. Appropriation for
3
2
1
4
2
implementation of the
system at local level
Scoring: {[(3x1)+ 0+0]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(4x1)+(2x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
146
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
Appendix
Attitudes towards the Decentralisation and local management following the
system
1. Capacity of the local
2
1
2
1
5
1
authorities
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x0)+0)]/3+[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(5x1)+(1x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.72
2. Proper role of the state
3
1
2
1
5
agencies
Scoring: {[0+ 0+(3x-1)]/3+[0+(1x0)+(2x-1)]/3+[(1x1)+0+(5x-1)]/6}/3 = -0.78
3. Modification of the
2
1
3
4
2
legislative means
Scoring: {[(2x1)+ (1x0)+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(4x1)+(2x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.78
4. Increase of public3
3
5
1
private partnership
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(5x1)+ (1x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.94
5. Increase of funding
2
1
3
5
1
Scoring: {[(2x1)+(1x0)+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(5x1)+ (1x0)+0]/6}/3 = 0.83
6. Increase of personnel
3
3
6
Scoring: {[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(3x1)+0+0]/3+[(6x1)+0+0]/6}/3 = 1.00
Remarks: A.: Agree, In.: Indifferent, and Dis.: Disagree
147
Monument Grading System as a Means for Local Management of Cultural Heritage in Thailand
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