pople think tt
\\'hat evidenct
nnding Native
\\ ales. Other
ost people think Columbusowas the fust European to visit
North America. Actually many others made the trip before
o Christopher
Columbusreached
NorthAmericain 1492.
him, and theyleft evidence of their presence.Theywere Norsemen,
however, fount
rtory of Welst
trom rWalesvis
the people commonly known as \4kings, from northern Europe.
The Norsemen were great sailors, and their long wooden ships were
Is there anY o
able to travel across the Atlantic Ocean.
Some ancient
Aro u n d ro o o A.D ., a N orseman named Lei f E ri kson l ed an
of the U.S.loc
ago. But this <
expedition to what is now eastern Canada. The Norsemen settled
8oo years ago,
briefly in Newfoundland, a big island. They called the land
Q Solidcanbe usedto describe
something
that is sureor
undoubted.
"Vinland." The Norsemen built houses in Vinland and spent a
There are ma
winter there, but they had to leave becauseNative Americans were
the frst visito
hostile
Many peoPle
to them. In the r96os, solid@ evidence of the Norsemen's
settlement in Newfoundland was discovered. So, Columbus was not
sail them acr,
the first explorer to reach North America. Sailors from northern
find. In anY cr
Europe made the journey long before he did.
America. Nat
Did other explorersreachAmerica even
before the Vikings did? Some people
i.".-\
.,ln
.
.,).)
-..-,
*:..:
think so.They think perhapsIrish sailors
visited North America around 5oo A.D.
One reasonis that somecarvingson
rocks in modern West Vrginia look like
writing in the ancient Irish language.Not
everyone,however,thinks Irishmen
made the carvings.The carvingsare also
thought to be the work of Native
Americans.
e_q t
_q--,
"
1
Lt
tl'
2
\A
;t
V
An eaily Vtkngmap. Vinlandis markedwith an arrow
According to another story sailorsfrom
rValesmay have landed in America in the pth century more than
joo yearsbefore Columbus sailed.An expedition from Wales
reportedlysailedwestwardacrossthe Atlantic Oceanin r7o. Some
c
c
4
V
rr5 0ooo
people think the sailors landed near what is now Mobile, Alabama.
W'hat evidence is there for this story? In the r6oos, a man reported
fitrdirg Native Americans who understood Welsh, the language of
'Wales.
Other expeditions in the late rSth and early rgtb centuries'
however, found no lZelsh-speakers among Native Americans. The
-\lt
story of Welsh-speaking natives, then, does not prove that sailors
from Wales visited Alabama long ago.
-c.
:e
Is there any other evidence for \X'elsh visitors in the rz'h cenfury?
Some ancient buildings found in Alabama and other nearby states
of the U.S. look like what the Welsh built many hundreds of years
ago. But this does not prove that Alabama had visitors from Wales
:Il
I
.--( I
8oo years ago, either.
I
.(l
'a
"_re
' :1S
-()t
.rfn
There a.re many theories about who visited America first. Maybe
the fust visitors from abroad were lrish, or Welsh, or even Chinese.
Many people in Europe and Asia had good ships and knew how to
sail them across an ocean. But proof of these theories is hard to
find. In any case,even the Norsemen were not the fust to settle in
America. Native Americans were there already!
-un
Ht sr onv
fl W o* os FoRVVoRLD
,' ancient
1
;
:
/
/
rle
...)rS
.D.
Atlantic
expedition
NorthAmerica
settle
settlement
r)n
:ke
\ot
- r'n
Qu estlons
1
Lookat the word hostilein the text.What do you think hostilemeansin
this context?
2
What group of EuropeanexplorersdefinitelYdiscoveredAmerica before
Columbus?
r3
What groupsof Europeanexplorersmay havediscoveredAmericabefore
Columbus?
4
What evidenceis therefor eachgroup of explorers?
Jso
€
=
t,
o
a
2
t-Y |. \,{'asC,olUmh
\t'nt historians t
'1 r ple t hink h
t,'...iiterranean Se
ost Americanswere taught in school that Christopher
Columbus, an Italian navigatoq "discovered"America in
O ColumbusDayis a national
holidayin the UnitedStates.
4gz. ^fraditionally, Columbuso has been a hero to Americans.
Statues of him are everywhere in the modern United States, and his
l'':rhaPs the biggt
her his arrival n
^
.-ready living in
, ntics Point out
name appears all over the map of the U.S. Cities and streets are
shughter
named after Columbus. America itself is sometimes called
"Columbia" in his honor.
;ulture. Accordi
rrplorer findlng
In recent years, however, a great controversy has arisen around
the conquest o
newcom er s f r c
Columbus' reputation and achievements because the great
Columbus think
of I
explorer's record looks very different depending on one's viewpoint.
Manywell-known
"facts" about Columbus have been proven\Mrong.
Much of what we "know" about Columbus is not "fact" at all.
\Vas Columbus
"discoverer" at a
Instead, it is either false information or merelypersonal opinion.
controversy ove
hero just beca
For example, did Columbus really "discover" America, as many
necessarilYfact
people believe? Columbus himself apparently did not think so. He
never claimed that he had found a new continent. Although he did
land on the shores of Central America and South America, he never
Traditional
European
historyhas
ponrayed
Columbus
asa hero,butnot
everyone
agrees.
reached the Nonh American mainland (that is, the modern United
States). On his fust voyage, he landed in what we call the Bahamaso,
although which island there he reached is not ceftain; it may have
o The Bahamas
is a groupof
islandsthat stretchesout between
the southeastcoastof Floridaand
intothe Caribbean
Sea.
-Q u e s t 1
been San Salvador or the nearby island of Samana Cay, or several
other possible locations. That was the closest he came to what is
r*1
wl"
r,2
WI
i",3
W
|4
Lc
in
nowthe U.S.
Was Columbus the fust European to reach the Americas? Certainly
he was not. Archeologists have shown that Norsemen, from
northern Europe, reached North America hundreds of years before
Columbus. Though the Norsemen did not stay there for long, they
left behind enough evidence to show that Columbus was not the
fust European visitor.
Itr
oaoo
AIso,was Columbus really Italian? We are not certain of that, either.
Most historians think Columbus was from Genoa, Italy but some
people think he was born on the island of Corsica in the
MediterraneanSea.
:ter
irn
t.
l5-
.^:u)
ife
Perhapsthe biggestcontroversyabout Columbus,howeveqis about
what his arrival meant to Native Americans- the people who were
alreadyliving in America when Columbus landedo.Columbus'
critics point out that the arrival of the first Europeansled to the
...d
slaughter of Native Americans and the destruction of their
culture. According to this viewpoint, Columbus was not a great
..1d
explorer fi"dirg a new land. Rather, he was an invaderwho started
the conquest of America - and its native peoples- by brutal
newcomersfrom Europe. People who have this opinion of
Columbusthink he wasa criminal. not a hero.
' . lt
:tt.
-3.
.1.
'WasColumbus
a hero or a villain? Does he deserveto be called a
"discoverer"at all?\fhere did he come from in the first place?The
controversyover Columbusshowsthat someoneis not necessarily
a
hero just becausesomeonesayshe is a hero, and "fact" is not
necessarily
fact just becauseit is taughtasfact.
I
O Thisis partof a largerdebate
aboutthe traditional
American
view
of history.Traditional
American
historyhastendedto focuson the
accomplishments
of white settlers
and ignorethe effecttheirarrival
hadon NativeAmericans.
fl wonosron WonloHrsrony
I
/
r'
/
,'
/
r'
;
v
I
Y
/
archeologist
conquest
controversy
critic
destruction
discover
explorer
historian
invader
navigator
villain
voyage
uestlons
r"r1
What is this passagemainly about?Summarizeit in one sentence.
ar2
What are two common misconceptions
about Columbus?
':3
Why do some p e o p lelo o ko n Co lu mb u sa s a v illa inra t h e rt h a n a s a h e r o ?
.;4
Look at the word slaughter in the text. What do you think slaughter means
in this context?
w
e#
9W
a
Is
o&
Ofiate's troop
About tooo F
battle, in whi
natives were t,
cut ofr one of
n the r6s century Spain began its conquest of the Americas. The
J
I Spanish came to take gold from the land, convert the Native
liventy-four n
Americans to Roman Catholicism, and, in general, take possessionof
About 4oo yf
brutal record
as much land as possible for Spain. The legions of Spain arrived in the
Americas with the attitude of conquerors. That is the translation of
bronze statue
their name, conquistadorel They were determined to enslave the
cut off cenflu
natives and use them as forced labor.'Well-armed, well-trained, and
point hadbeer
ready to shed as much blood as necessary (perhaps even more), the
conquistadores knew their business well and were completely
equipped to perform it. From the beginning, then, there was little
doubt what the outcome of the invasion would be. The natives
NattveAmericanwarriorswere no match
far the armoredconquistadores.
resisted the invasion, but not successfi.rllyand not for long. Their
weapons were all but uselessagarnstthe firearms of the invaderso.
In a ceremony on the banks of the Rio del Norte (ater called the Rio
Grande), the river that divides present{ay Mexico from the United
States,a conquistador named DonJuan de O6ate took possession,for
Spain, of all the land north of the river. He also claimed authority over
everythrg in that territory-
even the sand in the riven and the leaves
on the trees. Of course, all this was to be done for the "betterment" of
thatthe Europeans
O Thediseases
broughtto the Americanalsokilleda
greatmanypeople.Betweenthe
violenceof the Europeans
andthe
spreadof new diseases,
some
scientrsts
estimatethat90% of the
NativeAmericanpopulation
in South
Anrerica
diedwithin'100years.
the conquered native9.
.-
( guag_l
In Ofiate's path were the Puebloan peoples, who had no idea of the
.- 1
horror that was about to befall them. They lived comfortably in
houses several stories tall, farmed the land, raised animals, and carried
on trade with their neighbors. One Spaniard described the Puebloans
as quiet, goodJooking, and intelligent. The Spaniards destroyed their
justifiedtheir
O The Europeans
invasion
of the Americasby clarmrng
thattheywere comingto bring
Chlstianity
to the NativeAme'icans.
'2
culture, took their land, and made them slaves,on the excuse that the
conquest was acrually for the natives' benefit. When the Spaniards did
not find the large arnounts ofgold that they had expected, they took
v*ntever else they could find.
3
A few Puebloans tried to resist the Spanish conquest. In what is now
central New Meico,
a group of natives killed a small number of
+
rtg0aaa
Ofiate's troops late in 1598.The Spaniards struck back, viciously
About rooo Puebloans are thought to have been killed in a three{ay
battle, in which only two Spaniards died. Several hundred more
natives were taken as slaves.As punishment, Ofiate had the Spaniards
.he
cut off one of the feet of every surviving man over 25 years of age.
Tiventy-four menwere mutilated in this way
_-t v e
, ro f
:he
^.of
:h e
,.nd
About 4oo years later, an event in El Paso, Texas, brought Oflate's
brutal record to mind. Native Americans cut the right foot off a
bronze statue of Ofiate, iust as Oflate had had the feet of Puebloans
cut off centuries earlier. The statue was repaired, but an important
point had been made.
:he
'cl y
:rle
','es
reir
fl wonouroRWonloHtsronv
a
, 'c o n q u e r o r
/ conquest
/ conquistador
r' convert
/ enslave
/ invader
; invasion
legion
"
/ resist
./ territory
ft-ro
:red
' t'or
'' '\'er
' r\es
" ' of
Questlsns
,il
€
'th e
'. ln
..,1
Why did the Spanishcall themselvesconquistadores?
red
.
'JNS
'heir
,' the
2
How did the Spanishexplaintheir violentactions?
3
Look at the word befall in the passage.What do you think befallmeans
in this context?
.. ,. did
- ''p k
1()w
iof
(,
o
€
tr
heard from ag
beforethey cc
Hudson Bay
Hudson fuver
hen Europeansbeganto exploreNorth America, they came
looking for gold and many other natural resources.They
O Columbus
was actually
looking
for a passageto Indiawhen he
discovered
the Americas.
also came looking for a direct sea route befween Europe and Asiao.
It would be much easier and safer to reach Asia if ships did not have
to go all the way around South Americao.
o Theseasaroundthe southern
tipsof AfricaandSouthAmerrcaare
extremelydangerous
for ships.
That is why Europeans looked at North America in the hope of
fi"di"g
a "northwest passage" that would take ships to China. From
the beginning, however, there was a problem. Ice covered much of
northem North American waters allyear. Icy waters made travel by
ship difficult, if not impossible. Still, Europeans knew the passage
would be of great value, if it existed. That was why the search was
undertaken, even at great nsk and expense. It would continue for
three centuries and have a heaw cost in money and human life.
In the l ate r4oos, around the ti me
Columbus made his first voyage to the
Americas, English explorer John Cabot
stimulated interest in the search for the
The most tra
rgth century
food, and sta
know what ha
Franklin, sper
husbandwas
Franklin. The'
giveJaneFran
Slowly one e)
about the far
about the danl
it wasnot wha
a northwestpe
providean eas
designedto br
LI.S.submarin
northwestpas
northwest passage.During the r5oos,
the hunt for the passagebegan. One
earl y E ngl i sh expl orer w as Marti n
Frobisher. Between ry76 and 1578,he
explored the waters in what is now
f]
rr
a
c
f
1
1
WI
2
W1
3
WI
4
Lo
thi
northern Canada, seeking a sea route
westward. He failed to find it. In fact,
his efforts were so unsuccessfirlthat he
fhe northernpassageis actuallylockedin tce yearround.
almost was sent to prison after he
returned to Ensland.
Explorer Henry Hudson had an even worse experience on his 16o9r6u expedition. A mutiny took place on his ship. The crew set
Hudson, his son, and severalother members of the expedition adrift
in a little boat. Hudson and his companions were never seen or
\
l2loooo
heard from again.Most of the erpeditiorls remainingmembersdied
before they could return to England.Only eight returned. The huge
Hudson Bay in Canadais named for Henry Hudson. So is the
Hudson River,which runs th-roughNew York City
.::1e
-cY
.p.
.ii'e
ot
m
-of
)y
..ge
; 45
:br
'rle
:he
.-]ot
The most tragic expedition was that ofJohn Franklin in the early
rgth century He and most of his men died of cold, murdeqbad
fbod, and starvation.For many years,people in Englanddid not
know what happenedto Ranklin and his men. Frantlin's wife,Jane
Franklin, spent much of her time trying to find out whether her
husbandwas dead or alive. Severalexpeditionswent to look for
Franklin. They finally learned of his death and went back home to
grveJaneFranklin the sadnews.
Slowly one expedition at a time, Europeansgatheredknowledge
about the far north. They learnedabout its islandsand waters,and
about the dangerousice.At last,they found v'hat they looked for, but
it wasnot what they hopedto find. They found that there reallywas
a northwest passage,but it wasdifficult and dangerousand could not
provide an easyroute to Asia. ln r9j4, Canadianicebreaker(a ship
^
In 96o, a
designedto breakthroughice)sailedthroughthe passage.
U.S.submarinecompletedthe passagetoo. But the dream of an easy
northwest passageto Asia wasonly that - a dream.
:he
l S'
':i n
fl wo*os ron WonloHrsronv
/
r'
/
./
/
/
expedition
exptore
naturalresource
passage
sea route
voyage
(Questions
he
o
1
What is the nofthwestpassage?Explain.
Jte
2
Why was the searchfor the northwestpassageso important?Explain.
3
Why did the searchfor the northwestpassagetake so long?Explain.
4
Lookat the word tragic in the passage.What do you thinktragic meansin
this context?
he
-rO-
. \e t
,'rift
10r
6'
o
ie
:L t,
'h e
,€
) ,ta
I1,"
I
5
'f].*..
r
played a maior role in the American Revolution. Indeed,
without French help, the colonies might not have won
independence from Britain. How did this seemingly unlikely
O lt seemedunlikelybecausethe
colonists,
then Britishsubjects,
had
foughta war againstthe French
coloniesin Americajust 20 years
earlrer.
relationship berween ancient France and young America beginof
It began, in part, becauseof the old hatred in France for the British.
l.
I
French dislike against Britain was already centuries old in 1776,the
year of the Declaration of Independence. Moreover, Britain was
France's rival as a colonial powe! and Flance was in favor of almost
anything that would annoy or harm the British.
I:
lr_
\l
R,
So, as colonists tossed British tea into Boston harbor to protest the
o Thiswas calledthe BostonTea
Partyand was one of the events
thatpreceded
the American
Revolution.
hated Stamp Act€, the Rench watched and waited hopefrrlly for an
uprising in America against King George III and British rule.
Already the Americans were sending representatives to France with
requests for help in fighting the British.
T}
Tl^
r er .
France'shopes were raised by the
CANADA
observations of Beaumarchais, a
well-known French author and
politician with rnany contacts in
Eu:
on.
Fr.i:
ho;'
Iondon. ln t77j, the year before
the A meri can
ALIFOBNIA
R evol uti on,
Beaumarchais was in contact
with the British opposition to
the British king. Beaumarchais
-q
i r-l
thought a rebellion in America
might do more than merely set
off a w ar. It mi ght al so, he
i magi ned, start a rebel l i on
TheFrenchcontrolleda huge amount of territoryin NonhAmerica
against George III.
In other words, an American revolution might lead to an English
revolution that would topple King George and put a democratic
(_\"
1
t ?30000
government in power.
'W'hat
could be more favorable to France
than the overthrow of the British monarchy?
In a letter to the Count de Vergennes, minister to the king of
France, Beaumarchais wrote something like this: "The Americans
will win, but we must help them in their fight. So, let us send help
secretly to the Americans." Thus, France quietly entered the
Frankiln
@ Benjamin
was one of
the greatAmericanleadersof the
time andworkedon the Declaration
of Independence.
struggle on the side of the Americans, in the hope of dealing
Britain's monarchy a deadlywound.
Encouraged by reports that France would be happy to aid the
American rebels, the American Congress in ry76 sent Benjamin
Franklino as its representative to the French court. Franklin had
instructions to tell the French that they should take the Americans'
@ fo smile on somethingis an
expression
whichmeansto show
favorto something
or helpin some
way.
O The FrenchRevolutionstartedin
1789andbroughtyearsof chaos
anddeathto France.
s i d e o p e n l y a n d a s s o o n as possi bl e, to hel p the A meri can
Revolution. If the rebellion failed, then the American colonies
would be rejoined with England and would be able to help Britain in
fl woror roRwonrDHrsronv
anywar against France.
The French, then, smiled on@the American fight for independence.
They had no way of knowing that fervor
for revolution would not
remain confined to America, but instead would cross the ocean to
'W'hen
Europe after America won its independence.
that happened,
only a few years after America's Declaration of Independence,
France itself would suffer the horrible events that the French had
hoped to bring about in Englando.
. AmericanRevolution
colonist
"
, cotony
of Independence
' Declaration
: democratic
/ monarcny
,' opposition
r overthrow
. rebel
; rebellion
/ representatrve
€
:a
Questlons
1
What were two reasonswhy Francewantedto helpthe American
Revolution E
? x p la in .
I
tn
o
q
::i::
:'t:il
.!it:l
!;']:
a:ata
+
2
How did the Americansseekto forcethe Frenchto helpthem when they
sent Franklint o F ra n c e ?E x p la in ?
3
Lookat the word fervor in the text.What do you thinkfervor meansin this
context?
4
How did their supportof the Americansnegativelyaffectthe French?
the United States has ellifilsss with other nations. But
foday
I
this was not always the case.Cenainly it was not what George
Washington, firrt pr"rident of the United States, wanted for the
country
'Washington
was suspicious of alliances with other countries. He
thought such alliances were dangerous and could lead the new
country into trouble. That was why in his "farewell address," or final
speech,
^
t7g6, he wamed America against "entangling alliances."
He thougfit such ellialqss could tie the United States too closely to
other nations and lead the U.S. to make poor - even perilous For years.neutralitywas the basisot
Americanpolicy.
policies. kt
other nations make alliances if they wish, Washington
said. But let the United Statesgo its ownwaf
Why did \Tashington fear alliances?There were many reasons.One
was that France and British were at war then. Although France had
helped the U.S. geatly during the revolution a few years before,
'Washington
did not want the newly independent United States
drawn into the new war bv an alliance with France.
In o th e r w o rd s, \Tashi ngton thought the best pol i cy w as
neutmlity.
"Observe good faith and justice toward all nations," he
said. "Cultivate peace and harmony with all." It was all right to have
commercial relations w'ith other countries, Washington explained,
but it was not a good idea to have political ties to other countries
because those ties could pull America (so to speak) in the wrong
direction.
rVashingtoris advice had great influence for many years after his
death. American leaders listened to his wisdom and tried to keep
America free from nllianceswith other countries. In fact, avoiding
alliances was the most important part of America's policy toward
other countries all through the rgth century and the first part ofthe
k.
zos cenfurlr Most Americans wanted nothing to do with Europe's
wars,or anyoneelse'S.
The middle third of the zoth century howeveqchangedall that.
'War
II as one of the Allied powerse.The
America enteredWorld
U.S.had a closealliancewith Britain to fight againstGermany Italy
and Japan.After the waq America kept its allianceswith other
countries.The U.S.,for example,becamepart of NATO, the North
American Tieaty Organization,which was formed to oppose
communism in Europe9.After many yearsof neutrality the United
Stateswas entangledin foreign alliances,contrary to George
Washington'sadvice.
'Washingtont
advicewas meant for America in the r8th
Of course,
centurf He did not live in the zothcentury when the United States
becamea powerfrrl nation, and alliancesbecameimportant to U.S.
'Washington
have given different advice if he had
policy Would
known what would happenin the future?We cannot tell.
O Thispolicywas called
rsolationism.
In addrtron
to bernga
productof the Americandes,reto
stayout of foreignwars,it was a
productof the simplefactthatthe
Americans
were stillbusybuilding
therrown country.
o The U.S.hadalsoenteredWorld
War l, but playeda relatively
small
rolein the thatwar.
o Thiswas the startof the Cold
War,a periodof intenserivalry
betweenthe UnitedStatesandthe
SovietUnion.
This much, however,is certain. The warning in his farewell speech
guided American foreign policy for about a century and a half
'Washingtont
brief speechone of the most
afterward. That makes
important in Americanhistory
fl wonosroaWonloHrsronY
,'
.
.
z
z
alliance
communism
cultivate
neutrality
policy
{
!
.j
fl
o;
(q .u e sti o n s
l:1
Why did Washingtonwarn the countryagainstmakingalliances?
$r
i
\J2
What effectdid Washington'sadvicehaveon U.S.policy?
{-13
What eventchangedU.S.policy?
*4
Lookat the word neutralityin the passage.What do you think neutrality
meansin this context?
I
-
\
d,'\\
li'',
bi ggest state of the U ni ted
T-h.
I
States,and the fhrthest north, is
Alaska. It lies on the Arctic Circle and
is very close to Russia. Only a narrow
stretch of \Mater separates Russia from
Alaska. In fact, Alaska once belonged to
lir
Be).
l n'
h;
Russia.The Russianssold Alaska to the
Thenew Alaskanterritarywas roughly25% the size of the continentalU.S.
United States in 1867for about 7 million
dollars. Today a single building may cost
Sc-"
7 million dollars. So, that may not seem
like much money In 1867,however, 7
SCt
million dollars was a very big price to
s( ) :
kn,
Bu'
pay even for the U.S.government. Here is the story
In the r86os, the Russian goverrunent wanted to raise money One
way to do that was to sell Russian territory Alaska seemed like a
good thing to sell. The Russianswere having trouble there. Food
was hard to find. The weather was inhospitable.
Russian fur
traders rn Alaska faced strong opposition from well-armed Native
Americans and competition from the Americans and British. V/hat
is more, Russians in Alaska were far from home. In short, Alaska
did not seem attractive. If Russiadid not need Alaska. then whv not
sell it?
O Thiswas a productof the
doctrineof ManifestDestiny.
The
ideaof ManifestDestinyoriginated
with the Puritans
andbasically
said
that European-Americans
were
destinedto ruleallof North
Amerrca.
o fhe secretaryof stateis a highposition.
ievelgovernment
This
personadvisesthe presrdent
on
foreignpolicy.
At the same time, the United States was hungry for land. Americans
wanted to have a big empire that reached far to the west and
northo. \7hen the American secretary of state@,William Henry
Seward,heard that Russiawaswilling to sell Alaska, he met with the
Russians to talk about a sale price. The Russians and Americans
agreed on a price of 7.2 million dollars. Seward persuaded the U.S.
Congress to approve money for the purchase, and Alaska became
American territory At a ceremony in Sitka, Alaska, on October r8,
1867,Alaska became American territor)4 The Russian flag was
lowered, and the American flagwas raised in its place.
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Not all Americans approved of the purchase. In :867,7 million
dollars was a huge amount of money (fhere were times in the r86os
when the whole U.S. treasu-ryheld no more than loo,ooo dollarso.)
'What
use could America have for this big, cold land where walruses
o Thiswas largelydueto the
expenses
of the CivilWar.
lived? Some Americans even called Alaska "'Si'alrussia@"as a joke.
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They made fun of Seward and his giant "icebox."
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O A mix of two words:walrus,an
Arcticanrmalsimilarto a largeseal,
andRussia.
But a few years lateq things looked different. Though it seemed an
expensive purchase at the time, Alaska was one of the best
t1
investments the L-nited States made in the r9'h century The land
i()
in Alaskain
O Goldwas discovered
1896.
had great mineral wealtho. Before long, Russia wanted Alaska back!
1e
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Seward always knew the purchase of Alaska was a wise move. Once,
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someone asked him what the most important thing he did as
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secretary of state was. "The purchase of Alaska," Seward replied. He
knew it would take years for people to see how valuable Alaska was.
But at last, historyproved Seward right.
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,z territory
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Look at the word inhospitablein the text. What do you think inhospitable
meansin this context?
2
What were some of the reasonsthe Russianswere eagerto sellAlaska?
3
Why did the Americanswant to buy Alaska?
i ,4
What made Seward'sdecisionto buy Alaskaan especiallygood one?
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Men on hors
not alwap. O
km down the
an hour. Som
the Oklahorr
they rushed c
fast horsewo.
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(mostly Americans of European descent) against
the native peoplesof North America. A similar
processoccurredin Central America and South
America. In everycase,it was a brutal business,
disguisedin laterhistoriesbygentlewords.
'Western North
America's conquest by
European-Americans,
for example,is sometimes
A tvDicalAmericanhomestead
called "the opening of the west," as if describing
a single event as harmless as the opening of a door. In fact, it was
not a single event, and certainly not harmless. Instead, it was a set of
many different crimes, betrayals,wars, murders, and robberies.
One of the most dramatic events in the west's "opening" was the
Oklahoma land rush. The Oklahoma territory was a beautifril area
of woods and grasslands. Originally, it had been home to Native
Americans. Government policy, however, was to clear to the
territory of its natives and then to open up the land for settlement
by European-Americans.
The followir
everywhere
saw dead ho
horses,he re1
horses.Sever
Within hours
such as Okl
Guthriewas I
the site of
communityc
This was onl'
more followe
their land, N
- and very cl
the destruct
life, asthe ne
There was tremendous public interest in the western lands, which
were divided into partels
called "homesteads." On April zz, 1889,
the homesteads were made available in a dramatic "land rusn"'that
'W'hatever
took only one day The rules were simple.
you could take,
(gs!
q_t
was yours. All you had to do was get there and claim the land before
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anyone else did.
A mob of settlers waited on April zz {or the signal to proceed.
'W'hen
a bugle sounded, thousands of settlers rushed forward. Some
rode horses. Others rode birycles. Still others marched on foot or
3
even rode on a crowded railway train. The train carried so many
people that some travelers had to sit on top of the cars.
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Men on horseback usually had an advantage in the land rush, but
not always. One of the best pieces of land went to a man who ran lo
km down the railway track and reached the spot he wanted in only
an hour. Some settlers took land rllegally They hid in the woods in
the Oklahoma territory before the signal to start was given. Then
they rushed out of hiding and claimed land. Sometimes a rider on a
fast horse would arrive at a parcel of land and find it already settled!
The following day, sad evidence of the wild rush could be seen
everywhere. One man wrote later that after making his claim, he
saw dead horses and smashed wagons along the route. BeautifiJ
horses, he reported, had been run to death. Not all the dead were
horses. Several persons had been killed and others badly injured.
Within hours after the bugle's signal, cities of tents formed in places
such as Oklahoma City, Stillwater, and Norman. The town of
.l \
Guthrie was built in a single afternoon. On the morning of ApnI zz,
I
th e s i te o f Gu th ri e w a s uni nhabi ted. B y eveni ng, i t w as a
communityof ro,ooo.
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This was only the fust land rush in the Oklahoma territory Several
I
more followed in the next few years. As European-Americans took
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their land, Native Americans were pushed steadily toward the west
-c
- and very close to extinction. The "opening of the west" was also
1t
the destruction of Native Americans' society culture, and way of
life. as the new American nation moved westward onto stolen land.
n
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aggression
brutal
claim
conquest
descent
extinction
homestead
moD
settlement
uninhabited
'-).
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tn
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Questlons
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t.
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What attitudedoesthe authortaketoward the Oklahomaland rush?
Listtwo thingsthat tell what the author'sopinion is.
#2
Lookat the word parcelsin the text.What do you think parcelsmeansin
this context?
l].-r3
What were the effectsof the land rush on the NativeAmericans?
tr4
How did peopleseekto cheatduringthe land grab?
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any explorerswere lost in northern North America during
the rgthcentury.One of them was American explorer
Charles Francis Hall, who died in the far north under mysterious
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circumstances that looked much like murder.
Th. -
o The lnuitaresometimescalled
Eskimos.
Theyareexpertsat living
in Arcticconditions.
F{all seemed an unlikely person to become an Arctic explorer. He
cuf
was a blacksmith, not a sailor, and he had never been to the Arctic
bec-"
when he decided to carry out an expedition there in 186o.
die,:
Regardless, he aimed to find out what had happened to the geat
British explorer SirJohn Franklin, whose e4pedition hadvanished in
blo '
Am:''
the Arctic years earlier.
goL'
Hall's fust expedition to the Arctic, in 186o, was a failure. Flall left
No
with only a small amount of supplies. His ship was wrecked in a
abo-
storrn. He had to spend a year in the Arctic, Iivrrg with the native
year.
people, the Inuito. He did not learn what happened to Franklin's
upr
expedition, but he did learn much about living in the Arctic and
anal'.
made an accurate chart of a coastline there. When he returned to
witl:
the United States, he began organiznganother
left '
Arcr,
expedition.
F{all's second expedition almost lailed as well. He was not a good
leader, and his crew carne close to rebellion, or mutin), because FIaII
treated them badly and was unable to pay them. Still, he completed
the expedition and returned home after finding relics of Ranklin's
expedition. Nolg he was well known as an Arctic explorer.
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On the basis of his second expedition's achievements, Flall received
$5o,ooo from Congress in r87rto sail to the north pole. No one had
been there before, and reaching the north pole fust was something
Americans wanted very much to do. That same year, Hall left on his
third expedition. He and his crew sailed on the sbtp Polais.
This expedition also had serious troubles. Crew members did not
get along well. The science officer thought Flall was not qualified as
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a scientist.Another crew member had a drinking problem. In short,
I{all had the wronggroup of men for this expedition.
Despite this situation, Polarissailedfarther north than anyonehad
gone before. The ship could not go all the way to the pole, however,
and had to take shelterfor the winter at an inlet. The scienceofficer
and the crewmanwith the drinking problem thought this was a bad
plan,but Flall proceededwithit anyway
The expedition spent months at the inlet. One day after drinking a
cup of coffee, Hall complainedof an upset stomach.Then he
becamevery ill. He thought someonewas poisoning him. Soon,he
died. The ship'sdoctor said Hall had died of "apoplexy" or a burst
blood vesselin the brain. The crew wrapped Hall's body in an
American flag,placedthe body in a coffin, and buried Flall in the icy
ground.
No one was convicted of murdering Flall, but suspicionspersisted
about the strangecircumstancesof his death. In 1968,almost roo
yearsafter his death,Flall'sbody - still wrappedin the flag - wasdug
up and examined.Samplesof his hair and fingernailswere taken and
analyzed.The analysisshowed that Hall really had been poisoned,
with arsenic.IThoever poisonedHall is deadby no\Mtoo, so we are
left with a sadmystery about how a famouselplorer was lost in the
Arctic.
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Arctic
circumstance
convict
expedition
explorer
relics
uestlons
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5 ffi
a'.w
O.
6'
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ril
Why did Hallfirst decideto becomean explorer?
':,.tr2
Why did Hall havesuchtroubleon his Arcticexpeditions?Givetwo
reasons.
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3
Why did Congressfund Hall'sthird expedition?
4
Look at the word persistedin the passage.What do you think persisted
meansin this context?
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Who are two likelysuspectsin Hall'smurder?Why?
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ne dramatic change in American society dunng the late zo'h
and early zlst centuries has been the "Flispanic influx."
This
expression refers to large numbers of Spanish-speaking people
moving into the United States, many of them illegally
Much of the Hispanic influx has occured along the border between
the United States and Mexico. The border is long and is not
guarded as closely as many other nations'borders. Much trade takes
place beween Mexico and the U.S. along that border. That is why
so mzmy Spanish-speaking people from countries such as Mexico
have found it easy to enter the U.S. Some sw'im across the Rio
Grande, the big river between the two countries. Others ride into
the U.S. in cars and trucks. Smuggling illegal immigrants into the
Lr.S.has become a bB - and profitable - business.
So, millions of Hispanic people have come to live in the United States.
There are especially big groups of them in southern Californi4 but
they have setded in many other states as well. Many of these people
speak only Spanish. They do not kno'i/ English, the main language of
the United States. Also, many of these illegal immigrants are very
poor. Their povert)t combined with their large numbers, puts a strain
o Nevertheless,
theseillegal
providean essential
immigrants
workforcein manypartsof the
UnitedSratesThisis becausethe
illegalimmigrantsare not protected
by laborlawsandwork for lower
wagesthanAmerican
workers.
on schools, hospitals, and other services in the U.S.o
What is more, IJ.S. goveffrment policy has worked in favor of the
Hispanic inflr.x. Consider the case of "anchor babies." These are
babies born in the U.S. to Hispanic parents who are not U.S.
citizens. Under American law. however. those babies are U.S.
citizens because they were born in the United States. The babies,
then, serve as "anchors" for families that want to stay in the U.S.,
just as a ship's anchor keeps a ship in place.
At the same time, the U.S. government has done little to stop illegal
immigration. According to the government's view, Hispanic
immigrants actually benefit the United States because many of the
rssoaoo
Hispanics are poor and therefore are willing to do necessaryjobs
that Americans do not want to perform. Not everyone, however,
accepts this view Many Americans are looking for jobs and feel
resentfril to see so many jobs going to illegal immigrants.
Finally Mexico has not really tried to hdt the influx. Mexicans have
long memories and still remember how (from their point of view)
the United States stole large portion of Mexican land in the
Mexican War during the rgth century Much of the United States
was once part of Mexicoo. Mexicans are painfirlly aware of that fact
and smile at anything that might help "retake" that land for Mexico.
partof
o Texaswas originally
SpanishMexico.
In fact, Mexicans often speak in favor of such a "retaking": in
Spanish, " reconquista."
The result is a huge and growing Hispanic presence in the United
States, especially the southwestern U.S. This presence creates big
political problems in the U.S. Hispanics have arrived in large
numbers and apparently are there to stay More arrive every day
T h e i r c u l tu re i s v e ry di fferent from that of non-H i spani c
Americans, and friction between the two cultures is increasing.
The outcome is uncertain. Americans know that their country is
largely a nation of immigrants, and that the U.S. has absorbed many
waves of immigrants in the past, from Ireland, Germaryl Italy and
fl wo*os roRworlo Hrsronv
other countries. But the modern Hispanic influx is huge, and it
/
/
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comes at a time when Americans are especially sensitive to illegal
immigration and the problems it causes. W'hat will happen
eventually? These days, that thought makes manyAmericans uneasy
border
immigrant
settle
immigration
Hispanic
strain
uestlons
lr1
Lookat the word influx in the passage.Canyou think of anotherword for
influx?
t' j 2
Nametwo factorsthat contributeto the Hispanicinflux,and explainwhy
they are important.
In what ways d o e st h e His p a n icin f lu xh e lpt h e U. S . ,a n d in wh a t w a y s
does it hurtt h e U. S . ?
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