Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Lingua Inglese
Lecture 9
DOTT.SSA MARIA IVANA LORENZETTI
1
Compounds
Prototypical compounds are formed by joining two roots, which
may occur individually in other words, to create a new lexeme
The majority of English compounds are nouns
Syntactically compounds can be analyzed in terms of
modifier+head. Most noun compounds are right-headed and
fall into the following categories:
N+N (head)
garden party, beehive, bookcase, handkerchief, ink bottle, moonlight
A+N (head)
small talk, fast food, red tape, soft touch, yellow belly, mobile phone
V+N (head)
pickpocket, spoilsport, killjoy, crybaby, watchdog
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
1
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Compounds (2)
Less frequently we can find noun compounds with other
patterns:
N+V (head) > N
Underdog
V+Prep (head) > N
Sunshine
Prep+ N (head) > N
Push over ( nominalization of a phrasal verb)
A small group of compounds are left-headed
N (head) +Prep
Passer by, runner up
N (head) +PP
Lily of the valley, mother-in-law
N (head) +A
Heir apparent, attorney general
Compounds (3)
Compound Adjectives
N+A
V+Adv/Prep
Adj+N
Ready-cooked
Long-life
Phrase
War-torn
Ready-to-wear
Compound verbs
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
Baby-sit (from babysitter – backformation)
Mastermind
Make do (V+V)
2
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Compounds (4)
From a semantic point of view, compounds
may be classified as semantically transparent
(or endocentric) or semantically opaque (or
exocentric)
In transparent compound the syntactic head
is also the semantic head. Thus the entire
compound is a member of the class
expressed by the head
Madman is a member of ‘men’
Bookcase is one type of ‘case’
Compounds (5)
Opaque compounds, instead, do not contain a semantic head. In the
following examples, the compound is a hyponym of some unexpressed
class
Greenhouse is NOT a type of house
Redtape does NOT refer to a tape
Turn coat is NOT a coat
Such compounds are exocentric
Many such compounds refer to people:
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
Soft touch
Yellow belly
Spoil sport
Block head
Push over
Underdog
High brow
Lazy bones
Drop out
3
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Compounds (6)
Some types of endocentric compounds allow a
consistent reading of the relationship between the
constituents, as for exampe
School teacher; housekeeper; fire fighter
Vacuum cleaner; can opener; screw driver
AGENTIVE
INSTRUMENT
Sewing machine
Fishing rod
Waiting room
Ironing board
INSTRUMENT
Compounds (7)
For others, however, it is not easy to find the existing relationship
between the members
Wind mill
A party held in the garden (location)
Beer party
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
a party to celebrate a birthday (purpose)
Garden party
A dress to be worn in the sun
Birthday party
A time indicator depending on the shadow cast by the sun
Sun dress
A type of flower
Sun dial
a mill which grinds flour
Sun flower
A mill powered by the wind
Flour mill
a party at which beer will be drunk
4
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Head in Compounds
There are some compounds defined as appositional or
copulative, in which the syntactic head is the right-most element,
but the various elements are of equal status, i.e. the compound is
a hyponym of both roots
An existing compound can function as a modifier in an extended
compound
Boyfriend
Worker priest
Maid servant
[orange juice] carton
[red light] district
[test tube] baby
An existing compound can be pre-modified to create an extended
compound
Student [common room]
Compounds and Modifications
Any external modifier must relate to the head
element
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
Healthy test tube baby
*broken test tube baby
Green orange juice carton
*Rotten orange juice carton
5
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Compounds and Lexical Phrases
How can we distinguish between a
compound and a lexical phrase?
For A+N compounds, we can apply the following
tests
Can A be preceded by an adverb?
Can A take –er –est?
Can A occupy predicative positions?
*very fast food
*faster food
*the food is fast
Semantic Complexity in Compounds
We have made a distinction between transparent/opaque
compounds equating these with endocentric/exocentric
compounds.
The picture is a little bit more complex, and we can also have
endocentric compounds which are also opaque, or exocentric
ones that are relatively transparent.
Endocentric compounds are those that are hyponyms of the
grammatical head: a beehive is a kind of hive, an armchair is a
kind of chair
Exocentric compounds are not hyponyms of the semantic
head: a redskin is NOT a kind of skin. Here the compound is
hyponym of some unexpressed semantic head (usually person)
by virtue or processes or metaphorisation
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
6
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Semantic Complexity in Compounds
(2)
Opacity mya be determined by different
actors, only one of which is the semntic head,
such as:
The logical relationship between the members
(safety pin)
Literal versus Figurative meaning (watch dog)
Idiomaticity (sugar daddy)
Semantic Complexity in Compounds
(3)
Transparent
Opaque
ENDOCENTRIC
Car key
Madman
Rose bush
Beehive
Watch dog (lit.)
Fast food
Small talk
Life boat
Topless bar
EXOCENTRIC
Pick pocket
Watch dog
Kill joy
Blue stocking
High brow
Yellow belly
Sugar daddy
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
7
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Backformation
This process is the opposite of derivation. New
words are formed by removing a presumed suffix by
analogy with an already existing set of lexemes
Editor (n) > Edit (v)
Similar cases are
By analogy with exhibitor (n) > exhibit
Juggler (n) > juggle (v)
Television (n) > televise (v)
And many compound nouns
Typewriter (n) > typewrite (v)
Airconditioner (n) > aircondition
Proof reader (n) > proofread
Minor Word-Forming Processes
New lexemes can also be formed by
SHORTENING an existing expression
A daily > a daily newspaper
An Empty > an empty bottle
CLIPPING an existing word: it involves missing a part of the word to
create a word with the same meaning. Either the beginning (foreclipping), ending (back-clipping), or both ends of the original word
may be removed.
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
jumbo > jumbo jet
Narc > narcotics agent
8
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Clipping
Back-clipping is more frequent. Most clippings are monosyllabic and refer to
everyday objects.
FRONT CLIPPING
BACK CLIPPING
telePHONE
microFICHE
omniBUS
SIT(uation) COM(edy)
PUB(lic house)
DISCO(thèque)
ADVERT(isement)
GLAM(orous)
Although not very frequent, there are also cases of mixed and
middle clippings
FRIDGE > reFRIGErator
VEGAN > VEGetariAN
Minor Word-Forming Processes (2)
BLENDING two existing words
Smoke + Fog > SMOG
Hotel + Motor Hotel > MOTEL
Breakfast + Lunch > BRUNCH
They are hybrid words, similar to compounds, but in
this case only part of the word has been used
Blends are very popular in journalism, advertising
and technical fields
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
BIT > binary digit
GINORMOUS > Gigantic+ Enormous
STAGFLATION > Stagnation+Inflation
9
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Blending (3)
CHOFA: a settee that combines the look of a chair and
the comfort of a sofa
MANNY: a male nanny
MOVIEOKE: karaoke’s cinematic offspring: a form of
entertainement in which a person acts out a scene from
a movie while a silent version of the movie plays in the
background
AROMATHERAPY: a therapy based on aromatic oils
AQUAEROBICS: a form of aerobics in which some
exercises are done in a shallow swimming pool
COSMACEUTICALS: COSMetics sold as
pharmACEUTICALS
Minor Word-Forming Processes (4)
LEXICALISING an ACRONYM
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
RAM: random access memory
SCUBA: self-contained underwater breathing
apparataus
SUV: sport utility vehicle
LASER: lightwave amplification by stimulated
emission or radar
VIP: very important person
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
10
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Internet Lingo
LOL: laughing out loud
F2F: face to face
ROTFL: rolling on the floor laughing
AKA: also known as
POS: parent over shoulder
B4N: bye for now
CUL: see you later
http://www.netlingo.com/
http://www.urbandictionary.com/
Exercise
What are the unclipped forms of the following words? Has frontor back-clipping taken place?
Fridge
Gym
Airplane; FRONT
Flu
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
Laboratory; BACK
Plane
Omnibus; FRONT
Lab
Gymnasium; BACK
Bus
Refrigerator; BOTH
Influenza; BOTH
11
Lingua Inglese AA 2008/09 - 6 CFU
Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti (modulo introduttivo)
Exercise (2)
What are the morphological processes at work in these words? In case
of deivation and affixation, state the base and whether the affix is a
prefix or suffix
Blackbird
CLIPPING; bicycle
Unnecessary
Lecture 09 - 10/12/2008
DERIVATION; happy+ly
Bike
INFLECTION; 3rd pers sing suffix
Happily
INFLECTION; plural suffix –en
Goes
ACRONYM
Oxen
COMPOUNDING
NASA
DERIVATION; necessary + un-
12