CHAPTER 8
ATTENTION AS A LIMITED
CAPACITY RESOURCES
Chapter 8
1
THIS CHAPTER’S CONCEPT
Preparation for and performance
of motor skills are influenced by
our limited capacity to select and
attend to information
Chapter 8
2
ATTENTION AS A HUMAN
PERFORMANCE LIMITATION
Detecting information and features in the
environment
Observing
Chapter 8
3
THEORIES OF ATTENTION
„
Filter or bottleneck theory
„
Central-resource capacity theory
„
Multiple Resource Theory
Chapter 8
Continued
4
Filter or Bottleneck Theory
„
„
Process information serially
Bottleneck cannot take in all the information
Chapter 8
5
Central Resource Capacity
Theory
„
There is a central reserve of resources for
which all activities complete for.
The amount of available attention can vary
depending on task, individual (arousal state),
and situation.
‹ Each persons decides how much attention will
be given (allocates) to an activity in order to
carry out the task.
‹
Chapter 8
6
Central Resource Capacity
„
Attention capacity will increase or decrease
due to:
One arousal level
‹ Type of task
‹ How people allocate attention
‹
Chapter 8
7
Multiple Resource Theory
„
We have several attention mechanisms, each having limited
resources
Input & output modalities (e.g. limbs, vision)
‹ Stages of information processing (e.g., perception,
memory, response output)
‹ Codes of processing information (e.g., verbal, spatial)
Each resource pool is specific to a component of performing
skills.
‹
„
„
Success in performing comes sharing different or common
resources.
‹ Two tasks share common resources, they perform less well
‹ Two tasks compete for different resources, they perform well
Chapter 8
8
Attention & Cell Phones while
Driving
„
Half of the motor vehicle accidents in U.S. can be
related to cell phone use.
„
Using the three theories explained above, why is
driving influenced by cell phone usage??
Filter theory explanation (filter)
‹ Central capacity theory explanation (allocation)
‹ Multiple resources theory explanation (same or
different resources)
‹
Chapter 8
9
Process of Attention
„
„
Rules of attention
Success in Performing two or more tasks
Chapter 8
10
Rules of Allocation
Enduring dispositions(always will attend)
-Novelty
-Presenting an old stimulus in a new way
-Cocktail phenomonen (your name)
Momentary Intentions
-Instructions
-Demonstrations
Chapter 8
11
Success in Performing two or
more task at the same time
„
Depend upon…..
 If
is meaningful, that is, we allocate our attention
to the task
 If the demands of the tasks do not exceed the
common
 If the two skills require different resources
Chapter 8
12
PROCEDURES FOR ASSESSING
ATTENTION DEMAND
„
„
Determines the attentional demand of that
activity by noting the degree of interfere
caused on one task being simultaneously
performed with another task.
Dual Task Procedures
Probe technique
‹ Continuous task technique
‹
Chapter 8
13
FOCUSING ATTENTION
„
Where people direct their attention
to special features in the
environment and to actions of the
activity.
Width (broad or narrow)
‹ Direction (internal or external)
‹ Attention switching (shifting
attention rapidly from one situation
to another)
‹
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14
FOCUSING ATTENTION IS A
MANAGEMENT PROBLEM
„
When we perform we need to maintain a
flexible (attention switching) attentional focus
in both width and direction.
„
Stress causes attention problems
‹
Singer’s Strategy in performing a closed skill:
 Relax
then visualize then focus then perform
Chapter 8
15
Should I focus on my
movements or on the effects of
one’s own movements?
„
Internal versus External Question
„
Action effect hypothesis (Prinz, 1997)
‹
Performer directs their attention focus to the
movement effects, they perform the skill at a higher
level than when their attention focus is on their own
movement.
Chapter 8
16
ATTENTION AND AUTOMATICITY
„
One performs a skill without engaging in an
information-processing activity on attention
capacity.
„
Automaticity is acquired through practice
(Logan)
Chapter 8
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HOW AUTOMATED DO COMPLEX
SKILLS BECOME?
„
Performer process not bits of information
but “chunks”
„
Experts chunks are bigger as compared to
beginners
„
Chunking enables the expert to perform
more than one task in fluid manner.
Chapter 8
18
SUMMARY
„
„
„
„
„
Humans have limited resource
capacity in attention
Attentional focus is where and how
we direct our attention
We have rules that direct our
attention
Chunking enables one to perform
skill automatically
We need to maintain a flexible
attention focus when performing
Chapter 8
19
Part II: Visual Searching
Chapter 8
20
VISUAL SEARCH
„
„
Process of directing visual
attention to locate relevant
environmental cues.
Process usually occurs during the
preparation stage for performing.
Chapter 8
21
EXAMPLE OF VISUAL
SEARCHING
„
„
Can you find the improper letter(s)
from hyg?
hyghyghyghyghyghyghyghyghyghy
zhyghyghyghyghyghyxhyghyghygh
ygthyhyghyghyghyghyyhyghyghyg
yghhyghyghyghyghygh
Chapter 8
22
SELECTIVE VISUAL
SEARCH
„
Role vision plays in directing visual
attention to environmental
information
„
Sometimes referred to as “cues”
‹
These cues affect our preparation
and performance
Chapter 8
23
Is selective visual searching a
passive or active process?
„
Does it just happen or do we need to be learn to
attend to the cues of a movement?
Little of both!!
‹ WE must actively search search for cues based
on our own intentions and there are just some
cues we will pick up automatically based on their
distinctiveness.
‹
Chapter 8
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EXAMPLES OF VISUAL
SELECTION ATTENTION
„
„
Hey coach! What should I watch
for in returning her serve?
When I get on first base, what
should I watch for in the pitchers
move to first that will help me steal
second base?
Chapter 8
25
INVESTIGATING VISUAL SEARCH
„
Video Simulation
Technique
‹
‹
temporal
occlusion
event occlusion
„
Eye movement
recording
‹
‹
‹
‹
records where
the eyes look
Measures
central vision
Peripheral
vision plays a
major role
May
underestimate
visual attending
Chapter 8
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Temporal Occlusion
Chapter 8
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Event Occlusion
Chapter 8
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HOW TO SELECT VISUAL CUES?
„
„
Performer actively looks for specific cues that
will enable him or her to achieve a specific
skill or action.
Performer actively visually searches the
environment according to specific intended
actions.
Chapter 8
29
Why do we pick one cue over
another?
„
During visual search…
We first initially group stimuli together according
to their unique features (e.g., shape, color)
‹ These features form maps
‹ Once maps are formed we attempt to identify (pop
out) specific cues based on the demands of task
or cues of interest
‹
„
Feature Integration Theory
Chapter 8
30
What makes certain features or
cues more distinctive than others?
„
Cues or feature of movement is unexpected
„
Meaningfulness
„
Novelty
Chapter 8
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VISUAL SEARCHING & ACTION
PREPARATION
„
Visual search picks up critical cues which
influences three parts of the action preparation:
Action selection
‹ Constraining of the selected action (e.g. arm
motion of the serve)
‹ Timing of action initiation
‹
Chapter 8
32
VISUAL SEARCHING RELATED
TO MOTOR SKILLS
BADMINTON
Experts use the
time prior to
shuttle contact
Racquet and arm
are primary sources
BASEBALL
HITTING
Experts identify
every pitch
Fixate on release
point of pitcher
TENNIS SERVE
Experts strategy is
different
Focusing on
specific features
early
Chapter 8
33
VISUAL SEARCHING RELATED
TO MOTOR SKILLS
Soccer
Eye tracking is different for
expert than novice
Driving a car
Eye fixations were different
for expert versus novice
Fixated more on the positions
and movement of others.
Expert drivers look more
immediately in front of the
car and to the left; fixation are
shorter
Chapter 8
34
VISUAL SEARCHING RELATED
TO MOTOR SKILLS
Shooting a
basketball
Experts looked
directly at
backboard or
hoop longer
Putting a golf Experts have a
ball
longer
preparation
period
Chapter 8
N on experts
did not fixate
long enough
prior to release
V isual
attention is
related to
change in head
position
35
VISUAL SEARCHING RELATED
TO MOTOR SKILLS
Prehension while walking
Eyes must be fixed on the
object!!
Eyes determined the location
and distance of the object
Avoiding an object
To avoid one must know the
relative location or motion of
the object
Person needs to fixate on the
object if he/she wishes to
avoid the object.
Chapter 8
36
Influence of Distractors on
Prehension
„
What extent does other objects have on the prehension of
the primary object?
‹
‹
„
„
Relevant to selective attention
Relevant to rehab
Other objects increased reaction time, movement time,
and altered the reach & grasp of the object to avoid the
other objects.
One needs to included the other objects differing in
shape, size, texture, and color when developing
prehension skills.
Chapter 8
37
Visual Search Training
„
Generalized visual search training has been
found to be not effective where as performance
situational visual training has been found to be
effective.
Need to have specific patterns that relate to the
activity
‹ Sport specific
‹
„
Effective rehab contexts to facilitate performance
of skills requiring visual search remains to be
determined.
Chapter 8
38
VISUAL SEARCH STRATEGIES
„
„
„
„
„
Become experienced with the activity and
environmental context
Instruct what to look for and attend to!
Provide sufficient practice
Make sure the “key environmental cues” are
present when practicing
Sport specific training
Chapter 8
39
Rules that determine how we
allocate our attention
Enduring dispositions
Momentary intentions
Allocation of attention
Chapter 8
40