THIMUN LATIN AMERICA
2016
28th September-1st October 2016
Research Report Booklet
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THIMUN – Latin America 2016 | 28 September 2016 – 1 October 2016
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Contents
General Assembly
Political Committee
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

Measures to combat drugs trafficking in the Caribbean Region
Combating piracy in the Gulf of Guinea
Strengthening women’s participation in politics
Economic Committee
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Measures to combat counterfeit consumer goods
Improving telecommunication in rural areas as a means of faster economic development
Measures to counter the economic struggle faced by countries that suffer from natural
disasters
Environmental Committee
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Combating environmental damages caused by rapid urbanization
Combating the overfishing of seas and oceans
International cooperation on water recycling
Legal Committee
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
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Legal measures to combat corruption in administrations
The legitimacy of military drone operations
Measures and cooperation to deter the spread of extremist ideologies through the Internet
Human Rights Committee
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Measures to protect the human rights of street children in urban areas
The right to privacy in the digital age
Educating women and girls as a tool for sustainable development
Security Council
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The situation in Libya
The question of refugees in the Mediterranean: threats to stability and security
The question of non­proliferation and the People’s Democratic Republic of Korea
Economic and Social Council
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Assisting countries in building stronger health systems especially in the aftermath of a
natural or a man-made catastrophe
Developing measures to decrease global dependency on fossil fuels
Clean, safe and convenient public transport as a resident’s right
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Forum:
Political Committee
Issue:
Measures to combat drug trafficking in the Caribbean Region
Student Officer: Paula Ojeda
Position:
Deputy Chair of the Political Committee
Introduction
The origin of narcotics is situated approximately six thousand years ago. The first one was based
on the plant ‘Papaver Somniferum’, colloquially referred as ‘Poppy’ (Botanic Garden Museum
Berlin), which grows wildly in the Mediterranean region. The first narcotic in the human history is
Opium, whose basic compound is this plant. Since Egyptian times, opium was used in medicine
regularly as well as in Greece where Homer in the Odyssey makes a connection between Hypnos,
the Greek god of dreams and ‘Papaver Somniferum’ derivations. It was also implemented in
Muslim and Arab cultures.
Opium won popularity in Europe in the early sixteen century, when it was consumed with
cinnamon, saffron, and other spices. The consumption of opium around the world resulted in the
Opium Wars between Great Britain and China from 1839 to 1842 and from 1856 to 1860. When
the Chinese` government banned the consumption of tobacco on 1644 its regular consumers
switched to opium until in 1729 its consumption was also prohibited. This opium was imported
from India where the British East India Company was settled, and after its prohibition illegal
trafficking through that same route began. Despite the efforts of the Chinese government, opium
trafficking was uncontrollable and massive. On 1839 the British army invaded Pekin and took over
several parts of the country and all trafficking routes. Since then the significant implementation of
drugs on wars were on the Austrian-Prussian war, the Franco-Prussian war and the American Civil
War.
On 1874, heroine was created with the aim of minimizing effects of opium but it achieved exactly
the opposite. In addition, they were then used in the First and Second World Wars provoking
millions of deaths due to their unnecessary use or serious addictions soldiers could never get over
(Biblioteca Digital Mexico). That was the final proof the world needed to realize that serious
measures had to be taken, resulting in the Single Convention of Narcotic Drugs held by the UN in
March, 30th 1961 on New York City. The general obligations stated at the conference were that all
the countries that signed and ratified the convention had to abide by the regulations stated in their
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own territories, cooperate with other states to fulfil this aim and limit any drug-related activity to
medical necessities (UN).
Definition of Key Terms
Drug Cartel
“Drug cartels are large, highly sophisticated organizations composed of multiple DTOs and
cells with specific assignments such as drug transportation, security/enforcement, or money
laundering. Drug cartel command-and-control structures are based outside the United
States; however, they produce, transport, and distribute illicit drugs domestically with the
assistance of DTOs that are either a part of or in an alliance with the ‘cartel’” (United States
of America Government).
Drug trafficking organizations (DTOs)
“DTOs are complex organizations with highly defined command-and-control structures that
produce, transport, and/or distribute large quantities of one or more illicit drugs” (United
States of America Government ).
FARC
The acronym stands for ‘Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia’ or Revolutionary
Armed Forces of Colombia. It is a Marxist-Leninist guerrilla group established in 1964,
following a trend of clandestine communist-backed organizations aimed at the seizure of
power by force. They were inspired in Fidel Castro’s conquest epic but somehow managed
to survive until the present day, the only 60s guerrilla currently active. It has taken a turn
from the purely ideological motives and has strong bonds with drug trafficking in Colombia,
United States and the Caribbean.
Money Laundering
“Money laundering is the generic term used to describe the process by which criminals
disguise the original ownership and control of the proceeds of criminal conduct by making
such proceeds appear to have derived from a legitimate source”. (International Compliance
Association)
Financial Action Task Force (FATF)
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“The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an inter-governmental body established in 1989
by the Ministers of its Member jurisdictions. The objectives of the FATF are to set standards
and promote effective implementation of legal, regulatory and operational measures for
combating money laundering, terrorist financing and other related threats to the integrity of
the international financial system. The FATF is therefore a “policy-making body” which
works to generate the necessary political will to bring about national legislative and
regulatory reforms in these areas” (Fatf ORG).
Merida Initiative
“The Merida Initiative is an unprecedented partnership between the United States and
Mexico to fight organized crime and associated violence while furthering respect for human
rights and the rule of law. Based on principles of common and shared responsibility, mutual
trust, and respect for sovereign independence, the two countries’ efforts have built
confidence that is transforming the bilateral relationship” (United States State Government).
Background Information
The main American drug producers and dealers are Mexico and Colombia, which export illegally to
the rest of the continent having in the United States of America its major consumer.
Opiates
Are mainly cultivated in Mexico and Colombia and trafficked to the United States by the Central
America-Mexico corridor as well as the Caribbean-South Florida. These are oxycodone,
hydrocodone, codeine, morphine and fentanyl. “Opioids are chemically related and interact with
opioid receptors on nerve cells in the brain and nervous system to produce pleasurable effects and
relieve pain” (American Society of Addiction Medicine). Opiates consumption has been
progressively increasing in countries like the United States of America in which in 2010 over 2
million people confessed of using opiates medical prescriptions for non medical purposes.
(Addictions.com).
Marijuana
This illicit drug is extensively consumed in Latin America and the Caribbean and is extremely
popular for its low relative cost. This is due to the low level of preparation that is needed for its
production, while others need intermediate and complex supply chains and laboratories to
materialize. The main buyer of this drug in the Caribbean area is the United States, despite the
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fact that as it is easily produced, one sixth of marijuana consumed is produced on said country.
The other five sixths are imported from Colombia, Jamaica and Mexico. Throughout the years,
criminal organizations have managed to make great profits out of marijuana trafficking (Drug
Library).
Air shipment
Everyday the United States receives Marijuana from Colombia by air, both from commercial flights
as well as non-commercial ones (more used for cocaine traffic). Usually the same points are used
for this activity especially in the north coast, trying to avoid law enforcement. Smugglers use both
smaller twin engine aircraft and larger four-engine planes for marijuana transport. In occasions, air
smuggling is much faster than land transport, so the quantities of traffic rise, increasing as well the
chances of being detected.
A particular method is used to traffic this drug through the Bahamas, Yucatan Peninsula, Jamaica,
Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. The drug that is being brought from Colombia is
dropped from middle to big aircrafts to the sea and is then picked up by cartel employees and
delivered to the US (Drug Library).
Methamphetamines
The DEA estimates that 90 percent of methamphetamines consumed in the United States is
produced and brought into the country by Mexican cartels. Also, cooking labs where the drug is
prepared for consumption are fuelled by Chinese chemicals. A particular case in which this link
has been proven is in the arrest of businessman Zhenli Ye Gon who had 207 million dollars hidden
in his house, earnt in his dealings with the Mexican Cartel “Sinaloa” for methamphetamine traffic
(Vice). The main routes of trafficking are through the Mexican border, especially the cities of
Ciudad Juarez and Tijuana (NCBI).
Northeast
Methamphetamine is trafficked through the northeast by traditional out-law motorcycle gangs, and
since a few years ago the presence of new groups of young distributors has been recorded. The
route between Mexico and California and the level of consumption in Philadelphia have both been
catalogued as worrisome. (FAS)
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Southeast
The Southeast area has suffered an increase in methamphetamine consumption over the last two
years. In Atlanta, this substance is called the “poor man’s cocaine” due to its lower price. Officials
of the Florida Law Enforcement state that the question of methamphetamines is provoked by
Mexican cartels that traffic meth through already existing Marijuana distribution channels in
California. (FAS).
Midwest
The use and traffic of methamphetamine has been progressively increasing in the past few years.
The Iowa police has recorded that 80 percent of domestic violence crimes have a tight bond with
the consumption of this substance. The drugs are brought into the country by Mexican cartels that
have bases in Midwestern cities with Mexican-American dealers. The trafficking routes are created
through several means of transport, but the cost is the same regardless of the way it was
transported. A pound of methamphetamine costs approximately $5000 in California and $16000 in
Iowa (FAS).
West
The main route for drug trafficking in the West is the California-Arizona border, which has been
subject to added law enforcement surveillance to difficult the movement of suppliers. It is with this
objective in mind that the California Bureau of Narcotic Enforcement (BNE) has been created,
featuring an aggressive chemical control programme, a progressive laboratory safety programme,
and improved information sharing with Federal, State and local counterparts (FAS).
Cocaine
Cocaine traffic has more than tripled in five years, the most common supply routes being
Colombia, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. Although a great amount of Cocaine still
enters the USA, several Caribbean ports have been seized (Cordoba). The U.S. has improved its
measures in the Caribbean to avoid trafficking, such as the implementation of more Coast Guard
patrols, human and electronic intelligence (to detect the illegal entry of planes or boats).
“Dominican authorities said it was the first full-scale cocaine processing operation ever uncovered
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in the Caribbean. Cocaine lab refining is usually done in South America, before the final product is
shipped in bulk”. (Brown).
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United States of America
The US illegal drugs market is one of the most profitable in the world. Despite this, the government
has taken innumerable exhaustive measures towards the topic to control the entry of illegal
substances as well as their consumption. “Each year, according to the U.S. Customs Service, 60
million people enter the United States on more than 675,000 commercial and private flights.
Another 6 million come by sea and 370 million by land. In addition, 116 million vehicles cross the
land borders with Canada and Mexico. More than 90,000 merchant and passenger ships dock at
U.S. ports. These ships carry more than 9 million shipping containers and 400 million tons of
cargo. Another 157,000 smaller vessels visit our many coastal towns. Amid this voluminous trade,
drug traffickers conceal cocaine, heroin, marijuana, MDMA, and methamphetamine shipments for
distribution in U.S. neighbourhoods.” (U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency) The United States has
proposed several counter-narcotics initiatives and foreign policy options, such as:

Mérida Initiative and strategy in Mexico

Central American Citizen Security Partnership

Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI)

U.S.- Colombia Strategic Development Initiative (CSDI)

U.S. Counter-narcotics Strategy for Afghanistan

West Africa Cooperative Security Initiative (WACSI)
(Congressional Research Service)
Mexico
Despite the great efforts done by the Felipe Calderón administration with the US government (led
by George Bush at the time) to crack down trafficking organizations, Mexico is still the most
important drug dealer in the Caribbean region, even having states entirely dominated by cartels to
which neither the police or government forces have access to and weak judicial and police
institutions. The government of Enrique Peña Nieto has been a huge failure towards this topic
facilitates and empowers these cartels to keep trafficking to the world’s biggest consumer, the
United States of America. The downfall of big organizations has created a diversification on the
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business. According to Miguel Ángel Osorio, Mexico’s Secretary of the Interior, sixty to eighty new
drug trafficking gangs have emerged in the past few years. Violence has also multiplied
exponentially, with more than forty mayors (both sitting and former) having been killed together
with several city council members and other political leaders. This is accompanied by the increase
of extortive kidnappings and massacres as well as the 26.000 people the government classifies as
‘disappeared’. (CFR Backgrounders).
Colombia
The FARC organization in Colombia signed a ceasefire with the government shortly ago but
continues to have a major role in what refers to illicit market and exports. Although for years drug
dealing was in charge of two big organizations, the Medellin and Cali cartels, nowadays both are
dissolved and their business has fragmented. Guerrillas protect labs located in remote Colombian
areas and new organizations take over Mexico-US trade. (PBS) Said trade caused a huge
increase in Colombian lifestyle, providing comfort, food and shelter to families that had not
experienced it in generations. Cities such as Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and Riohacha in particular
and Caribbean ports in general experienced unprecedented prosperity. However, the Guajira
Peninsula turned into a dreadful city in which violence, murders, and briberies are a common deal
for its citizens (Country Studies).
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
1970
The United States bans the use of drugs through the Controlled Substances
Act.
1971
President Nixon states that there is a war against drugs, which is their biggest
threat.
1973
President Richard Nixon creates the Drug Enforcement Agency.
1975
Violent incident in Medellin, Colombia: drug gangs assassinate forty citizens in a
weekend after the police forces found 600 kg. of cocaine.
1981
The most important drug trafficker in the world, Pablo Escobar, creates the
Medellin Cartel which started to import Cocaine to Miami via Caribbean routes.
1982
Pablo Escobar is elected to the Colombian Congress and invests in shanty
towns and building homes for those in need.
1984
While Pablo Escobar is blamed for the death of the Colombian Justice Minister,
the DEA joining forces with the Colombian police discover huge cocaine
productions in the jungle.
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1985
Cocaine smuggling shifts into Mexico after U.S. law enforcement cracks down
on maritime smuggling via the Caribbean into Miami. The godfather of Mexican
narcotics trafficking, Miguel Angel Felix Gallardo, pioneers overland smuggling
routes to the United States for Colombian cartels.
1989
Felix Gallardo is arrested and his nephews kept running his business,
smuggling cocaine from Mexico into the state of California.
1993
Escobar is found and killed by the Colombian police forces and the DEA. The
Medellin Cartel is terminated and a Cali drug gang starts to rise and become
popular.
1996
Cali cartel is dismantled. Osiel Cardenas expropriates the Texas border cartel
called Gulf and then hires professional soldiers from Mexico’s army to join them
in the Zetas cartel.
2000
President Clinton sends Colombia $1.3 billion in aid to help fight against drug
traffic with Plan Colombia
2001
The most important Mexican drug trafficker, Joaquín Guzmán, escapes from
reclusion in a laundry van. After his escape he takes over Mexico’s drug trade.
2002
Mexican police kill Ramon Arellano Felix in Sinaloa and capture his brother
Benjamin several days later.
2004-2005
Guzman is eventually repelled, and he sends his men to try to take over the Gulf
cartel, wreaking havoc in Nuevo Laredo and Monterrey.
2006
President Felipe Calderon mobilizes troops and federal police all through
Mexico to try to restore peace and stability.
2007
Mexico extradites Gulf Cartel kingpin Cardenas to the United States and
discovers 23 tonnes of cocaine. President George W. Bush gives $1.4 billion in
aid to Mexico and Central America to fight against drug but violence keeps
increasing.
2008
Lots of gang participants are arrested in Mexico, blocking several supply lines.
6000 civilians are killed in crossfire between police forces and gang members.
2009
Forbes magazine puts Guzman in its list of world's billionaires. Drug trafficker
Arturo Beltran Leyva is tracked down.
2011
The DEA places an emergency ban on Bath Salts. Since December 2006, drugrelated deaths are approximately 50.000, Calderon’s main failure.
2012
Latin American presidents call for a reformulation: twelve nations including
Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Panama, Nicaragua,
Belize, Honduras and the Dominican Republic ask to review the norms
established for drug control.
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2013
Despite the fact that 18 countries including the USA did not agree, Bolivia
legalized coca leaf consumption, abandoning the 1961 UN Convention on
Narcotic Drugs. The Organization of American States releases an international
report depicting a reliable beneficial situation for the rules related to certain
drugs. Uruguay legalizes Marijuana, becoming the first country to allow it under
non-strict conditions (apart from the consumption for medical purposes)
(Reuters) (TDPF UK)
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

70/182 International cooperation against the world drug problem

17 December 2015 (A/RES/70/182)

Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 30 March 1961

Mérida Initiative, 30 June 2008
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
The main attempt to solve the issue was through prohibition. Drugs were banned for years and
drug dealers and consumers have been chased and imprisoned. The use of these substances has
been condemned. Millions of dollars have been spent to end illegal trafficking. Despite this, the
method has been an utter failure, with drug-related murder rates progressively increasing, cartels
being as powerful as ever and traffic seemingly impossible to stop. Due to this, several countries
have taken a different approach in the past few years, measured consuming. This entails
legalization of growth, consumption and sale of certain drugs. For instance, Uruguay and Jamaica
have recently legalized Marijuana usage.
Possible Solutions
Empowerment of local governments:
The UN should endorse the empowerment of local governments which are not strong enough to
fight against their own cartels, who then export drugs to the Caribbean region. An example of this
is Mexico. UN resources must be at these countries’ disposal for their citizens’ wellbeing and to
fight against the Cartels.
UN system of protection:
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UN troops should be present in all sea and land hotspot borders and should document every
package that gets in and out. The UN should provide the funding to those countries that cannot
afford it themselves. Local people should be employed in the system and a new huge anticorruption network should be set. In case of threats to any life the UN must provide security to that
or those persons.
Bibliography
Addictions.com. Addictions. 10 August 2016 <http://www.addictions.com/opiate/10-opiateaddiction-statistics/>.
American Society of Addiction Medicine. ASAM. 2016. 1 August 2016
<http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/advocacy/opioid-addiction-disease-facts-figures.pdf>.
Bargent, James and Armando Cordoba.
Biblioteca Digital Mexico. 27 July 2016
<http://bibliotecadigital.ilce.edu.mx/sites/ciencia/volumen3/ciencia3/130/html/sec_35.html>.
Botanic Garden Museum Berlin. 2010. 29 July 2016
<http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/PTaxonDetail.asp?NameCache=Papaver>.
Brown, Tom. Reuters. 9 October 2013. 10 August 2016 <http://www.reuters.com/article/uscaribbean-drugs-idUSBRE9981C520131009>.
CFR Backgrounders. CFR Backgrounders. 5 March 2014. 30 July 2016
<http://www.cfr.org/mexico/mexicos-drug-war/p13689>.
Congressional Research Service. FAS. 2 August 2016
<https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34543.pdf>.
Cordoba, James Bargent and Armando. Insight Crime. 17 April 2014. 4 August 2016
<http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/caribbean-cocaine-trafficking-up-200-as-traffickingroutes-migrate>.
Country Studies. Country Studies. 30 July 2016 <http://countrystudies.us/colombia/59.htm>.
Drug Library. Drug Library. 30 July 2016
<http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/govpubs/amhab/amhabc3a.htm>.
—. Drug Library. 2 August 2016
<http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/govpubs/amhab/amhabc3a.htm>.
FAS. U.S Department of Justice. 3 August 2016
<http://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/dea/product/meth/production.htm>.
Fatf ORG. 3 August 2016 <http://www.fatf-gafi.org/about/>.
International Compliance Association. 28 July 2016 <https://www.int-comp.org/careers/a-career-inaml/what-is-money-laundering/>.
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NCBI. NCBI. 2006. 3 August 2016 <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16603456>.
PBS. Frontline. 10 August 2016
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/drugs/business/inside/colombian.html>.
Reuters. Reuters. 14 January 2010. 28 July 2016 <http://www.reuters.com/article/us-drugsmexico-idUKTRE60D4YF20100114>.
TDPF UK. Transform Getting drugs under control. 2016. 10 August 2016
<http://www.tdpf.org.uk/resources/drug-policy-timeline>.
U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency. Almanac of Policy Issues. 2004. 11 August 2016
<http://www.policyalmanac.org/crime/archive/drug_trafficking.shtml>.
UN. "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs." Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. New York: UN,
1961.
United States of America Government . Justice. 2010. 1 August 2016
<https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs38/38661/dtos.htm>.
United States of America Government. Justice. 2010. 1 August 2016
<https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs38/38661/dtos.htm>.
United States State Government. 2016 <http://www.state.gov/j/inl/merida/>.
Vice. Vice. 1 August 2016 <https://news.vice.com/article/drug-trafficking-meth-cocaine-heroinglobal-drug-smuggling>.
Appendix
I.
Drug Enforcement Administration:
https://www.dea.gov/divisions/international/caribbean.shtml
II.
Corridor of Violence: The Guatemala-Honduras Border https://www.crisisgroup.org/latinamerica-caribbean/central-america/guatemala/corridor-violence-guatemala-hondurasborder
III.
FAS: Latin America and the Caribbean: Illicit Drug Trafficking and U.S. Counterdrug
Programs. https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41215.pdf
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Forum:
Political Committee
Issue:
Combating piracy in the Gulf of Guinea
Student Officer: Omar El Jamal
Position:
Chair of the Political Committee
Introduction
Piracy has been a pressing matter for a very long time, but only recently has the international
community realised the convergence of conflict caused by this issue. Since this sudden realization,
countries have come together in order to try and solve the problem, having the UN and other
African maritime entities involved acting as middle ground.
The consequences of maritime piracy range from it being a threat to every person working at sea,
to being a direct attack to global economy since 80% of trade is based off maritime services. As a
great number of countries in the Gulf of Guinea area can be considered underdeveloped, maritime
piracy further hinders the development of such nation-states. It also hinders the development of
healthy diplomatic ties with other nations, as no trading relation can be established.
What has become very evident throughout recent years is the difference in piracy patterns
concerning the two sides of the continent where maritime piracy prevails. In the Somali region
(Eastern coast) ships and crew members are seized by captors focused on demanding ransom in
exchange for their freedom. However, in the Gulf of Guinea (Western coast), pirate ships focus on
stealing the cargo, rendering crew members useless. The little incentive to keep crew members
alive has taken the issue to another level. Piracy is threatening development and well-being of
people around the globe.
Definition of Key Terms
Pirate
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The Greek origin of the word (peirein) meant ‘to attempt an attack’ while the definition for the
word in modern English is “a person who sails on the sea and attacks and steals from other
ships” according to the Cambridge
English
Dictionary.
Nowadays,
maritime pirates tend to attack
cargo
ships
and
merchants,
especially in LEDCs.
Gulf of Guinea
“A part of the Atlantic Ocean that
projects into the West coast of
Africa and extends from the Ivory
Coast to Gabon.” (Dictionary.com)
International Waters
According to UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea) the perimeter for
international water is established on the principle that 12 nautical miles starting from the
coastal baseline determined by the convention is territorial sea whilst if surpassed, it is
considered international waters.
Ransom
“Money that is paid in order to free someone who has been captured or kidnapped”
(Merriam Webster). This tactic is exceedingly used by pirates in the coast of Somalia,
around the Horn of Africa area, but less used in the Gulf of Guinea area.
Universal Jurisdiction
Numerous countries adopted the ‘Universal Jurisdiction’ (Jus Cogens), which permits states
or international organizations to vindicate criminal jurisdiction over an indicted criminal
independent of his nationality, resident country, or location the supposed crime was
committed.
Phantom Ships
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Phantom Ships, also known as ghost ships, are vessels captured by pirates whose crew
members have been eliminated, the ship has been repainted and a bogus identity given to
it. Merchandise and ship components are then sold in the black market. The chances of
retrieving a phantom ship back are little to none.
Background Information
Throughout the past few years, the African continent has endured a series of execrable problems.
Rise in maritime piracy has been a serious hurdle for the continent, especially countries located in
regions such as the Gulf of Guinea or the Horn of Africa. In relation to maritime piracy in the Gulf
of Guinea, countries in the region have seen a significant spike in stolen cargo and maritime
piracy. The problem, while having such an international appeal in recent times, has yet to become
known to the global spectrum, so that it may be susceptible to receive the much deserved respect
and support.
Piracy in East Africa
Piracy in East Africa focuses a lot on the Horn of Africa region, where Somalia is located. It is
thought that this sudden surge in pirate attacks around that region was due to illegal fishing by
foreign boats taking advantage of the countries then at war. Local fishermen lost their income and
had to resort to piracy. Another reason thought to have affected the fishermen's’ income, together
with illegal fishing, was the discarding of toxic waste in Somali waters, again by foreign boats.
Consequently, fishermen joined forces in an act of rebellion intuitively searching for an alternative
source of income.
Economic Effects of Maritime Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea
Seafarers and sea workers are at the frontline of this problem. Both their economic and physical
well-being is on the line whenever they decide to sail off coast with valuable cargo. Regional
governments, which are already plagued by political and economic unrest, also suffer maritime
piracy. This makes it more expensive to organize and to execute trading routes in the area, since
less seafarers are willing to navigate the region. Expenses needed to recover pirated cargo have
cost companies an estimated 2 billion dollars just on the Gulf area. For example, Benin, a country
in the region, saw a decrease in trade of 70% in its major port. Maritime piracy is a real threat to
further development of infrastructure and economy of countries in the Gulf of Guinea region.
Political Effects of Maritime Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea
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Studies referring back to the start of maritime piracy in specific locations showed a trend in certain
economic and political factors in these regions. The research showed that countries with less
economic stability and a higher political disorder are more predisposed to encounter future piracy
issues. In short, maritime piracy in the Gulf of Guinea has proved to be a driving issue in the
internal politics of countries that are present within the area. A better example to prove that the
research is correct is Somalia’s piracy situation, which is simply a reflection the country's economic
situation, and political chaos.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
Nigeria
Being the most populous and the largest oil supplier in the region makes Nigeria a favorite when it
comes to pirate attacks. Huge amounts of oil are transported on a weekly basis through poorly
administered ports that are an attractive and easy target. Earlier this year, the Nigerian navy
launched an Operation code-named ‘Tsare Teku’, that will ensure security in the region. This is in
response to the unexpected piracy boom in and around Nigerian territorial waters.
Benin
In spite of the fact that the quantity of assaults has dropped significantly, the territory remains to be
unsafe. Past assaults demonstrated the pirates around there are well equipped and savage,
seldom having opened fire and captured ships. Pirates employ Masters to sail to obscure areas
where boat's properties and sometimes shipload (usually gas oil) are stolen. Crewmembers have
been harmed previously. Late watches by Benin and Nigerian Authorities have brought a
tremendous drop in the quantity of assaults. Still, vessels are encouraged to keep on being
cautious and keep up strict theft/burglary watches and measures.
Togo
Assaults have dropped although the territory remains a worry and unsafe. Pirates/looters in the
territory are also well equipped, brutal and threatening. Assaults can happen at harbors and off the
coast and for the most part during the night. A few assaults brought about vessels being captured
for a few days and ransacked with part of their load stolen (usually gas oil).
Ivory Coast
In the past years, attacks have dropped significantly but the region is still very unstable. Just
recently in February, an oil tanker was hijacked just off the coast of Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Pirates
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remained in possession of the ship and crew members until they were released several days later.
Indian authorities together with the Nigerian Navy organized the rescue of the captured crew
members. Eleven Indian sailors and one Pakistani were kept in captivity until ten of them were
released the following week. The other two crew members, an Indian and a Pakistani, were
released later.
United States of America
The American economy relies heavily on the consumption of oil, so it is in the country’s best
interest to ensure its security. Although the importance is high, the USA has limited its involvement
in the region to only providing minimal financial aid while on the other hand providing military
training to countries involved. The United States has shown repeated interests in securing the
areas of the Gulf of Guinea and the Horn of Africa. Whenever American ships are in danger or
threatened, the USA has the habit of mobilizing naval escorts or even tactical strike teams to
neutralize the threats.
China
As previously done in the Somali piracy issue dating a few years back, China has just recently
adhered to the cause and will be providing aid. China’s aid limits itself to helping littoral countries
build the necessary infrastructure to withstand an attack. On a meeting regarding African peace,
the Chinese former head of the Foreign Affairs Office of the Ministry of National Defense, Qian
Lihua, incentivized the international community to help countries in need of assistance regarding
this issue while also encouraging countries involved to increase spending on military training and
better equipment.
Northern Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
NATO has an anti-piracy task force that was used to combat the pirates of the coast of Somalia.
They do act in the Gulf of Guinea but in a smaller rate. If its fleet were bigger, its impact would
definitely be higher.
Movement for the Emancipation of the Nigerian Delta (MEND)
The Movement for the Emancipation of the Nigerian Delta is a militant group based off the
Nigerian Delta region. The group aspires to always side with the people when it comes to
corruption and exploitation in governmental branches. Although the cause may seem noble, The
Economist said of the movement that it "portrays itself as a political organization that wants a
greater share of Nigeria’s oil revenues to go to the impoverished region that sits atop the oil. In
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fact, it is more of an umbrella organization for several armed groups, which it sometimes pays in
cash or guns to launch attacks.” The organization has been linked to several illegal activities
involving major criminal organizations.
International Maritime Bureau
The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) is a non-profit organization established in 1981 in direct
correlation to the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). IMB’s duty is to coordinate and
maintain constant combat against international maritime fraud. The IMB has a subdivision focused
specifically in maritime piracy, the Piracy Reporting Center (PRC). The PRC advises local
governments about eminent threats to maritime security through the analysis of data and studying
of strange trends and patterns in coastal movement. The Pirate Reporting Center listed countries
such as Benin, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Togo, which are all in the Gulf of Guinea region, as “Robbery
Prone Regions”. In 2012, the IMB reported 34 attacks in the Gulf of Guinean perimeter, 4 more
than the previous year. IMB’s Piracy Reporting Center also has a 24-Hour Maritime Security
Hotline for anyone who has “seen / heard / know of or have any information relating to maritime
crime and / or security, including terrorism, piracy and other illegal activities.”
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of Events
January 4th , 2009
Gunmen hijacked a French oil tanker with several foreign
nationals on board
September 14th,
2011
Pirates hijack a Spanish vessel, causing two casualties in the
process
November 2011
United Nations Secretary General sends an investigative team
Gulf of Guinea to assess the gravity of the situation of piracy in
the region.
February 2012
The United States begins military exercises to train military
forces in the region.
August 19th, 2012
British oiling vessel seized from the Port of Togo.
November 19th,
2012
The permanent members of the United Nations Security Council
hold a meeting to discuss the measures that should be taken to
combat maritime piracy in the Gulf of Guinea.
December 23rd,
2012
Italian ship hijacked by Nigerian pirates and held hostage for
ransom, until ransom was paid.
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February 4th, 2013
Chemical tanker hijacked, which led to the killing of a Filipino
seafarer.
April 16th, 2013
A Greek vessel nearly escapes hijacking, which was only
avoided due to evasive maneuvers and skillful sailing abilities.
October 23rd, 2014
A Nigerian platform supply vessel was attacked and
crewmembers were held hostage, of which the Captain and chief
engineer are still held captives of the pirates.
United Nations Involvement

Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 3 December 1982 (A/RES/33/66)

Resolution 2018, 31 October 2011 (S/RES/2018)

“The Security Council condemned all acts of piracy and armed robbery at sea committed off
the coast of the States of the Gulf of Guinea.”

Resolution 2039, 29 February 2012 (S/RES/2039)

“Welcomed the Secretary-General’s assessment mission on piracy in the Gulf of Guinea
and called on states to implement its recommendations.”
Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue
The dependence of the global community on petroleum and its derivatives provided by nations
within the Gulf of Guinea and the success of intervention in the coastal region of the Indian Ocean,
more specifically off the coast of the Horn of Africa, could result in authorities questioning why the
trick is not attempted more times on the other side of the continent. Firstly, the Gulf of Aden’s
intervention was the first time all permanent members of the United Nations Security Council
deployed troops to combat the same threat at the same time since WWII. This new and
unexpected international cooperation aided by anti-piracy troops deployed by the European Union
and NATO has resulted in an effective reduction of piracy attacks within Africa’s bodies of water.
However, this has strained the forces of many of the entities involved. Top-ranking officers have
made it clear that their troops are strained from the intensity of combat present within the region.
Furthermore, the conditions of Africa’s bodies of water have become very detrimental to the state
of the military and commercial ships in the region. Also, Western and MEDCs are reluctant, to say
the least, of getting tangled in another regional conflict in Africa. For example, as the attacks occur
in territorial waters, they are technically “armed robbery at sea”. Statuses and classifications like
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this make countries more reluctant to intervene in a larger scale. Addressing these robberies is
therefore the responsibility of the littoral states, as their sovereignty must be revered. However,
this was not the case in Somalia, where as the state was an unsuccessful one, jurisdiction was
yielded to the international community.
In direct relation to these issues, the military forces stationed within the area of the Gulf of Guinea
are significantly smaller than the military troops present within the Gulf of Aden.
In final remarks and also adding to the reluctance of nations to intervene, sea traffic for
international commercial trade in the Gulf of Guinea and its region is far less significant and
important to the international community when compared to the Gulf of Aden, making it even less
appealing to interventionist nation-states that wish to see the region rid of maritime piracy.
Possible Solutions
The first issue delegates should focus on is the stimulation of cooperation between regional
powers, international entities, and Western countries that hold interest in the area. International
cooperation is paramount in the remediation of this issue. If there is no coordinated effort to deal
with this threat, pirates will take that to their advantage and will utilize it to continue their misdeeds
throughout Africa’s bodies of water. Piracy can only be suppressed when the organized
governmental institutions of the world attack it coherently and in an organized fashion. In a joint
effort supported by almost all countries present in the United Nations Security Council, Somali
piracy has decreased massively. Through 2009 and 2011, piracy-related incidents in the Gulf of
Aden region ranged from 166 to 182 compared to 0 in 2014. This is simply a real life
demonstration of how a similar problem was solved through diplomatic cooperation. This further
proves how international collaboration and coherence in action is key in combating terrorism,
piracy, and the threat it poses to the civilized world.
Further ensuring the political and economic stability of countries in the region of the Gulf of Guinea
is also crucial for the long-term solution of this issue. Without ensuring such stability, no military
action could be deemed useless, since the problem will arise again whenever the action is
completed. To find a true long-term solution for this issue, this committee must focus on
addressing issues regarding education and economic prosperity in the region of the Gulf of
Guinea. If young people are given a good education and have good employment opportunities, the
chances of them joining maritime piracy groups drops sharply. Furthermore, international military
action should not be limited to the Gulf of Guinea itself. Countries in the surrounding area must
have UN peacekeepers or some kind of international military support, as they are plagued with
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rather large terrorist organizations (Boko Haram, etc.) which might turn to maritime piracy as a
means of acquiring assets to fund their endeavors.
In order to develop the region’s political stability, the United Nations and its member states must
do all in their power to strengthen and further validate and support democratically-elected
governments. This support will further reinforce the legitimacy of these regimes, especially in the
eyes of their population. This support should also be given in form of financial support for the
maintenance of ship-detection materials and equipment, since many of the countries in the region
do not possess capability to purchase these supplies and equipments for themselves.
In final remarks, there are many ways to remediate the issue of maritime piracy in the Gulf of
Guinea. It must be kept in mind that in order to solve the issue to its fullest extent, socio-economic
issues, such as unemployment and lack of education must also be addressed. Any other type of
solution will only be a short-term result, which would be limited to protecting vessels from pirates,
which would be useless whenever viewing the future situation of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea.
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"Number of Pirate Attacks Worldwide 2009-2015 | Statistic." Statista. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Aug.
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Forum:
Political Committee
Issue:
Strengthening Women’s Role in Politics
Student Officer: Omar El Jamal and Paula Ojeda
Position:
Chair and Deputy Chair of the Political Committee
Introduction
Women have been playing an increasingly significant part in the world of national and international
politics. In the lower houses of countries such as Bolivia or Rwanda, women are more represented
than men. Despite making significant progress in the last decades, many countries still deny
women the right to education or participation in politics. Through its Millennium Development
Goals the United Nations is working towards further assimilating women’s participation in politics.
The majority of the international community must work in coherence to achieve progress and
development in this field. There is still much work to be done.
Until very recently, women’s role in politics was basically ignored. American women only gained
their right to vote or to run for electoral positions in 1919. Currently, Western culture has made
significant progress in this area but has not achieved equality yet. Countries situated in areas such
as the Middle East, where a much more conservative point of view is adhered to, mostly do not
grant women the participation and representation they are entitled to. Making change possible
requires policies and governmental actions that will improve women's access to the scarce and
valued resources of their societies, as well as policies that will set women’s position and standing
in society to be equal to that of their male counterparts. Discrimination against women is one of
the main factors contributing to this issue. Countries in these positions and with these viewpoints
pose a serious threat to the empowerment of women and the achieving of gender equality. Giving
special attention to more conservative countries, there are still several factors that must be
addressed in order to give women full representation in politics.
From the local to the global scale, women’s social and political participation is restricted or, at the
very least, discouraged. Women are underrepresented as voters as well as in leadership positions,
whether in elected office, the public service branch, the private sector or academic positions. This
further represents the discouragement and underrepresentation women are facing in the society
they live in. This occurs despite their proven abilities as leaders and agents of change, and their
right to participate equally in democratic governance, which is exactly the same right their male
counterparts possess.
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Definition of Key Terms
The Empowerment of Women
The empowerment of women refers to giving women equal participation in social, political,
economic, and cultural matters. It can be defined as the action of giving women the same
social, economic, and political possibilities as men. Empowering women will eventually lead
to a more accepting and democratic society, which will leave aside sexism and
discrimination.
Millennium Development Goals
The Millennium Development Goals, or MDGs, were eight goals set by the United Nations in
September 2000 that aimed at and strived to achieve significant marks and
accomplishments in the areas of education, equality, and others. Goal Number 3 of the
Millennium Development Goals aims at empowering women and pursuing gender equality.
Empowering women in politics and strengthening their role in this area is a crucial factor
whenever considering pursuing gender equality.
Equal Political Representation
Equal political representation refers to the concept that women should be just as
represented in the legislative and executive branches of their governments as men are. This
means that women should be granted the opportunities to be elected into public office. Very
few countries possess a somewhat equal political representation in their upper and lower
legislative
chambers.
Most
countries,
Western
and
otherwise,
still
possess
a
disproportionate number of males in their different branches. Equal political representation
aims to end such disproportional numbers.
Gender Equality
Gender equality is achieved and conquered when women and men enjoy the same rights
and opportunities across all sectors of society, including economic, social, and political
participation and decision makingas their male counterparts. Essentially, it refers to women
and men being treated equally within all sectors of society, while also receiving the same
opportunities.
Gender Equity
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Gender equity could be defined as the process of giving women and men the same support
within the economic, social, and political aspects of society. It is based on the concept that
no gender discrimination should occur.
Background Information
Equal representation by both men and women in the area of politics is paramount for a country to
develop its political and social systems. It is paramount for conservative countries to leave behind
and forget the stigma that women are, somehow, inferior to men. This committee must strive to
achieve such representation for women, both in the executive and legislative branches of a
country’s government. Reaching equality between men and women in the different political
aspects of society is something that can bring many benefits to any society in which it is
implemented.
The importance of equal participation for both men and women
The political participation of women is an issue that can affect many aspects of society. When
women are equally represented in the world of politics, they become freer. In order to achieve this
aspect of gender equality, many social and cultural stigmas, many of which have a very bad
connotation towards women, must be broken. When such stigmas are broken, a society becomes
freer, less tied to sexist and discriminatory ideals. Women in politics are usually seen as an
impractical and unreliable scenario. At the national level, it is of extreme importance that a country
has a proportional amount of both male and female representatives. Without such proportionality,
the people of a country will never be fully represented by their leaders. This point of view is fuelled
by the many stereotypes against women that have been present in society for centuries. To
surpass this stereotype, member-states and their respective populations must acknowledge that
men and women are equal, and must be subject to the same standards and given the same
amount of opportunities to succeed in life.
In order for a women or women in general to sustain themselves within society and be given a
chance at political participation, certain tools must be supplied. In order for women to be
successfully implemented into their country’s political spectrum, there must be a conjoint
international and regional effort to assimilate the women that are excluded to the largest extent.
Many member-states fail to acknowledge that equality in political representation has the capability
of greatly improving the socio-political scenario within a nation. It can improve the economy and
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create a country where democratic ideals are dutifully upheld, since there would be a very
accurate representation of both sexes in their legislative and executive branches of government.
Women’s Right to Participate in Politics
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of the United Nations, which was set forward in San
Francisco almost a century ago, states that all men and women are equal in dignity and in rights.
Women are having their rights to political participation neglected whenever they are denied the
opportunity to be equally represented in their governments. Women should be able to vote, to be
elected into office, and many other different inherent political rights. Geographically, women are
mostly lacking in such rights in regions where conservative feelings are lived by. These regions
include but are not limited to the Middle East and Asia.
This right is infringed in many countries and has proven to be one of the main obstacles women
face whenever attempting to strengthen their own role in politics. Women often find themselves
subjugated by men, especially in more conservative countries. Representation for women, in both
the executive and legislative branches of a democratic government, is the main way women will be
able to be empowered. Conservative ideals have posed a serious threat to the continuous
empowerment of women in politics.
Cultural and Religious Norms as Obstacles
In modern times, many deeply conservative and fundamentalist individuals fail to recognize that
women must be included in the social and political system of their country or region. Countries
such as Afghanistan, where less than 50% of women are literate, have suffered greatly from
primitive and discriminatory ideas against women. Afghanistan, a country which has been
repeatedly torn by the horrors of war, is the country with the lowest literacy rates in the world for
both men and women. Afghanistan’s inability to provide education, a stable economy, and a
healthy job market has been devastating for the country. It is worth reminding that Afghani women
hold essentially no participation in politics whatsoever. If Afghanistan were willing to accept
international help and educate its female citizens, its situation might have been better. The United
Nations do not discriminate against any religion or culture, one of its most important founding
arguments.
Comprising more than 50 percent of the world’s adult population, women continue to be underrepresented as voters, political leaders and elected officials in general. No country can achieve the
status of a full democracy until women are represented fairly within the nation’s legislative,
executive, and judiciary branches. Women must receive equal socioeconomic opportunities. Even
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if such proportional representation does not represent religious and cultural norms, there must be
full representation. It is of paramount importance for everyone in a society to be equally
represented. If not equally represented, a society will not be able to fight for the needs and wishes
of all its peoples.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
CAWP
The CAWP is the Centre for American Women and Politics. It has its base in the Eagleton Institute
in The State University of New Jersey and it’s recognized due to its significant endorsement to the
participation of women in politics. (CAWP)
Rwanda
It is the country with the highest percentage of women members of Parliament. This was achieved
in the recent reconstruction of the nation after its genocide in which nearly one million people were
killed. The country’s motto for this reconstruction was equality and justice, and this had been tried
to be achieved in every aspect of their daily life. In parliament, gender equality was achieved(Left
Foot Forward).
United States of America
United States can be catalogued as the symbol of the Western World, and regarding this topic it is
not the exception. The percentage of women holding state-wide and state legislative offices is
under the 25 percent. Although there are very few women that can actually achieve the position
they pursue, a big number of them would want to participate in politics but they are not able
achieve the position they pursue because of gender discrimination at the political offices as well as
in the media. (Hill)
Japan
Japan can be catalogued as the main representation of the Asian community, and said
representation is reflected in this topic. Throughout history, Japanese women had been highlighted
as important participants of the society they lived in. They participated with the committed work
they have done with non-governmental organizations as well as charity foundations. These have
provided training and skills that allow nowadays women to have the enough knowledge
(sometimes more than men) to efficiently carry out important political and governmental positions.
Despite this fact, many political parties still prefer to hire men over women (Sheel).
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Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
1756
Lydia Chapin Taft was the first woman to vote in America.
1776
The state of New Jersey granted every citizen the right to vote, despite their race
and gender. In 1807 this right was restricted only to white males.
1869
Wyoming grants women the right to vote
1872
Susan B. Anthony was judged in court for voting in a Presidential Election illegally
1881
The Isle of Man was the first nation to grant women the right to vote. It granted it to
property-owning women who were not married and widows.
1882
Alletta Jacobs (Netherlands) attempted to register to vote but her application was
denied.
1893
New Zealand granted all women the right to vote.
1906-1907
Finland grants all women the right to vote (first European country to do so)
1916
A woman is elected for the American House of Representatives for the first time:
Jeanette Rankin of Montana.
1920
US ratifies the 19th Amendment and approves universal suffrage for its population.
1928
Britain allows women between 21 and 29 to vote.
1930
The Soviet Union names Alexandra Kollontai as their Ambassador to travel to
Sweden, becoming the first woman Ambassador in modern history.
1933
Frances Perkins, the first American female Cabinet member is appointed Secretary
of Labour.
1946
First time women participate of the election of House Representatives in Japan.
1960
Siramavo Bandaranaike is elected as the world’s first female Prime Minister.
1966
Indira Gandhi is elected as the first female Prime Minister of India
1968
Soong Ching-ling is elected as the first female Chinese Co-Chair, being the first
non-royal woman to occupy a high position in the state’s hierarchy.
1969
Golda Meir is elected as first female Prime Minister of Israel.
1974
Isabel Martínez de Perónassumes his husband’s former position and is elected as
the first Argentinean female President as well as the first female President in
America.
1977
Patricia Harris was the first African-American female appointed in the Cabinet
(Secretary of Health under Jimmy Carter) and to enter the line of Presidential
succession (12th).
1979
María de Lourdes Pintasilgowas elected as the first female Prime Minister of
Portugal; Lidia Geiler is elected as the first female Bolivian president; Margaret
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Thatcher is elected as the first female British Prime Minister and Simone Weil is
elected as the first female French President.
1980
Jeanne Sauve was the first female in history to be named Speaker of the House of
Commons in Canada.
1981
Gro Harlem Brundtland became Norway’s Prime Minister
1982
Agatha Barbara became Malta’s President.
1984
Milka Planinc is elected as the first Yugoslavian female Prime Minister.
1985
Eugenia Charles became the first female Prime Minister of Dominica.
1986
Corazon Aquino is elected as the first Philippine female President.
1988
Benazir Bhutto, who was the first female to be named Prime Minister of Pakistan,
had governments characterised by its discontinuities. She governed for 20 months
since she was elected in 1988 due to a false charge of political corruption. Then,
she governed for three more years between 1993 and 1996. She suffered
harassment and violence from militants of other ideologies in her country, therefore
she decided to exile herself in Dubai. On December 27, 2007 she was killed by one
of the organizations she was harassed by: Islamic Fundamental Extremists.
1989
Violeta Barrios de Chamorro became Nicaragua’s first female President
1990
Mary Robinson was elected as the first Irish female president; Ertha Pascal-Trouillot
was elected as the first female Haitian president and Carmen Lawrence was elected
as the first Australian female Premier.
1991
Edith Cresson was elected as the first female French Prime Minister; Khaleda Zia
Rahm was elected as the first female Bangladesh Prime Minister and Rita Johnston
was elected as the first female Canadian Premier
1992
Two women are elected to represent the state of California in the US Senate:
Dianne Feinstein and Barbara Boxer; Betty Boothroyd was the first female to be
elected Speaker of the House of Commons in Great Britain and Hannah Suchocka
was elected as the first female Polish Prime Minister.
1993
Toujan Faisal was the first female to became elected in Jordan’s Parliament; Tnsu
Ciller was elected as the first Turkish female Prime Minister; Anson Chan was the
first woman to achieve the position of Chief Secretary, the second-in-command of
Hong Kong’s government; Sylvie Kinigiwas the first woman to become Prime
Minister of Burundi andin Canada Kim Campbell was the first woman elected Prime
Minister.
1994
Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga became Sri Lanka’s first female President.
1995
The first time women run for office in Peru: 2 for president and 8 for vice-president
1997
Mary McAleese became Ireland’s President.
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1999
Vaira Vike-Freiberga becomes President of Latvia; Mireya Elisa Mocoso de Arias
becomes Panama’s first female President and Helen Clarck was elected as New
Zealand’s Prime Minister.
2000
Tarja Kaarina Halonenwas the first woman to became Finland’s president.
2001
Maria Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is elected as President of the Philippines
2002
Nancy Pelosy is introduced to the House Democratic Whip
2003
Beatriz Merino was the first female Prime Minister to be elected in Peru. Despite
this, she was dismissed from her position shortly after election, even though she had
an approval of sixty percent of the population. This was done due to the fact that
Peru is a conservative country that could not tolerate the gossip that indicated that
Merino was a lesbian. These conjectures were based on the fact that she was not
married and lived with a female colleague.
2004
Luisa Diogo is chosen as Mozambique’s Prime Minister.
2004-2005
Yulia Tymoshenko leads the Ukranian Orange Revolution and is elected as Prime
Minister.
2005
Angela Merkel becomes Chancellor of Germany
2006
Michelle Bachelet becomes Chile’s President; Portia Simpson Miller is elected as
Jamaica’s Prime Minister
2007
Senator Hillary Clinton is considered the first serious female candidate to run for
office at the U.S.; Cristina Fernández de Kirchner is chosen as Argentina’s
President; Pratibha Patil is chosen as President of India.
2008
Zinaida Greceani is elected as the Prime Minister of Moldova.
(IWDC)
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, New York, 19
December 1979, Resolution 34/80

Fourth World Conference on Women, September 1995 (Beijing Platform).

Women and political participation, 19 December 2011, A/66/455, Resolution 66/130
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
Beijing Platform of Action: Women in Power and Decision-making
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“The Beijing conference agreement, known as the Platform for Action, dubbed women in power
and decision-making one of 12 critical areas of concern. It made two essential commitments to
change. First, it called for measures ensuring women’s equal access to and full participation in
power structures and decision-making. Political quotas or positive measures are examples of
these. By reserving seats or candidacies for women, they have driven dramatic increases in the
number of women leaders in some countries. Second, the Platform urged steps to increase
women’s ability to participate. Training on leadership, public speaking and political campaigning,
for instance, grooms women to compete, win and be good leaders who can inspire others.”(UN
Women)
Possible Solutions
Minimum percentage of women at powerful positions:
The UN can encourage countries to have a minimum percentage of women at Political Positions.
That would increase women’s chances of achieving powerful positions in spite of the societies they
live in. Also, showing the society the image of women at powerful positions will put aside the idea
that women cannot achieve important roles in politics and that they are as respectable as men.
Exhaustive UN media campaigns:
The UN should have several media advertisements throughout the world promoting this kind of
freedom, the empowerment of girls and women. In a world where media is the foremost
communication tool, cultural change has to come through that path. The UN should prepare
several advertisements to different targets to make people conscious that women are more than
qualified to apply for this kind of jobs, and that diversity will benefit the institutions they would work
for.
Bibliography
CAWP. Centre for American Women and Politics. 10 August 2016
<http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/about_cawp/history-and-mission>.
Hill, Steven. The Nation. 7 March 2014. 5 August 2016 <https://www.thenation.com/article/whydoes-us-still-have-so-few-women-office/>.
IWDC. International Women's Democracy Center . 30 July 2016
<http://www.iwdc.org/resources/timeline.htm>.
Research Report | Page 33
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Left Foot Forward. Left Foot Forward. 17 September 2013. 12 August 2016
<http://leftfootforward.org/2013/09/rwanda-has-the-most-female-politicians/>.
Sheel, Ranjana. JSTOR- Economical and Political. 3 August 2016
<https://www.jstor.org/stable/4414071?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.
UN Women. UN Women. 10 August 2016 <http://beijing20.unwomen.org/en/in-focus/decisionmaking#sthash.nt5mu3vX.dpuf>.
Women, UN. "Women’s Leadership and Political Participation." UN for Women. United Nations, n.d.
Web. http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation
NDI. "Gender, Women, and Democracy." National Democratic Institute. N.p., n.d. Web.
https://www.ndi.org/gender-women-democracy
OSCE. "Handbook on Promoting Women’s Participation in Political Parties." OSCE. OSCE, n.d.
Web. <http://www.osce.org/odihr/120877?download=true>.
Appendix or Appendices
I.
Women in politics:
II.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/politics/notes-from-the-crackedceiling/timeline/
III.
Women and Politics in Africa Today:
IV.
http://democracyinafrica.org/women-politics-africa-today/
V.
CAWP
VI.
http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu
VII.
Women’s leadership and political participation:
VIII.
http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation
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Forum:
Economic Committee
Issue:
Measures to combat counterfeit consumer goods
Student Officer: Cynthia Babace
Position:
Chair of the Economic Committee
Introduction
Throughout history, creators have been concerned for protecting their original ideas. The
originality of a product is key to its place on the market; the competition between ideas has
generated a very active worldwide marketplace. However this competitive market of ideas can be
roughly interrupted when counterfeiting is introduced, as these counterfeited products are capable
of making consumers buy copied brands under deceptive campaigns, decentralizing trade into
illegal actions, and generating remarkable capital losses for the proprietors of the original
concepts.
In a culture where the interest of buying cheaper has gained great importance, consumers seem to
have lost interest in quality and sourcing. Discounts, special offers and promotions catch
consumers` attention and can mislead them into buying unsafe products. Also, as e-commerce
expands, more buyers are likely to decide for inserting personal data, as credit card numbers or
bank accounts, without worrying about a website`s security credentials. This practice has led to
serious security scams.
Involving countries, industries, and civilians, the amount of stakeholders on this issue make it a
complex one, especially considering the rise of ecommerce which facilitates counterfeiting
operations; the social acceptance of counterfeit, compared to other type of crimes, further
complicates the struggle against it, since consumers remain unaware of its severity. Counterfeit is
highly related to other criminal acts, and works as a perfect money laundry business, that puts
human lives at risk and encourages a wide range of other illegal actions. Cooperation among all
stakeholders involved is essential to correctly treat the issue, as to stop its evolution, which is
already far advanced.
Definition of Key Terms
Counterfeit:
The World Trade Organization defines counterfeit as “an imitation, usually one that is made
with the intent of fraudulently passing it off as genuine”. The main objective of this action is
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taking advantage of the already established value of the original product, so that consumers
of these goods are attracted to buy the counterfeits offered, being ignorant of their illegality.
The action of counterfeiting involves the infringement of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)
including trademarks, copyrights, patents, among others. Counterfeit goods may also be
defined as "fakes," "knock-offs," or "replicas."
Intellectual Property (IP):
Intellectual property refers to creative inventions made by the intellect, such as artistic works
(music, literature, and paintings), designs, symbols, names and images contrived by
enterprises in commerce. These are protected by law, which enables the creator to have a
monopoly on his/her original ideas, and earn a recognition or certain benefit from it. These
rights have evolved for centuries, but it was not until the 20th century that the term became
common in the world.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs):
The ownership of ideas implies having specific rights over these. The IPRs protects and
defines the benefits of the creators’ work, looking forward fighting against counterfeiting and
piracy. As described in the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS), these rights include copyrights, patents, trademarks, and design
rights among others.
Trademarks:
Trademark means a recognizable name, sign, expression or image which identifies a
particular product or service, and may be displayed on packages, labels, or the product
itself. It can be owned by any legal entity, such as business organizations or individuals.
Copyrights:
These are the rights given to authors of artistic works, such as movies, music, designs, and
written work.
Trademark infringement:
As the term suggests, trademark infringement is the use of these identifying features without
the owners’ permission or accomplishment of benefits. This action is very common in the
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counterfeit business, as it makes the consumer easily confused and wrongly attracted to
these fake products.
Copyright infringement:
Similarly, copyright infringement means the unauthorized use of copyrighted material,
violating the owner’s right to reproduce, perform and spread its work. The most common
form of this action is online piracy, which means to illegally upload, download and share
copyrighted material without any regulation.
Forgery:
Forgery refers to the process of making fake documents, or adapting original ones, with the
intention of deceit. In counterfeited products, forgery plays a fundamental role in order to
illegally negotiate and pass through borders.
Background Information
According to OEDC surveys, trade on counterfeits and pirated goods amount to up to 2.5 % of the
World Trade by 2013 and a total amount of $461 billion, a huge increase since 2007, when the
value of cross-border trade in fakes was $250 billion (an 1.8%). Since this economy has
developed, illegal commerce has too, evolving its processes through different technological
advances and adapting to the new consumer’s profile. Counterfeits are normally sold by street
vendors and in flea markets, as well as via the internet (through e-commerce and digital
marketing).
The Counterfeit activity
Any successfully branded product can be counterfeited, and most threatened ones are clothing,
jewellery, pharmaceutical drugs, electronic equipment and car parts, as well as a wide range of
CD’s, DVD’s and illegal downloads of files and materials without an author’s permission, an action
most commonly known as piracy. Where do these products come from? To get the answer, we
have to consider the wide range of developing countries counting with a very low-cost
manufacturing capability, and a strong labour force that generate a large amount of this type
products. These include various states in Asian regions, as well as in Latin America and Eastern
Europe. A recent study released by the U.S. Department of Commerce includes Malaysia, Taiwan
and China as top counterfeit producers. It has been revealed that Hong Kong it’s the origin in 84%
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of the cases itself, and $1.08 billion of the total value of seized counterfeited goods originated
from China (In 2014).
Legislation in these countries does not meet the minimum standards in order to fight against
counterfeit. This situation is causing far-reaching damage to all countries involved; from the ones
who produce, to the others who are dealing with an active commerce on these counterfeited
products. The avoidance of taxes as well as the avoidance of customs in the traffic of counterfeits
constitutes major losses for governments.
National security also seems deeply affected by the link of counterfeits with organized crime.
Criminal organizations see the illicit trafficking of counterfeits as a complementary source of
income, and money received from these sales can be potentially channelled towards other criminal
activities such as money laundry, drug dealing and human trafficking. Europol suggests that
criminals use similar routes and modus operandi to move counterfeit goods as they do to smuggle
drugs, firearms and people, and reciprocally, invest the money earned to finance these actions.
This is a very attractive trade to this kind of groups, due to low penalties, and very high profit
margins due to a greater social tolerance compared to other type of crimes.
Labour exploitation
Having explored that several mayor and legitimate companies are accused of un-human working
conditions, it is a known fact that this matter aggravates the production of counterfeits. A worker on
this area is not granted with the same protection as in a more regulated employment market, and
low pay is the minor of all problems that can be faced. Due to the illegitimacy of these productions,
working conditions can be far worse than in any other company, as safety and security matters are
ignored, while benefits are non-existent. Labour abuses, threats, physical violence, deadly
conditions and exposure to hazardous materials are some few of a wide range of risks that
employees have to deal with in these clandestine settings.
Piracy
The replication and distribution of copyrighted material without an author`s permission is becoming
one of the most popular ways of counterfeiting, as well as the most accepted by society. The
entertainment industry has been largely affected by this, counting with 50% of videos being
counterfeited, and 33% of music being so. Software designers also suffer these attacks, having
43% of their products hacked and stolen. Annually, there’s a total loss of $13 to $16 billion due to
piracy in the USA alone (the most affected country by this action), accounting for a loss of 750,000
American jobs, as suggested by different studies of the U.S. Department of Justice. This activity is
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mostly done through the internet, where streams, uploads and downloads are used to globalize
illicit material.
Fraudulent Medicines
The pharmaceutical industry has been largely affected by counterfeits due to the trade of fake
medicines, which is a life threatening, illicit activity. These are normally encountered in countries
where medical treatment is unaffordable and inaccessible, though, the first association between
counterfeited medicine trades to low income countries has gradually disappeared, and throughout
internet connectivity, this has become a global issue. It is estimated that fraudulent medicines
represent almost 1 per cent of medicines available in developed countries, while in several states
in Asia, Africa and Latin America, these amount to as much as 30 percent. This was confirmed by
the WHO, who refers to these medicines as “substandard, spurious, falsely labelled, falsified and
counterfeit (SSFFC) medical products”. About $5 billion are collected per year just in East Asia
and Africa, places where this trade is having a recognizable impact. Drugs dealing with
depression, schizophrenia, diabetes, blood pressure and cholesterol are principally produced, and
a variety of antibiotics, antiretroviral drugs and also medicines to fight life-threatening diseases are
also being produced, mostly in West Africa.
These medicines are very difficult to detect, and fail to properly treat the disease or condition for
which they were intended, in some cases making sick people more vulnerable to the disease they
are meant to be fighting. Substances needed to combat illnesses are commonly omitted from
these fake drugs, or presented in incorrect amounts, and they are likely to contain other
substances, such as corn and potato starch, or chalk. They can be found via internet, in illegal
street markets, and unregulated pharmacies, and are usually made by unqualified personnel, in
very unhygienic conditions and usually contaminated with bacteria.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes (UNOCD)
The UNOCD works under a campaign titled “Counterfeit: don’t buy into organized crime”, as the
organization strongly affirms and decides to focus on the wide relation between counterfeits and
transnational criminal business. The project, launched in 2014, raises awareness on the matter by
the distribution of posters and articles, as well as informing customers on how buying counterfeit
goods can be funding organized criminal groups.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
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In charge of regulating trade worldwide, the WTO addresses the issue of counterfeits by protecting
intellectual property, and requires all its member states to sign the agreement on Trade-Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), administrated by the organization.
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
Established in 1967 as a self-funding agency of the United Nations, the WIPO aims to highlight the
benefits of intellectual property. It works out with a policy forum, dealing with shaping international
IP rules, and also provides services to protect these rights, resolve disputes, and be a world
reference source for IP information. The WIPO also defines its actions in accordance to the Paris
Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (March 20, 1883), and the Berne Convention
for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (September 9, 1886)
World Health Organization (WHO)
The WHO is specifically focused on targeting the issue of counterfeited pharmaceutical products,
most commonly happening in less developed countries, in which access to medical services is
increasingly difficult. The Organization dedicates itself to raising awareness about these medicines
and their dangerous contents, explaining how to properly identify them.
Organization of Economic Development and Cooperation (OEDC)
The mission of the OEDC is to promote policies improving economic and social well-being, and
counterfeits are a natural threat to both areas. The organization reacted by releasing reports and
articles on the economic impact of counterfeits, as also statistics and relevant information on the
topic.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
The UNCTAD was established by the United Nations General Assembly in 1964 as a permanent
intergovernmental body, part of the UN Secretariat. Related to the issue, the organization has
reported and created draft resolutions to the UN General Assembly and the Economic and Social
Council.
International Trademark Association (INTA)
The INTA is a global association of trademark owners, whose main concern is supporting
trademarks and IP regulations, for fair and effective commerce, as to protect consumers. Its
history goes as far as 1878, by a group of merchants and manufacturers who wanted “to protect
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and promote the rights of trademark owners, to secure useful legislation and to give aid and
encouragement to all efforts for the advancement and observance of trademark rights”.
International Anti-Counterfeiting Coalition (IACC)
Made up of more than 250 companies and organizations, the IACC is a non-profit organization
with the unique mission of combating counterfeiting and piracy. The coalition promotes laws,
regulations, and relationships designed to eliminate the theft of intellectual property, and gives
relevant information about the topic, as also makes press releases on its commitment to fight
against counterfeiting and supports industries affected by this action.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of Event
March 20, 1883
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial
Property
September 9, 1886
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary
and Artistic Works
July 14, 1967
WIPO Convention held in Stockholm, Sweden,
stablishes the WIPO as one of the 17 specialized
agencies of the United Nations
1988
The World Health Assembly asks the WHO to
initiate programs on detection and prevention of
counterfeited pharmaceutical products
April 1st- 3rd, 1992
First
International
meeting
on
counterfeit
medicines held at WHO in Geneva
April 15, 1994
Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights
(TRIPS)
Agreement
is
introduced,
administrated by the WTO
1999
Department
of
Essential
Drugs
and
Other
Medicines (EDM) of WHO releases a report on
Guidelines for the Development of Measures to
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Combat Counterfeit Drugs
2000
WIPO's member states designated April 26 as
World Intellectual Property Day with the aim of
increasing general understanding of IP
June 5th, 2012
Intellectual Property Council (WTO) formally
debates how and where to handle counterfeit
trademarked goods
2007
OEDC makes a report on The Economic Impact
of Counterfeiting and Piracy
October, 2009
WHO Essential Medicines and Health Products
(EMP) Department publishes a document on
FAQs of Counterfeited Medicines
October 1st, 2011
The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA)
is signed by 22 countries
January 14, 2014
UNODC
releases
the
campaign
called
“Counterfeit: Don’t buy into organized crime”
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events
The United Nations has developed a more significant position on this issue throughout the years,
though its involvement remains very limited. The WHO has been the most responsive actor on this
issue, though some important documents have been released by other UN Partners too.
Resolution of the WHO Expert Committee on the Unification of Pharmacopoeias, 3rd
February 1951 (EB7.R79).
The resolution considers in article IV the “complexity of the problem of the protection of
international non-proprietary names”, and asks for a further study of this issue and evaluation of
the possibilities given by the International Union for the Protection of Industrial Property (Paris
Union) to solve it. It also refers to different authorities from the countries involved to consider
“more uniform methods” for the control of drugs, not specifying how these can be applied.
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Resolutions on Consumer Protection, 19 December 1983/ 16 April 1985 (A/RES/38/147)
(A/RES/39/248)
Though this topic directly relates with counterfeit consumer goods, it does not concentrate on
possible solutions.
Intellectual Property Program (UNCTAD)
It was created to help developing countries participate effectively on international discussions on
intellectual property rights, and ensure their IP policies at a national level.
Guidelines for the Development of Measures to Combat Counterfeit Drugs, Department of
Essential Drugs and Other Medicines (EDM) of WHO (1999)
The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 15 November 2000
(A/RES/55/25)
The Global Surveillance and Monitoring System, WHO (2013)
This system is released to the accumulation of evidence to demonstrate the scope, scale, harm
caused by counterfeited medicines, and identify its vulnerabilities, weaknesses and trends.
“Counterfeit: Don’t buy into organized crime”, UNODC (2014).
This campaign looks towards informing consumers that organized criminal groups are collecting
founds from counterfeited products, as well as to explain the seriousness of the issue, and how
their contributions to this illicit trade is a source of income and facilitation to the laundering of other
illicit processes.
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
In 1883, the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property was signed in Paris, France,
being one of the first intellectual property treaties; it established a union, called the Paris Union.
The substantive provisions of this conventions can be divided into three main categories: national
treatment, priority right and common rules. These three further explore the possibilities of all
contracting states in order to accomplish the protection of national and international industries
within their territories, as well as ensuring the right of priority in case of patents and industrial
designs. Three years later, in 1886, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic
Works was established, creating a union called the Berne Union. This convention is an
international agreement governing copyright, which deals with the protection of works and their
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respective authors, and contains three basic principles determining the minimum protection to be
granted. These principles include equality of protection of released work in all contracting states,
as established in Paris Convention, a “principle on automatic protection”, a “principle of
independence of protection” stating protection can’t be denied in any signatory country, regardless
of the inexistence of such on its country of origin.
The Paris Union and the Berne Union, as well as the Conventions, are currently still in force and
are regulated by the WIPO. Countries like Russia believe that these conventions could have
worked in some period of time, but are now insufficient to alleviate the actual severity of the issue.
More significantly, in 1994, the WTO releases the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), in the need for having an updated document setting down
minimum standards for various forms of intellectual property regulation. TRIPS Agreement
introduces intellectual property law into the international trading system for the first time in history.
The TRIPS apply over all WTO members, and requires them to provide copyrights, patents,
trademarks and special protection and enforcement of all IPRs for national and international
industries. It deals with five principal issues, including: how to adequately protect IPRs, how
countries should enforce those adequate IPRs, how other principles and international IP
agreements should be applied, how to settle disputes on IP between WTO member states, and a
some special transitional agreements valid during the period of time this new system is introduced.
The TRIPS Agreement also looks towards the transfer of technological knowledge and innovation,
and proposes this as a huge benefit to social and economic welfare in all countries, and a perfect
balance between IPRs and obligations. The agreement had a very positive impact and remains as
one of the most important international agreements on IP up to date.
Moreover in 2011, the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA), a multinational treaty, was
discussed with the aims of establishing international standards for IPRs enforcement. One of the
main targets of ACTA is establishing an international legal framework with stronger cooperation for
the elimination of counterfeited goods, and also includes other rough policies like border
enforcement in relation to goods in transit, increased cooperation between governments and
industries, and more effective criminal penalties. The agreement was signed in October 2011 by
several countries, including Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, and the United
States, but it is still not in force, as the only one having formally ratified the agreement was Japan.
Though the ACTA fiercely attacks the issue, some organizations have argued that it could infringe
fundamental rights including privacy and freedom of expression, and, as expressed by Doctors
Without Borders, could imply a difficulty on access to certain medical goods in some countries in
need. Also, the European Union's Parliament voted against ACTA on July 4, 2012, because, as
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stated by the British member David Martin, "the intended benefits of this international agreement
are far outweighed by the potential threats to civil liberties”.
Several organizations and association of industries keep on developing policies, and releasing an
increasing amount of information about the topic, so its importance and awareness keep on
growing throughout the costumers, companies and countries affected.
Possible Solutions
Eliminating counterfeits is a very tough achievement, as it depends on a huge amount of actors
that can subjectively judge and select the actions taken. All States are responsible for the
penalties imposed to the illegal action of producing, selling and trading counterfeited products, and
though in most countries this is prohibited by civil and criminal law, some regulations are still weak
and do not address the issue properly. In countries where elimination of counterfeited products
have a direct impact on economy, as it has become an important source of income, legislative
procedures are avoided by certain “conditions” an industry has to accomplish in order to protect its
IPRs properly. This matter should be resolved for a basic national protection of industries and
consumers, so then international measures can be endorsed smoothly.
Also, specific measures must be taken on counterfeited medicines, or SSFFC medical product, as
they represent an immense threat to its consumers. The distribution of information about the topic
can be a major force for change. Fraudulent medicines are visually identical to original medicines,
but minor details like spelling mistakes on its package and unusual colour or smell can be
distinguished and should be an alert for consumers. Checking on provided medicines is an action
that can save multiple lives, and must be implemented by all well-informed people. The situation in
LEDCs accessibility to medicine is another grave trouble, as weak or non-existent health systems
on these countries face several challenges. Major accessibility for LEDCs to medicines, and
alternative cheaper ways to treat diseases must be worked out with organizations like Doctors
Without Borders and others related, for the assistance of these areas in need, as to cease access
to counterfeits. Measures can also be implemented on regulation of machines that can produce
SSFFC medicines, as these are highly accessible and facilitate production.
Another unforgettable aspect of counterfeits is their direct link with organized crime. In this case,
the UNODC has already taken a particular role, but must enhance and improve its action. Fully
implementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the most
inclusive platform for cooperation on tackling organized crime, can be a first step for the
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improvement of solutions. Bilateral and multilateral cross-border investigations between countries,
organizations and industries are also highly important, with the possibility of working with
specialized criminal agencies such as INTERPOL, to provide platforms tracking down and
investigating criminal networks involved in this illicit trade. This can be complimented with
specialized officials with tools to identify counterfeit goods, and further look out suspicious action
through borders.
Finally, consumer awareness is fundamental. Campaigns like UNODC’s “Counterfeit: Don’t buy
into organized crime” are an excellent source of information, and spreading the word on the topic
can alleviate the consumption of counterfeit, and transform social acceptance into awareness and
prevention.
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"The Economic Impact of Counterfeiting and Piracy." (n.d.): n. pag. OECD. Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development. Web. 20 July 2016.
https://www.oecd.org/sti/38707619.pdf
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"Magnitude of Counterfeiting and Piracy of Tangible Products." (n.d.): n. pag. OECD. Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development. Web. 20 July 2016.
http://www.oecd.org/sti/ind/44088872.pdf
"Counterfeit Goods: A Bargain or a Costly Mistake?" UNODC. United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime, n.d. Web. 20 July 2016. https://www.unodc.org/toc/en/crimes/counterfeit-goods.html
"Board Resolutions: Measures to Combat Trademark Counterfeiting." INTA. International
Trademark Association, n.d. Web. 20 July 2016.
http://www.inta.org/Advocacy/Pages/MeasurestoCombatTrademarkCounterfeiting.aspx
"New UN Campaign Spotlights Links between Organized Crime and Counterfeit Goods." UN News
Center. United Nations, n.d. Web. 20 July 2016.
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=46921#.V5vY1Y-cFdg
"Inside WIPO." WIPO. World Intellectual Property Organization, n.d. Web. 20 July 2016.
http://www.wipo.int/about-wipo/en/
"Substandard, Spurious, Falsely Labelled, Falsified and Counterfeit (SSFFC) Medical Products."
WHO Mediacentre. World Health Organization, n.d. Web. 20 July 2016.
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs275/en/
"Stamping It out." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, n.d. Web. 20 July 2016.
http://www.economist.com/news/international/21697218-china-grew-richer-and-more-innovativepeople-assumed-it-would-counterfeit-less-think
Appendix: Useful documents and links
I.
Guidelines for the Development of Measures to Combat Counterfeit Drugs by the
Department of Essential Drugs and Other Medicines (EDM) of WHO (1999):
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/65892/1/WHO_EDM_QSM_99.1.pdf
II.
The Economic Impact of Counterfeiting and Piracy, an Executive Summary by OEDC
(2007): https://www.oecd.org/sti/38707619.pdf
III.
“Counterfeit:
Don’t
buy
into
organized
crime”,
campaign
by
UNODC
(2014):
http://www.unodc.org/counterfeit/
IV.
Paris
Convention
for
the
Protection
of
Industrial
Property
(1883):
http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/
V.
Berne
Convention
for
the
Protection
of
Literary
and
Artistic
Works
(1886):
http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/
VI.
TRIPS Agreement by the WTO: https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips.pdf
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VII.
The
Anti-Counterfeiting
Trade
Agreement
(ACTA):
http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/economy/i_property/pdfs/acta1105_en.pdf
VIII.
FAQs of Counterfeited Medicines by the WHO Essential Medicines and Health Products
(EMP)
Department:http://www.who.int/medicines/services/counterfeit/faqs/QACounterfeit-
October2009.pdf
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Forum:
Economic Committee
Issue:
Improving telecommunication in rural areas as a mean of faster
economic development
Student Officer: Cynthia Babace
Position:
Chair of the Economic Committee
Introduction
“(…) influences to policy makers and it influences people’s thinking. So it changes people’s
perception about of the role of STI, Science, Technology and Innovation for Development, so STI
is no longer just an outcome of development, but a tool for development”
Xiaolan Fu, Current member of the Group to support Technology Facilitation Mechanism for the
SDGs.
Information and communication technologies in general and science, technology and innovation in
particular have become fundamental pillars to societal development. These have completely
transformed the way we experiment our daily lives, and have given an incredible contribution to
actions on education, health care, social awareness, political activity, market, transportation
systems and environmental matters, among many others. Expanding networks, exchanging
information and sharing content are some of the basic uses of telecommunications, and its
constant development is bringing innovative ways of accomplishing this uses and adding some
others for societal development and the constitution of an Information Society.
However, several problems are being faced with regards to the implementation of these ICTs in
rural sectors, as these areas are far removed from the technologically advanced cities. This
access to information is crucial for the management of agricultural resources in a sustainable way
in order to increase productivity and accessibility of small producers into the global markets for
their economic development. Traditional farming is in urgent need of adapting new technologies of
commerce and trading, so that gaps between developed and developing countries no longer
aggravate, not only in terms of financial differences, but also on knowledge and skills on these
technological advances.
When boosting economic growth on these specific areas, we are not only helping LEDC
development, but also ensuring sustainable development worldwide, and better comprehension
and communication on every country’s needs. The development of ICT services remains crucial
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for these processes, and will continue to develop so the rapid adaptation and implementation of
measures is required by all states.
Definition of Key Terms
ICTs
ICT stands for Information and Communications Technology, an extended term for
information technology (IT), which is the application of computers and internet to store,
retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, and which stresses the role of unified
communications, the integration of real-time communication services such as instant
messaging and presence information, and the integration of telecommunications.
Telecommunication
“Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication
participants includes the use of technology. The ITU defines this term as the transmission of
signs, signals, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio,
optical or other electromagnetic systems.”
Broadband technologies:
Technologies such as community antennas, optical fiber, satellite and mobile wireless that
allow high-speed transmission of voice, video and data over networks and ICT applications.
Information society:
“A term used for describing a society where creation, distribution, use, integration and
manipulation of information as a significant economic, political, and cultural activity. The
main driver of this information are digital ICTs, which have resulted in an information
explosion and are profoundly changing all aspects of social organization, including the
economy, education, health, warfare, government and democracy.”
E-Agriculture:
This term refers to an emerging field which enhances an emerging agricultural and rural
development through the implementation and improvement of ICT processes. E-agriculture
involves the conceptualization, design, development, evaluation and application of
innovative ways to use ICTs in rural fields, with a primary focus on agriculture. The World
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Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) first phase incorporates a whole plan on eagriculture in its action line C.7.
Background Information
The digital division between MEDCs and LEDCs is continuously growing and being aggravated by
the unequal distributions of ICTs. In 2015, the MDGs Report described that mobile-cellular network
covers up to 95% of the population worldwide, and internet penetration is of 43%. Mobile phones
have become the most essential and rapid way to communicate and share media, audio, image
and text information. Also, mobile applications (M-apps) are becoming a trend because of their
interactive and attractive design, and their uses go from entertainment to providing information and
data analysis on finance, economy and commerce. Still, vast differences are seen between
populations located in cities to the ones in rural areas, where over 450 million people are still out of
reach of mobile signal and mobile-cellular penetration, although it had a mayor increase over the
last 15 years, has reached only 64% in developing countries.
Also, a major division can be found related to the use and access of Internet. Broadband
technologies that have been introduced in developed countries are hardly available on LEDCs due
to national incapacities, such as unaffordable costs of ICT services, as well as a great lack of ICT
skills. This results in low or non-existent internet bandwidth and poor quality access, if provided, to
the international network. It has been estimated that in developed countries, 82% of the population
use internet, while in developing countries its usage decreases to only a third part of the
population. The situation is even worse in African countries, where individuals introduced on
internet networks are less than 20%.
A direct impact on rural productivity is being produced because of the difficulties on accessing
STIs and ICTs. The proper development of ICT infrastructure enables a better introduction on the
broadband networks, which signifies a wide range of possibilities to develop. Some developing
countries had already implemented different policies for the improvement of this situation with the
support of different organizations, both economical and advisory. On the other hand, many other
states are involved in major difficulties that require tougher action for better development of ICTs,
such as MENA Countries and others from Latin America and the Caribbean. In addition, many
rural populations suffer from social exclusion and political marginalization by society and by its
own governments, making it increasingly difficult to get involved in the communication process and
the smooth transition to the implementation of these ICTs in their areas.
ICT and Economy
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Being introduced and adapted to the flow of communications and information is what
fundamentally identifies ICTs as vital for development. In terms of economic boost, ICTs allow
minor enterprises to be guided by the international trading system and influenced by major
companies on their developing areas. The first contact with every farmer should include how to
use ICTs, advice and providing results on investigations by agricultural researchers. The enclosure
to this information will encounter the best practices on rural development that are applied by
economy conductors, such as sustainable farms of developed countries. The next facility ICTs
encounter is regulation and policy process for the improvement of rural production monitoring.
Also, this system that strictly controls the chains of production and commercialization is a collector
of very relevant data that can be analyzed and transformed into information that can improve
efficiency and capability of minor sellers.
Furthermore, ICTs can provide facilities on financial inclusion, protecting savings and giving tools
to properly manage risks. This is how farmers enhance market access possibilities and develop
marketing strategies and trading with other communities, far beyond the limited public approach
that is offered locally. ICTs allow these long term contributions that affect positively rural areas’
development.
Given this information, we can conclude that it is essential for farmers to develop a fundamental
role on the world’s economy, adapting to new flows of information and communication, effectively
accelerating its economic development processes. As seen before, mobile applications are one of
the most convenient sources for this development, as smart phones can adequate themselves
according to financial needs. Mobile applications for agricultural and rural development (m-ARD
apps) have already been introduced in some rural regions in India and Asia and particularly signify
a potent advance for development.
ICT and the Environment
Beyond market information, regulation and access, the different networks connected to ICTs are
also providing measures over the environment and Food Security. ICTs facilitate environmentally
sustainable farming practices, which goes from climate change awareness to facilitation on ecofriendly systems of transport. Agriculture and land use change are also responsible for 19-29% of
global greenhouse gas emissions, but new STIs have been developed to reduce these effects,
and can be fully explored and analyzed. Although their implementation still limited to LEDCs due to
high costs, information on the topic is important for raising awareness and slowly taking
conscience on the consequences incurred when producing agricultural products.
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Also, new systems have been developed for the early warning of natural disasters, climate
change and risks. Telecommunications enables us to alert disaster prevention in real time, as well
as providing advice on risk mitigation techniques. Radio and Internet are the main ICTs used for
the communication of hydro-meteorological information for rural development, including SMS
emergency messages that provide warning to communities in due time.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
The FAO was founded in 1945 as a specialized agency of the United Nations working towards
three main goals: achieving food security and eradication of malnutrition and hunger, eliminate
poverty and boost economic and social progress, and generating correct management and
utilization of natural resources and land. Throughout the years, the organization has actively
responded to the demands and global trends on agricultural development, and worked to improve
the condition in developing countries.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
During the International Telegraph Convention of 1865, ITU was founded as an international
intergovernmental organization. In 1947, it became a United Nations specialized agency for
information and communication technologies. The organization strongly believes in peoples’ right
to communicate, and seeks to improve the access to ICTs, ensuring developing technical
necessities for the successful involvement into the global network and to reap the benefits of
modern communication.
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
Since its foundation in 1977 as a specialized United Nations agency, IFAD has worked for rural
populations in developing countries to reduce poverty, eliminate hunger and raise productivity and
income; improving quality of life. The Fund strongly believes in empowering rural populations as a
means to develop their economy and gain a significant place in the world market, striving for the
correct management of and accessibility to natural resources, agricultural technologies,
competitive markets and financial services, amongst others.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
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The UNDP was founded in 1966 as the international development network of the UN. The program
is focused on reporting, giving expert advice and economical support to developing countries on
topics that are considered essential to ensure global development, such as democratic
governance, reducing poverty, increasing knowledge and avoiding HIV/AIDS, crisis prevention and
recovery, environmental issues, as also assuring protection of human rights and empowering
women. It has also released a Human Development Report annually since 1990 to analyze the
situation of development process, and implement new programs and measures according to this
information.
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
The ECOSOC was established by the UN Charter as one of the six main organs of the United
Nations in 1945. It centralizes its activities on economic, social and environmental dimensions for
sustainable development, and acts as an organ responsible of mayor UN conferences, debate
platforms and summits.
World Bank
The World Bank is an international source of financial aid and technical assistance to developing
countries. It was established in 1944, and is closely related with the United Nations and its
governing bodies. It is also an observant member of the UN Development Group (UNDG). The
World Bank focuses in reducing extreme poverty and fostering income growth, working to achieve
this with two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) which
provide loans, knowledge and technical services, and the International Development Association
(IDA), which complements the first one and gives credits for different development programs.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
The organization strives to improve economic and social well-being by introducing policies,
working with governments and analyzing future trends of global social and economic changes. It
also provides governments with aid for economic and technological development, called the
Official Development Assistance (ODA). It is aimed at those states enlisted by OECD as
developing countries. This list is periodically updated.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
1 March - 17 May 1865
International Telegraph Conference held in Paris.
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The conference established the International
Telegraph Union (ITU)
18 September 2000
United Nations Millennium Declaration releases the
MDGs
10-12 December 2003
First Phase on the World Summit on the Information
Society (WSIS): Geneva Summit.
2003
ECOSOC releases “An Integrated Approach to Rural
Development Dialogues at the Economic and Social
Council”
16-18 November 2005
Second Phase of the World Summit on the
Information Society (WSIS): Tunis Commitment
2005
OECD releases “Good Practice Paper on ICTs for
Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction” for The
DAC Journal Volume 6, No. 3.
20-29 November 2012
Third World Telecommunication Standardization
Assembly (WTSA-12), defines the studies of the ITU
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
3-14 December 2012
World Conference on International
Telecommunications (WCIT), held in Dubai, United
Arab Emirates, which seeks to review the
International Telecommunication Regulations (ITRs).
22 November 2013
The United Nations has launched the 2014
International Year of Family Farming, to stress the
vast potential family farmers have to eradicate
hunger and preserve natural resources.
2014
International Year of Family Farming
13-16 July 2015
Conference on Financing for Development held in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
25 September 2015
General Assembly releases resolution on
“Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development”
2016
E-Agriculture Strategy Guide, FAO/ ITU
25 October- 3 November 2016
Fourth World Telecommunication Standardization
Assembly (WTSA-16) will define the study for ITU-T
next period.
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United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events
As the topic refers to three fundamental areas of study of the United Nations (agriculture,
telecommunications and development), there is a vast array of information, organizations and
actions towards its resolution. The information below gives the most relevant sources involving
these three in order to stay focused on the issue at hand.

United Nations Millennium Declaration, 18 September 2000, (A/RES/55/2). During the
Millennium Summit, the eight MDGs where released and taken into action by the UN
Members. Goal 8, to ensure global partnership for development, is the one who directly
concentrates on the issue of telecommunications, more specifically Target 8.F: “Make
available benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications, in
cooperation with the private sector.” This target was evaluated and provided with specific
data by ITU in its evaluation.

World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), 31 January 2002, (A/RES/56/183).
The General Assembly submitted the two-phase conference, which seeks to understand
in deep the importance of building an inclusive Information Society and mayor diffusion
of ICTs for development.

An Integrated Approach to Rural Development Dialogues at the Economic and Social
Council, ECOSOC (2003). This book is a compilation on key debates of ECOSOC
meetings on “Promoting an integrated approach to rural development in developing
countries for poverty eradication and sustainable development”, the main topic of the
High-Level Segment of 2003.

The Importance of ICTs in the Provision of Information for Improving Agricultural
Productivity and Rural Incomes in Africa, UNDP (January 2012). This report looks after
the new implementations of ICTs in African agricultural sectors, and it different impacts
on economic growth and farmers’ lifestyle.

Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for
Development (Addis Ababa Action Agenda), 27 July 2015, (A/RES/69/313). This Action
Agenda is the result of the Conference on Financing for Development held in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia on July 2015. It mainly focuses on strengthening the financial system for
development, and involves different Action Areas, most importantly letter G: Science,
technology, innovation and capacity-building.
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
Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 25 September
2015, (A/RES/70/1). The Sustainable Development Goals are released. The particularity
of these goals is their interrelation between one another, so the subject of ICTs and rural
development are found in several targets. Goals directly related to the issue are Goal 2,
which calls to “end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture”, particularly its target 2.a that seeks to increase investment in
rural infrastructure and technology development, and also Goal 9 on “Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation”,
specially target 9.c, which looks forward increasing access to ICTs and give affordable
internet for LEDs by 2020. Also, the SDGs are supported by a Technology Facilitation
Mechanism counting with an expert team on science, technology and innovation (STI
Forum), to provide information and discuss on current STI initiatives and programs.

Resolutions on Agricultural technology for sustainable development, 20 December
2013/22 December 2015, (A/RES/68/209) (A/RES/70/198). These two resolutions
mention the most important documents on financing and promoting technologies for
agricultural development, involving STI and ICTs.

Resolution on Science, technology and innovation for development, 22 December 2015,
(A/RES/70/213). The resolution focuses on STI general development and it fundamental
role on the achievement of SDGs.

Resolutions on Information and communications technologies for development, 19
December 2014/ 22 December 2015, (A/RES/69/204) (A/RES/70/184). Both resolutions
highlight the WSIS and the role of ICTs in achieving Information Society.

E-Agriculture Strategy Guide, FAO/ ITU (2016). This guide provided by the two
specialized agencies introduces strategies on developing e-agriculture to national
agricultural production, by giving advice on how to invest financially and administrate
human resources, as to approach ICTs opportunities in the most effective manner to
development. Some countries already implementing this strategy include Sri Lanka,
Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Fiji and Vanuatu.
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
First actions on telecommunication development started on the Plenipotentiary Conference, held in
Minneapolis, United States, from 12 October to 6 November 1998. The conference called for the
participation of the private sector into the work of the ITU, and the active search for the correct
organization of the Union, based on the principles written in Article 1 of its Constitution. The
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specific activities of the conference are specified in Article 8 of this same Constitution. As a result
of this conference, a document called Final Acts of the Plenipotentiary Conference was released,
with the different resolutions of the conference, including the call for a World Summit on the
Information Society (WSIS) held by the ITU Council, and supported by the United Nations. The
General Assembly made a resolution on this World Summit, and decided together with the ITU
Council its division into two conferences: the first one held in Geneva in 2003, and the second one
held in Tunis, in 2005.
The Geneva Summit gathered 175 countries, and focused on stating the main pillars for the
development of an Information Society. These included different action lines such as access to
information and knowledge, capacity building, media access, cultural identity in local content, and
ICTs application to e-business, e-environment, and most importantly, the action line C.7 on eagriculture. On this last one, the plan focused on the importance of accessing to comprehensive
and updated information on the uses of ICTs on agriculture, fishing, forestry and food, as also
promotes the partnership of public and private entities for the improvement of these ICTs as
instrument to improve rural production and boost economy. The FAO was named responsible for
organizing activities related to this action. The second phase, Tunis Summit, attracted almost
19000 participants. Its main objectives were putting into motion Geneva’s Plan of Action, further
increase internet governance, as also find new solutions to agreements on the financial
mechanism, and the future application of these plans. Also, during the two sessions, it was
established that 17 May was going to commemorate the World Information Society Day, to raise
awareness on the importance of developing technologies for development.
Further on, WSIS Forum events are being held annually for the regulation, evaluation and
achievements of the Geneva Plan of Action, and serve as an example of improving connectivity
and guarantee the right use of ICTs.
Following the World Summit in 2005, the UN Secretary General asked the UNDP to facilitate the
work of the Task Force on Financial Mechanisms (TFFM), which was introduced in the WSIS Plan
of Action to adequate the financial mechanisms on ITCs for development. In response, the UNDP
further asked the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of OECD for a review on the recent
trends of ODA, and an analysis on donor support for ICTD. This paper was titled “Financing ICTs
for Development Efforts of DAC Members”, and provided deep information on ODA commitment,
as also background information and important data expressed in charts and added annexes.
In addition, the OECD released in the same year a document titled “OECD Good Practice Paper
on ICTs for Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction”. This report presents relevant information
on what DAC members currently know about using ICTs to boost developing economies, and
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advices how they can be applied as tools, not goals, to development and poverty eradication. In
Chapter 3, it further recommends the use of ICTs for achieving the MDGs and explains the
process of this contribution, as also how ODA program can help financing developing countries for
MDGs accomplishment.
Meanwhile, the World Bank has also approached the matter, and in 2009 published a book on
“Information and Communications for Development 2009: Extending Reach and Increasing
Impact”. This material mainly focused on how ICT, Broadband and mobile affected economic
growth on developing countries, and gives recommendations on access and application. Later in
2011, two important documents where added; an e-Sourcebook titled “ICT in Agriculture:
Connecting Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks, and Institutions”, in which the Bank focuses on
success cases of ICT implementation in Agriculture and further recommends taking example of
these, and the report on “Mobile Applications for Agriculture and Rural Development”, that focuses
on the usage of apps in development of rural areas, as also their specific functions and costs. After
its increasing involvement, the World Bank decided to plan a long-term action, and finally
developed the “ICT for Greater Development Impact”, the 2012-2015 World Bank Group Strategy
for ICTs, including all activities and main goals of the World Bank towards the topic, also
containing a detailed perspective over the different affected regions.
Reviewing the actions of ITU, these are not limited to the organization of the World Summit. The
institute also hosted the World Conference on International Telecommunications (WCIT), held
in Dubai, United Arab Emirates in 2012, which seeks to review the International
Telecommunication Regulations (ITRs). These regulations were not updated since 1988, when
they were instructed in the Final Acts of the World Administrative Telegraph and Telephone
Conference. The ITRs are designed as a global treaty, signed by 88 countries, and aim at
international facilitation of information and communication services and their expansion to the
world’s population, facilitating interconnection and interoperability.
Moreover, the ITU is also responsible for the World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly
(WTSA), held every four years, that defines the studies of the ITU Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T), a derivate of the organization responsible of giving a definition on
how telecommunication networks operate, in the form of Recommendations (ITU-T Recs/
“standards”). The last conference of 2012 was held in Dubai, and among its resolutions, we can
highlight Resolution 44 on Bridging the standardization gap between developing and developed
countries, Resolution 69 on Non-discriminatory access and use of Internet resources, and
Resolution 73 on Information and communication technologies, environment and climate change,
which indirectly refer to providing ICTs to developing countries for a better development. Among
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these, there are over 4000 recommendations on topics from network architecture to other
components of current ICTs. The next WTSA conference will be taking place from 25 October to 3
November 2016, in Yasmine Hammamet, Tunisia.
Possible Solutions
It is of great importance that differences on access to ICTs are alleviated between developed and
developing countries. Different plans and strategies must be implemented to further develop ICT
infrastructure. Two vital aspects must be taken into consideration: the need that international
organizations and banks support these causes by providing financial aid or loans to cover the
basic needed money to kick start the program, and the importance of governmental support, both
from national authorities and the international community.
Barriers from developed countries such as high tariffs and high costs of materials to settle ICTs
can be negotiated. Developed countries have to take into consideration those states with a limited
capacity to raise public resources, and the situation of barely existing skills capacities to further
expand telecommunications. This can probably be improved with the installation of new internet
bandwidth services both financed by supporter organizations and governments, and the training of
national capacities, as to ensure affordable high-speed Internet access and intern development.
Awareness on new ICTs has to be raised, as they are highly beneficial to societies; information
has to be shared to increase interest on the topic. Accessibility to affordable ICTs like smart
phones must be expanded so to create an information society that can engage with internal
developing activities and external relations.
New systems on environmental protection are also required. Alliances and cooperation between
regions with similar climate conditions can be further developed, as also building and operating
new systems for monitoring and collecting data, for their better examination and early warning in
case of emergency. Funds also need to be collected to enable the smooth functioning of these
mechanisms.
Finally, the percentage of young people migrating to urban areas needs to be decreased;
developing new job opportunities can increasingly change this phenomenon. The non-attractive
environment in rural areas can be shifted by providing sustainable jobs on family farming and
programs for further implementation of technological advances held by young workers. The
retention of the next generation of workers on rural areas can assure a sustainable future and a
better projection of agricultural development.
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Web. https://www.itu.int/osg/csd/wtpf/wtpf2009/documents/ITU_ITRs_88.pdf
"Communication Efforts to Advance Family Farming." FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization,
n.d. Web. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4223e.pdf
"2014 International Year of Family Farming." FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization, n.d. Web.
19 Aug. 2016. http://www.fao.org/family-farming-2014/home/special-ambassadors/en/
"ICT and the Environment in Developing Countries: Opportunities and Developments." OECD.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, n.d. Web.
http://www.oecd.org/ict/4d/44005687.pdf
"Plenipotentiary Conferences." ITU. International Telecommunication Union, n.d. Web. 19 Aug.
2016.
http://www.itu.int/en/history/Pages/PlenipotentiaryConferences.aspx?conf=16&dms=S0201000025
"WSIS: Plan of Action." ITU. International Telecommunication Union, n.d. Web. 19 Aug. 2016.
http://www.itu.int/net/wsis/docs/geneva/official/poa.html
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Appendix: Useful documents and links
Final Acts of the Plenipotentiary Conference (Minneapolis, 1998):
http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/oth/02/01/S02010000254002PDFE.PDF
First Phase of the WSIS (10-12 December 2003, Geneva)/ Geneva Plan of Action:
http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/md/03/wsis/doc/S03-WSIS-DOC-0005!!PDF-E.pdf
Second Phase of the WSIS (16-18 November 2005, Tunis)/ Tunis Commitment:
http://www.itu.int/net/wsis/docs2/tunis/off/7.pdf
“Financing ICTs for Development Efforts of DAC Members” (OECD):
https://www.oecd.org/dac/34410597.pdf
OECD Good Practice Paper on ICTs for Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction (OECD):
https://www.oecd.org/dac/35284979.pdf
Better Policies for 2030: An OECD Action Plan on the Sustainable Development Goals (OECD):
http://www.oecd.org/dac/OECD-action-plan-on-the-sustainable-development-goals-2016.pdf
An Integrated Approach to Rural Development Dialogues at the Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC):
http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/pdfs/an_integrated_approach_to_rural_development.pdf
The Importance of ICTs in the Provision of Information for Improving Agricultural Productivity and
Rural Incomes in Africa, UNDP (January 2012)
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/rba/docs/Working%20Papers/ICT%20Productivity.pdf
FAO-ITU E-agriculture Strategy Guide (FAO/ ITU):
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5564e.pdf
Resolutions on the Third World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA-12):
http://www.itu.int/pub/T-RES
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Forum:
Economic Committee
Issue:
Measures to counter the economic struggles faced by countries
that suffer from natural disasters
Student Officer: Milagros Artola
Position:
Deputy Chair of the Economic Committee
Introduction
Natural hazards have disastrous consequences on human lives and the environment, but they
also severely affect the economy of a country. Depending on the magnitude of the disaster, a
country´s infrastructure might be damaged or compromised. Economic activities after a large-scale
natural disaster are very often interrupted and poverty is alarmingly exacerbated. These hazards
have both short-term and long-term consequences. Natural disasters tend to damage or even
destroy people’s homes and livelihoods. Considerable amounts of the people who are left
displaced after a disaster tend to stay so for a long period of time.
Natural disasters are now also considered as an issue to be tackled by the Sustainable
Development Goals, since it is a considerable setback for the eradication of poverty. Their
negative impacts are especially catastrophic in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs)
where most people do not have the adequate resources nor education to prepare for a hazard and
the governments tend to be less efficient with the response and relief strategies. This makes the
process of recovery longer, more extenuating and far more complicated.
When one analyses the economic impact of a natural hazard one must always look at the broader
picture. If for example, a highway is damaged by an earthquake it will be the loss of a material
damage but it would also interrupt certain economic activities within the region such as imports
and exports to the zone affected. This will mean that transports carrying goods will have to find
longer (and therefore more expensive) routes to their destination or cancel the fare. In both cases
there is an economic loss for the market, the employers and employees as well as the State. For
great-scale hazards these consequences are far more exacerbated, high-ways, communication
services, basic needs, material goods, infrastructure, human lives, and people’s livelihoods are all
compromised. The state of a country which is susceptible to this kind of disaster needs to invest in
prevention, mitigation and relief techniques and later on they need to support the region affected
sometimes for many years after the actual disaster (which ironically takes place in very small
periods of time).
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Definition of Key Terms1
Hazard
A threat (whether natural or human) that has the potential to cause loss of life, injury,
property damage, socio-economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Secondary Hazard
Hazards that follow or are consequence to a disaster.
Disaster
A major hazard event that causes widespread disruption to a community or region, with
significant demographic, economic and/or environmental losses, and which the affected
community is unable to deal with adequately without outside help.
Earthquake
A sudden, violent shake of the earth’s surface.
Focus
The place beneath the ground where the earthquake takes place.
Epicentre
The point on the ground surface immediately above the focus.
Liquefaction
When loose materials act as liquids during an earthquake.
Loss
Change in wealth caused by damage to structure or other physical assets.
Landslide
A landslide is a movement of a mass of debris, rock or earth down a slope.
1
All definitions extracted from GEOGRAPHY IB Course Companion (Nagle & Cooke)
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Background Information
Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur along the boundaries where tectonic plates meet. These plates make up the
earth’s so called “crust.” Tectonic plates are in continuous movement, relative to each other.
Earthquakes are often classified according to their “spatial distribution,” this means earthquakes
are classified depending on which type of plate boundary they occur on, as well as how deep
within the ground they occur.
Shallow-focus earthquakes occur closer to the surface and tend to have a more destructive effect
while deep-focus earthquakes occur deep underground and usually create less damage than a
deep-focus one. Zones where a continental plate meets with an ocean plate are known as
destructive plate boundaries and are often associated with deep-focus quakes. Whereas shallowfocus earthquakes often are associated with constructive boundaries (where plates are moving
apart from each other) and collision boundaries (where two plates collide with one another).
The amount of damage caused by an earthquake is influenced by certain factors, such as, but not
limited to: the strength and depth of the earthquake, the population density of the location struck,
the type of buildings, the secondary hazards and the economic development of the country. Most
More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) have buildings which were designed to be
earthquake resistant. These buildings are constructed on solid rock to avoid liquefaction.
Additionally, MEDCs tend to have more efficient response services, which help avoid the spread of
diseases or the consumption of contaminated water and other secondary hazards.
During earthquakes infrastructure is often severely damaged, gas pipes and water lines break
which leads to the consumption of contaminated water and spread of fires. Electricity cables also
suffer considerable damage and communication is disrupted. The loss of life is usually very high
as well as the number of injured persons. Buildings and houses collapse and thousands of people
are left homeless displaced. Countries which suffer an earthquake must not only deal with the
damages caused by the disaster but also contain as best as possible the secondary hazards
which ensue after an earthquake. These include fires, disease, hunger, contaminated water,
hypothermia, mudslides and possibly tsunamis.
Earthquakes may also be triggered by human actions such as nuclear testing, constructing large
dams, oil drilling and coal mining.
Volcanoes
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Volcanoes are frequently located on plate boundaries and may be both on land or submarine.
However volcanoes may also lie on hotspots, for example in Hawaii. The majority of the active
volcanoes recorded in history lie along the so-called “Pacific Ring of Fire,” where the Pacific plate
collides with its neighbours.
Volcanic eruptions are triggered by a pressure build-up beneath the crust. They are of the most
destructive natural disasters. Deaths always ensue after a volcanic eruption close to a population,
material loss is also significant. Economic impact ranges from the loss or interruption of
communication to destruction of infrastructure (roads, airstrips and port facilities) and the loss of
farmland and forests. The emission of ash can sometimes be so great it might even affect air
travel even for countries far from the volcano, disrupting international trade and tourism. Moreover,
eruptions destroy the livelihood of hundreds (and even thousands) of people and often disrupt the
economic activities of the region. Furthermore, the environmental impact of a volcanic explosion
can be disastrous. Eruptions release vast amounts of CO2, significantly increasing the greenhouse
gases and in some cases so much material is let out that the world’s climate is affected for years.
Hurricanes
Hurricanes originate in tropical seas and are therefore characterised by carrying enormous
quantities of water. They bring heavy rain, strong winds and high waves, and very often cause
mudslides and flooding as secondary hazards. Their path is erratic but can be predicted twelve
hours before, which provides sufficient time for proper evacuation measures. Hurricanes are
caused by low pressure systems in tropical oceans and may be up to 800 km wide. A hot current
of air (low pressure) encounters a cold current (higher pressure) and is pushed upwards whilst the
colder current is pushed downwards. The Coriolis, the force which causes the rotation of the earth,
is also what causes the rotation of the rising air current.
The scale used by the Atlantic and Northern Pacific to measure hurricanes is the Saffir-Simpson
scale, which categorises hurricanes according to wind intensity. The scale measures the potential
disasters from one to five. When correctly predicted, human life loss is easier to prevent. However
there are many cases in which storms which are not supposed to touch land suddenly change
directions and hit populated areas, as was the case with hurricane Punta Gorda and Katrina.
The mitigation of damages depends entirely on human response. Evacuation and response
methods as well as urban planning (building materials and structures), food and water aid,
schemes for rehousing (building new homes for those who have lost theirs during the storm).
Landslides
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A landslide is a movement of a mass of debris, rock or earth down a slope. Landslides are
categorised according to the type of material (earth, rock, debris) and movement (fall, spread,
slide, flow, topple) that runs down the slope. They may be caused by a phenomenon known as
“shear failure” of materials; this means that they are caused when the stress (weight) on a slope is
greater than what it can resist. This may occur when there is an increase of stress on the slope or
a decrease in its resistance.
Earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis may all trigger landslides as
secondary hazards. Likewise, submarine great-landslides may cause tsunamis.
Drought
The exact definition of drought varies according to the country; however there is a widely accepted
notion that drought is a long period of dry weather which leads to extremely dry conditions.
According to UNEP, two or more years with rainfall considerably below the mean constitutes a
drought.
A considerable proportion of the earth experiences dry and arid conditions. These areas usually
have a mean of less than 500 millilitres of rainfall per annum (semi-arid areas) to 125 millilitres per
annum (extremely arid areas). Arid regions are not fit for agriculture and when drought occurs they
tend to worsen and expand. Currently, a particularly concerning issue is desertification.
Desertification is caused by human actions such as deforestation. The removal of vegetative cover
(deforestation) leaves the soil exposed to wind and rain which leads to erosion and then the
expansion of the desert into an area previously fit for agriculture. This is a form of desertification.
Drought is especially harsh in Africa where there is a predominance of arid areas. It worsens arid
and semi-arid conditions and reduces the possibility of agricultural activities leading to famine,
dehydration and the spread of disease due to malnutrition. However Africa is not the only region to
suffer from drought. Australia and Indonesia for example suffer short-term droughts due to El Niño.
When a drought does occur governments have to invest in food, energy and water. Forest fires are
also a common consequence of drought which in turn could worsen deforestation and the
extension of arid areas.
Major Countries and Organisations Involved
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
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“UNESCO is mandated to facilitate and promote the use of science and technology to contribute to
disaster risk reduction (…)” (http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/themes/pcpd/natural-disasterrisk-reduction/).UNESCO has worked since 1950 on natural disasters mostly with scientific work to
assess and understand hazards and to develop prevention techniques and mitigation strategies.
One of UNESCO’s objectives is to promote the importance of preventive measures and the
education and preparedness of people who belong to “potentially affected populations” (UNESCO)
over the need for relief and emergency response. They strengthen scientific organisations, set up
trustworthy warning systems and continuously promote education and public awareness.
In 2008 UNESCO developed the UNESCO intersectoral platform which is dedicated to the support
of countries which are in a state of post-disaster or post-conflict in order to aid them in their
recovery.
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)
The UNISDR’s purpose is to simplify and make possible the implementation of the International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The UNISDR is the main UN organization of coordination for
disaster risk reduction. It also serves as a mean to ensure the collaboration and cooperation
between the United Nations’ strategies and the regional organisations. The UNISDR was
established in 1999 as mandated by the General Assembly resolution (56/195).
International Council for Science Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (ICSU ROAP)
This organisation attempts to strengthen the collaboration of scientific communities and address
those issues which threaten society or are of major importance to it. They have evaluated all cases
of natural disasters which occur in Asia and the Pacific region and proposed numerous preventive
measures to minimise the damage cause by hazards.
Japan
Japan is one of the top ten countries to suffer the most from natural disasters. It plays an active
role in the prevention and mitigation of damages caused by natural disasters both within the
United Nations and regional organisations. Japan has been the host of the World Conference for
Disaster Reduction for every one of its gatherings. Every year the conference is held in a region
that has suffered the disastrous consequences of earthquakes and tsunamis. Japan’s prevention
and response strategies are crucial and some of the most effective in the world since many cities,
such as Tokyo, run the risk of suffering devastation from disasters.
United States of America
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The US is also one of the countries which suffers most from natural disasters in the world. Just like
Japan, it also has one of the best response and prevention systems in the world. Nevertheless,
damages are catastrophic for both nations. The United States also participates actively and
diligently in UN initiatives for prevention and mitigation of natural disasters.
Other
In the Indian Ocean Region countries such as India, Malaysia and Sri Lanka have suffered greatly
from earthquakes and tsunamis. This is also true for example with Haiti. These countries however
do not have the same resources as Japan or the United States, and many people in these
countries live in a state of extreme poverty. Therefore damages caused by natural disasters are
more exacerbated, prevention strategies do not take place or are not as effective and response
systems are slower, which makes the containment of secondary hazards such as disease, fires
and contaminated water much more difficult. Sri Lanka, for example, also suffers greatly from
cyclones and floods.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
January 1995
The Great Hanshin earthquake, Kobe, Japan. Caused over 5,000 deaths,
30,000 injuries and 300,000 people left homeless. Numerous public
buildings were destroyed such as hospitals as well as 80% of the schools,
museums and sports facilities. Damages estimated at $160 billion.
2003
Europe - One of the hottest heat waves to hit Europe. The death toll (strictly
related to the heat) is estimated to be as high as 30,000 (almost half of them
in France). France’s agricultural production decreased by 40%. Electricity
production was also extremely compromised since 75% of France’s
electricity depends on nuclear power plants (where water is needed for
cooling (vital). Portugal declared a state of emergency. In Lisbon
temperatures reached 43° in August, exceeding the average by 15°. 1,300
deaths were recorded in the first half of the month and 35,000 hectares of
forest, farmland and scrub were burnt during the same period of time.
Ethiopia – longest drought experienced. It entailed the biggest food aid
programme (which was not enough). The lack of rain left 20 million people
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in dire need for help, suffering from famine, dehydration and disease.
26 December 2004
Earthquake and tsunami disaster in Indian Ocean. An earthquake with its
epicentre off of Sumatra’s coast (Indonesia) which ranked at 9.1 on the
Richter scale triggered a series of tsunamis which devastated the coast of
the Indian ocean, having especially catastrophic effects in Indonesia, India,
Sri Lanka and Thailand. However the total number of countries affected
were 14, even reaching countries in Eastern Africa. The death toll in
Indonesia alone was of approx. 130,000, with a further 500,000 left
homeless. It was the second largest earthquake ever recorded and the
deadliest tsunami in history. It is estimated that the energy of the tsunami
was twice the energy of all bombs released during WWII (including both
atomic bombs).
29 August 2005
Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans, USA. The storm flooded 80% of the city,
took over 1,800 lives and left 800,000 people homeless and cost the US
economy $80 billion.
18-22 January 2005
World Conference on Disaster Reduction – Hyogo Declaration
October 2005
Kashmir earthquake recorded 7.7 on the Richter scale with 22 aftershocks
(some scaling at 6.0 Richter scale) had its epicentre in the city of
Muzaffarabad, Pakistan. The quake was felt from central Afghanistan to
western Bangladesh. Wreckage of 400 km. Over 86,000 deaths were
recorded and 100,000 severe injuries. More than 3,000,000 people were left
without a home. $312 million US dollars were pledged by the UN to its
emergency appeal.
12 January 2010
Earthquake in Haiti claims 316,000 lives, injures 300,000 and leaves 1.3
million people displaced. Recorded 7.0 on the Richter scale.
11 March 2011
A Magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the coast of Honshu island (Japan’s main
island) which further triggered a tsunami which devastated the coastal areas
of Japan, being especially harmful for the Tohoku region. The tsunami
damaged four out of six reactors in the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power
plant. Cooling systems in the power plant failed causing fires and explosions
on the site, the nuclear accident was ranked a 7 on the INES scale. The
massive destruction caused by these catastrophic events was one of the
worse in history and people in Japan are still recovering. The damages
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caused in Japan by the tsunami were estimated at $300 billion US dollars.
Tsunami waves also reached the Hawaiian and Aleutian island chains as
well as the coasts of California and Oregon and even struck the coast of
Antarctica, causing a portion of the Sulzberger Ice Shelf to break.
6 August 2016
Landslides and flooding in Mexico causes 38 deaths. Most victims resided
in Huauchinango, Puebla. The landslide was caused by a tropical storm
named Earl. The victims perished after their houses were buried under tons
of rock and mud.
United Nations Involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

International decade for natural disaster reduction, 11 December 1987, (A/RES/42/169)

First World Conference on Disaster Reduction - Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action
for a Safer World, 23-27 May 1994, held in Yokohama, Japan.

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction: successor arrangements, 3
February 2000,

Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction – Hyogo Declaration, 18-22 January
2005, held in Kobe, Japan.

Natural disasters and vulnerability, 18 February 2009 (A/RES/63/217)

International cooperation on humanitarian assistance in the field of natural disasters,
from relief to development, 21 June 2011, (A/RES/65/264)

International cooperation on humanitarian assistance in the field of natural disasters,
from relief to development, 11 February 2015, (A/RES/69/243)

Third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction – Sendai Framework, March 2015,
held in Sendai, Japan.

International strategy for disaster reduction, 22 December 2015 (A/RES/70/204)
Previous attempts to solve the issue
The United Nations has launched numerous campaigns, strategies, treaties and organisations
which seek to reduce the impacts of natural disasters on human lives and the economy. One of
the UN’s main goals is to shift the world’s focus from natural disaster relief to natural disaster
prevention. With this in mind and based upon the information gathered during the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction and the Yokohama Strategy the UN has developed the
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, which seeks to create “a culture of prevention”
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around the globe. The basis of this strategy or “culture” is that with better prevention techniques far
more lives will be saved and considerable less damage will be caused and the need for response
and relief will be lessened, reducing the short-term and long-term negative economic impacts.
The United Nations has also held, since 1994, the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction,
attended by all Member States, NGOs and non-member States who wish to participate. During the
conference the delegations discuss possible measures and strategies to reduce the risk of Natural
Disasters and assess the failures and successes of their previous attempts, constantly renewing
and re-evaluating their approach on risk reduction as well as relief. This conference is held once
every 10 years, the last one being held in Sendai during March 2015. The world conference has
derived in the Sendai Framework for Action which consists of seven targets to be reached by 2030
whilst maintaining four priorities: to understand disaster risk; to reinforce disaster risk governance
in order to manage disaster risk; to invest in disaster reduction; to enhance disaster preparedness
for effective response, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. (UNISDR) The Sendai
Framework for action not only aims to tackle the issue at hand and reduce risk and damage
caused by natural disasters, but it also aims to do so as a means to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals. Previous to the Sendai Framework for Action came the Hyogo Agreement
(and consequent Framework for Action) which culminated in 2015.
The United Nations has also declared the International Day for Disaster Reduction, held every 13 th
of October. The aim of this day is to promote awareness about the risks that a natural disaster
entails and the measures to reduce them as well as to celebrate the international effort to reduce
exposure to natural disasters. This year’s International Day for Disaster Reduction will also mark
the beginning of the “Sendai Seven Campaign” which aims to achieve the seven goals set in
Sendai in seven years’ time.
Possible Solutions
Regrettably, there is no definite solution for Natural Disasters; however there are numerous
techniques and strategies which help reduce their economic impacts on the areas affected. For
most natural hazards the best way to reduce the economic mayhem that succeeds them is
prevention2. Most natural hazards are possible to predict although all hazards are different to
foretell.
2
Prevention and prediction are not the same thing. Nevertheless, prediction (when possible) plays a key role
in prevention.
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Hurricanes are one of the easiest hazards to predict, and when properly averted they allow a
period of twelve hours to proceed with evacuation methods. This is enough time to properly
evacuate all zones which run the risk of being hit, substantially reducing life loss (possibly even
eradicating fatalities). However, sometimes storms change courses abruptly and hit areas that
previously were not at risk of being hit. It is imperative for all landmarks which run the risk of being
hit by a hurricane to properly educate the population about the properties and risks of hurricanes,
what to do and what to avoid during a storm and evacuation routes and procedures. Refuges
should be properly identified and well spread around the area.
Earthquakes on the other hand are one of the hardest hazards to predict, many times having no
more than five minutes to prepare for the impact. Therefore when dealing with earthquakes
prevention and response are of the few adequate strategies. Engineering of buildings and careful
planning of construction sites (especially for dams) are essential. Response should also be
planned with sufficient anticipation since earthquakes tend to trigger numerous and fatal
secondary hazards.
Volcanoes are substantially easier to predict than earthquakes. An eruption may be predicted
through: chemical sensors, seismometers, lasers and ultrasound. However, there is little that can
be done to resist a volcanic eruption. The only measure that can be taken other than prediction is
evacuation.
The main ways to alleviate the economic struggles that follow any natural hazards are:
To improve the engineering, structure and construction materials used in buildings. The
best way to achieve this is through laws and building regulations which should be closely
monitored by government officials. This however proves to be an especially difficult task for Less
Economically Developed Countries, where people often cannot afford proper building materials.
For local governments3 to have well defined and time efficient relief procedures. This is
especially important since the international community and the United Nations understand that the
main responsibility for prevention and relief lies with the local governments. In addition, local
authorities (fire-fighters and the police) should be appropriately educated on how to act after a
hazard. This way the spread of disease (which has an impact on human life but also on the
recovery rate) and secondary hazards such as fires and water pollution can be controlled and
reduced, improving recovery time and decreasing the amounts of long-term consequences. It is
3
Please note that local governments refer to the government in charge of the city or state that fell victim to the
disaster, not the national government.
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also advisable for countries to have a fund or funds specifically dedicated to the relief of a natural
disaster.
Careful planning of infrastructure may also prove to be vital for disaster reduction, especially at
an economical level. For example: alternative routes should be thought out so that the impact of a
disaster affects the least amount of people and economic activities as possible.
Education is one of the most important prevention techniques for natural hazards. All people
susceptible to be a victim of natural hazards should know how to act (for example) during an
earthquake or where to go during a hurricane. Furthermore, people should be aware of the local
procedures for disaster reduction and the importance of disaster risk prevention.
Bibliography
Cohen, Charles & Werker, Eric. “Harvard Business School.” 2008. 22 07 2016.
ICSU Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific . “Science Plan on Hazards and Disasters.” 06 2008.
22 07 2016.
Kliesen, Kevin L. Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis. 04 1994. 25 07 2016.
Nagle, G & Cooke, B. Geography Course Companion. Oxford: OUP, 2011.
Rafferty, John P. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 13 05 2013. 17 08 2016.
The Earth Institute at Columbia University. n.d. 18 08 2016.
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR). UNISDR. n.d. 02 08 2016.
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Forum:
Environmental Committee
Issue:
Combating Environmental Damages Caused by Rapid
Urbanization
Student Officer: Erik Mendes Novak
Position:
Chair of the Environmental Committee
Introduction
Ever since the industrial revolution the world has shifted from a primarily rural setup to an
urbanized one. Estimates put May 29th 2007 as the first day when more than 50% of the world’s
population lived in cities and with projections showing a stagnated rural population, this
percentage is set to increase at an even faster rate in the coming decades. Since richer countries
and most of Latin American states already have a larger urban population percentage, most of this
percentage growth will occur in Africa and
Asia, continents that still have many rural
areas (Appendix I).
Moreover,
because
rural
growth
has
stagnated, mostly all growth in terms of net
population change in the coming three
decades will be urban in nature.
Taken from the United Nations Department of
Economic And Social Affairs Population Division’s
World Urbanization Prospects: the 2005 Revision.
Due to urbanization movements worldwide
correlating positively with industrialization, the
geographical disparity in becoming a mostly urban region is attributed mostly to the start of
World Map: Total Renewable water resources in 2011.
industrialization in it. These are a few reasons why industrialization fuels urbanization:
Industrialized farming methods make less small-sized farms necessary. The farmers often move to
World Map: Total Renewable water resources in 2011.
cities in a rural exodus/flight.
A consumerism-centered society, the offspring of industrialization, focuses on generating more
World Map: Total Renewable water resources in 2011.
wealth. When related to monetary gains:
 Map:
Better
jobs
are located
cities. in 2011.
World
Total
Renewable
waterinresources

Better services (healthcare, schools, transportation, etc.) are in cities.

Supposedly better living standards occur in the efficiency of a city.
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
There is a greater span of entertainment options in cities.

Rural flight leads to loss of resources (schools and hospitals), which augments the
movement, creating a positive feedback cycle.
In theory, cities have the potential to be beneficial to the environment, as their population density
and compact land area mean water, power, building materials, transportation and land should be
used more efficiently than in rural areas. However, their often unrestrained, unmapped and
unplanned growth propagate biohazards such as untreated sewage, greenhouse effect, creation of
heat islands, destruction of biomes and species, overconsumption of energy and other resources,
and creation and exacerbation of health risks, like infectious and parasitic diseases, amongst
others. Paradoxically, the desire for more qualitative, healthy and efficient lives is leading to the
exact opposite.
Nevertheless, urbanization is a force that cannot -and, many pundits argue, should not- be
stopped. However, it is imperative that it be changed and checked, as it is the greatest driver of
the misuse of environmental resources, and has created almost irreparable damage to the world’s
ecosystems. This can be done in two fronts, proactive city planning and reactionary responses to
existent damage, yet stronger directives, legislative compromises and public interest are
necessary for effective change to actually occur. Through this, cities can become more sustainable
in their growth and impact.
Definition of Key Terms
Urbanization
Put simply, it is a process by which the proportion of people living in urban areas increases
in relation to people living in rural areas. While in the year 1900 only 13% of the world’s
population lived in cities, nowadays this number is above 50% and is expected to reach
66% by 2030.
Rural and Urban communities
Urban communities, classified as cities, towns, conurbations and suburbs in decreasing
population density terms, are areas of high population density and built environments. Rural
communities are typically defined morphologically by a low population density and no
buildings. Several countries today, such as the USA, adopt an ad hoc approach that defines
rural areas as “everything that is not an urban area”. Since there is no worldwide consensus
on the differences between these two terms, all figures calculated are approximations and
all talks are speculative.
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Rural flight
This mass movement of leaving rural areas, which leads to incredibly rapid urbanization,
has been seen after rural downturns (like an extensive drought). A few examples are the
Dust Bowl effect in 1930s USA, the Northeast to Southeast worker exodus in Brazil in the
1960s and 1970s, and several movements in Africa after desertification, especially in
Nigeria.
The Greenhouse Effect
An otherwise natural process in which the percentage of greenhouse gases (gases that trap
heat like the glass in a greenhouse, commonly associated with carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, methane, water vapor, and others) in the atmosphere increases. Human
involvement, especially with exacerbated city consumption, is causing it to happen much
quicker than normal (1.3 degrees Celsius since the onset of the Industrial Revolution).
Heat Islands
This phenomenon is a heat increase and subsequent change in weather patterns in heavily
urbanized areas due to usually three factors: lack of vegetation to cool the area, a greater
concentration of greenhouse gases that prevents heat reflection, and heavily modified
passageways (roads, streets, etc.) that prevent the flow of fresh air. This is a common
feature of cities that have a meaningful amount of edifices (buildings with more than 35
meters or about 12 floors).
Environmental hazards
Rapid urbanization has led to totally degraded natural biomes, usually through a process
informally coined as “concretization”, or the turning into concrete. Deforestation, water
pollution, and, worst of all, terraforming, change the interactions of preexisting ecosystems
with the environment, leading to greater propensity of such outcomes as flash-floods, hail
storms, tornadoes, droughts, tropical storms, and others.
Sustainability
The most widely used international definition of sustainability was coined under the term
“sustainable development” in the Bruntland Report in 1987. See Appendix II.
Renewable energy source
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This is a form of energy that can be exploited indefinitely without worrying about its
depletion. Fossil fuels like coal are not renewable since it takes much more time for them to
be made than for them to be used. While they are distinctly less damaging to the
environment than fossil fuels, the relatively high capital to implement them and their
inefficiency compared to non-renewable energy make them less attractive options,
especially in LEDCs.
Carbon footprint
The carbon footprint, usually expressed in kilos or tons, is the amount of greenhouse gases
that had to be produced for a specific situation. There are two ways of reducing, or even
offsetting it: reducing emissions from the activity in general, and engaging in activities that
create oxygen, like tree planting.
Green Space
This is the practice by which a certain area within a city’s development is purposefully
selected to remain unconstructed, thus becoming an urban park. This is a technique to
minimize heat islands and health risks in cities, and even indirectly tackles the greenhouse
effect.
Private-Public Partnership
This is a process by which a certain construction project is undertaken in a partnership
between the government and a private company. It is a way to quicken the implementation
of necessary projects that are difficult to be undertaken due to lack of public funds or
prioritization, and works best where private organizations stand to make a profit from the
endeavor.
Background Information
Personal consumption
Multiple studies have all shown a rather interesting trend: energy and overall resource
consumption per capita in cities is larger than in rural areas. This is interesting given that the
dense nature of cities should make energy and resource use more efficient, but the underlying way
in which cities tend to organically evolve disfavors this efficiency. In general, cities tend to form
with a working central district and sprawling suburbia, creating long commutes, more use of water,
energy, more waste and more ways to emit pollutants.
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This suburbia tends to spread widely because legislative regulations often do not allow for taller
structures to be erected, mainly because the poor infrastructure in the region could seldom
accommodate a large population density, with poor road structures or lack of public transportation.
Thus, the benefits of urban efficiency are neglected: people are forced to consume great amounts
of energy in commuting and in expanding their suburbs cities decimate the environment much
more. In fact, today cities expand twice as much in area size as they do in population size.
Trends of urbanization
The dramatic increase in the population of cities has only been occurring since the early 20 th
century, when the percentage of the total world population in cities was merely 13%. This growth
has increased both the quantity of large cities and also what a large city actually is. In 1900, the
largest city of the world was London with 6.480.000 people.
Today, Shanghai has an urban area of 24,000,000 people, making it the largest in this category,
and Tokyo has 36,000,000 citizens in its metropolitan area (urban sprawl), making it the largest.
Furthermore,
the
number
of
megacities, today at
around 10, is set to
surpass 30 by 2030,
meaning urbanization
is molding a lot of
larger-sized cities.
This
trend
is
also
most visible in Asia
and Africa, where high
Projection of world cities in 2030. Megacities are in red.
fertility rates in cities and rural flights have further exacerbated urbanization. All 20 fastest growing
large cities are in India, China or the Middle East. Since the Chinese population is generally
stagnated (2.3% increase from 2001 to 2011), especially there rapid urbanization can be seen to
occur.
Challenges
Rapid urbanization is not exclusive in LEDCs, with MEDC damage including loss of entire forests,
pollution of several water bodies, and change in regional climate. The biggest differences between
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developing and developed nations today are that the latter have, for the most part (with urban
populations at sometimes 90%, like in the UK), endured the process, and have the funds to create
alleviation campaigns to undo some of the damage.
For MEDCs
Even in MEDCs, dealing with the inevitability of urbanization in a way that does not incur in
additional damages to the environment is highly problematic. In places of high fecundity
rates, like London (1.4% yearly population increase), careful urban planning must be
accounted for to create adequate energy provisions and to have adequate water cleaning
systems. However, business often clashes with legislature in that sometimes the most
appealing housing or corporate projects may not be the best for the environment. In a world
still plagued by neoliberalism and its vestiges, these businesses win out more often than not,
and frequently without having sustainability as a key priority. Commuting is also a big issue
given the affluence of the suburbs, which leads to greater consumption of space and gas. To
combat this, legislation on building limits, public transportation incentives and conscienceraising efforts are needed.
For LEDCs
Due to their less prosperous nature and chiefly disorganized urbanization, the problems
faced in LEDCs are distinctly worse. For one, cities often grow at rates of almost 5% a year
in certain locations (Guangzhou delta), and this growth is often in the disenfranchised
regions of cities that less developed nations consistently have. Given the underdeveloped
nature of the areas receiving a population increase, this increase augments poverty,
oversaturates the usually less-than-adequate public transportation, increases unemployment
and cheap labor force, and consequently exacerbates violence. While this does not directly
affect the natural environment of the area, these people cannot be given adequate housing
from the government and the amount of public-private partnerships to provide infrastructure
is minimal, leading to unsanitary waste removals, the increase of population sprawl (in
derelict housing conditions, which further degrades the surrounding biomes), and greater
gas emissions. A government must act primarily proactively in this circumstance, to inhibit
the adverse effects that city growth will bring, by engaging in popular housing projects and
public transportation improvements. Monitoring illegal growth is also a necessity.
Challenges
As can be seen, the challenges of properly handling rapid urbanization to counter environmental
damage vary from economic background to economic background. A few similarities between both
include an emphasized focus on public transportation systems and conscientization efforts for
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alternative transportation, as well as a focus on improving housing projects (though in MEDCs the
clash remains between private companies’ profits with luxury and the people, and in LEDCs it is
between the government and the lack of funds to realize these projects rapidly due to poor
population increase). Outdated legislation affects both spheres too, though in more developed
areas it affects profit and space and in less developed areas it affects people’s immediate rights
(renewing a neighborhood entails expropriations and rehousing) and the workforce.
In a more global outlook, there are also certain challenges that make dealing with urbanization
harder. There is much less government-citizen-corporation interaction and feedback than ideal,
further distancing urban development from providing adequate housing for the poor and satisfying
housing markets. Moreover, many people are unknowledgeable about the environmental damages
they may be causing; awareness efforts are not explored worldwide and governments do not
prioritize them. Furthermore, private interest in poor markets is especially lackluster due to a
perceived lack of profits, so those areas tend to receive even less funding than they desperately
need.
However, it is argued that the greatest bane to creating sustainable urban development happened
in 1972 in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. This was the
first time that world leaders gathered to discuss the problems that human activity brought to the
world, and they especially sought to minimize the impacts of urbanization. Developing countries,
then still mostly rural and with much less industry, found it hard to embrace a cause that they had
not contributed to (many leaders regarded environmental damage as a ‘rich country’s’ ailment, and
that they should not aid where they did not harm). To combat this, conference secretary-general
Maurice Strong decided to link a move towards sustainability with poverty alleviation, and while
this made this movement well-accepted by poorer countries, it is argued that it created a goal far
too noble to be easily accomplished.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
UN Environment Program (UNEP)
The UNEP was founded by Maurice Strong in 1972 as a direct consequence of the 1972
conference in Stockholm which he presided over. It is headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, and its
agenda is set partially by the UN Environmental Committee (this committee). Today, this
organization is perhaps the most pertinent change making UN body to the discussion at hand,
having funded and implemented several projects in environmental urban sustainability.
UN Development Program
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Created in 1965, the Development Program is most closely associated to social, not urban,
development. However, due to the unsanitary conditions that many underprivileged communities
face, many of its developments have been tied to sustainability so as to ensure a better quality of
life to its key needy demographic.
China
Despite its small population growth in recent years, China’s cities have boomed at rates seldom
seen elsewhere. This shows how fast urbanization is occurring there. China deals with this change
incredibly well in certain areas and terribly in others. While it invests heavily in public transportation
and city development, its economic tendencies, for many years, blatantly overlooked carbon
emissions, making individuals somewhat sustainable yet overall cities highly pollutant. This was
done in purposeful ignorance of environmental challenges so as to guarantee maximum economic
growth, yet finally China has started taking a few steps in reducing industrial carbon emissions
from urban agglomerations. It is believed that Chinese improvement in this area would
substantially change the worldwide scenario due to their hefty outputs.
United States of America
The United States is both highly developed and automobilist. It is both highly populous and
centered on consumerism. This means that culture-molding less individual energy and product
consumption can have a big effect on the environmental damage of urban settlements. Moreover,
the United States has a tendency to sprawl its cities tremendously, with commuting neighborhoods
being the norm. Cities function with a dense internal nucleus and highly dispersed surroundings,
perhaps the most evident example of this being Los Angeles. Given its resources and influence, it
is feasible that it correct this growth path in a medium amount of time, and also reach out to other
countries which it can indeed support.
India and Nigeria
These countries suffer from notoriously low standards of living and incredible population growth
rates, being set to become the 1st and 4th most populous countries within a decade. This makes
them both highly susceptible to increased environmental strain from rapid urbanization, and also
often unable to have the leisure in fund spending and the timeframe to properly deal with this
situation.
United Arab Emirates
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However small, the United Arab Emirates has daring plans and visions and a notoriety for
executing them, like the world’s tallest building and the world’s biggest indoor mall. Recently, it has
started terraforming a mountain to increase rainfall in the region and make vegetation easier to
plant (which intends to populate a biologically dead area) and has tried creating a zero-carbon city.
While these projects may be technically unviable as of yet, their attempt should serve as
motivation for MEDCs to also leave the norm and innovate to combat the issue at hand.
Timeline of Events
1900
Global populations are 13% urban
1957
River Thames is considered biologically dead
1972
UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm
1976
First UN HABITAT conference in Vancouver
1982
Burtland Commission is set up
1987
Burtland Report is issued, commission is disbanded
1992
Rio Earth Summit; UNFCCC committee is set up
1996
Second UN HABITAT conference in Istanbul
1997
Kyoto Protocol is created as a result of the 6th COP
2006
United Arab Emirates unveil plan for Masdar City
May 29th, 2007
First day where population estimates were over 50% urban
2015
Paris Agreement is created as a result of the 23rd COP
2016
Third UN HABITAT conference to be held in Quito in October
United Nations Involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

Kyoto Protocol

HABITAT conferences

Paris Agreements

Burtland report
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
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 22nd December 1989
(44/228)

Institutional arrangements for international cooperation in the field of human settlements,
19th December 1977 (General Assembly resolution 36/162)

Population distribution, urbanization, internal migration and development, April 11th 2008
(UN DESA population division Resolution 2008/1)

United Nations conference on environment and development, 20 December 1988
(Resolution 43/196)
Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue
Conferences and commissions
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
This 1972 conference in Stockholm, Sweden, was the first summit of world leaders to
discuss the effects of human activity (especially urbanization) in the environment. It
produced the Stockholm Declaration (Appendix I), which mentions far more than just
environmental damage in an urbanization scenario, and contains several key points to its
discussion. This conference was important in that it set precedents for future reunions to
discuss the environment and urbanization globally, yet it also linked projects in this sphere to
alleviating poverty, a move considered by many to have slowed down true improvement.
Rio Earth Summit
Held in 1992 in Rio, it brought together heads-of-state of over 170 countries, and its plan
was to create sustainable development in a setting that respects impediments towards
economic profit. From this conference, the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change and several other influential treaties spawned, bringing energy use,
transportation and city planning into the political spotlight. While the aim of this summit was
not urbanization per se, it had an indirect appeal towards controlling it.
Habitat Conferences
Arguably the most pertinent conferences to this discussion, they are organized by UNHABITAT, and have a focus on sustainable development for cities in the future. In these
conferences, spread 20 years apart (1976, 1996, 2016), the newest methods in sustainable
development are shared between States of all economic backgrounds. While this
conference is not often divulged, it is highly influential to the community that tries to minimize
environmental damage.
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Committee
This committee is tasked with organizing the yearly Conference of the Parties (COP), which
builds on the issues originally discussed in the Rio Earth Summit. The pertinence of its work
includes such treaties as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreements (2015) which
have worked in the reduction of energy, water and transportation overuse in urban settings,
amongst others.
Burtland Commission
Set up in 1982, 10 years after the Stockholm Declaration, the aim of this commission,
formed by best scientific minds of the time, was to analyze world trends and produce a
report on how best to make sustainable development. The Burtland Report of 1987 was
highly influential, and guided future HABITAT conferences, COP conferences and even
parts of the Rio Earth Summit, yet its definition of sustainable development forever linked it
to poverty alleviation, considered a fallacy today. Nevertheless, its impact cannot be
misjudged.
River Thames recuperation
In 1957 the river Thames, in London, was declared biologically dead, with oxygen levels too low to
sustain even the most resistant microorganisms. This occurred after nearly one hundred years of
disorganized urbanization in the city leading to illegal slum-building (with untreated sewage flowing
in nature into the river) and factory waste being dumped into its shores. Today, this river is
flourishing with over 400 different maritime species and several crustaceans living in its mud,
leading scientists to declare it cleaner than at any given moment in the last 200 years. In 50 years,
a carefully planned and executed recuperation procedure turned the Thames into a success story
the likes of which only the Yellow River recuperation in China could parallel. This project focused
on creating legislature to disallow factory waste being deposited in the water, removing sewage
deposition from the river, further cleaning this sewage water in treatment facilities, capacitating the
river bed using fertile maritime soil and reintroducing fish species to guarantee biodiversity. The
area, hitherto degraded by urbanization in 1850-1960, is a landmark of success.
Masdar City, United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates, in an effort to decentralize its oil-based economy, sought to create a
zero-carbon city as a gigantic construction project. It was supposed to house 50,000 people,
40,000 commuters, and almost 1,000 companies in 6 square kilometers of area outside Abu Dhabi
international airport. It was set to use pod-like mass transportation systems instead of cars, and to
have special venting systems that would cool down the desert air without the need for air
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conditioners. Regrettably, the project, set to open in 2015, was an utter failure. Only a fraction of
the full construction has been completed, and the construction companies have disclosed that the
zero-carbon dream is not technologically viable given the city’s surroundings (the four or so blocks
currently built operate at 50% efficiency). This project stands as a testament to the viability of
initiatives, as sometimes great ideas fall short due to their complexity.
Amsterdam
Albeit a smaller city, only populated by 800,000 people, Amsterdam has had great successes
preventing environmental damage. Through a heavy conscientization effort on bicycle usage, 75%
of its inhabitants regularly bike, and only 25% of distances less than 5km are covered by car. This
is due to the government investing heavily in bicycle lanes and creating an indexing system that
makes bike theft harder. This is a testament that part of the power to prevent environmental
damage due to urbanization is within small governmental accomplishments (this project was rather
cheap for the government) and within citizens changing their individual culture.
India’s tree planting
India pledged to reforest 12% of its territory by 2030 in the 2015 Paris Climate Conference. Most
specialists could not fathom how the nation, which had considerable vegetation losses because of
city growth, would be able to accomplish this goal, yet on July 11th 2016 over 50 million saplings
were planted by 800,000 volunteers. This shows both how individuals hold true power for change
when acting in masses, and how combating environmental degradation is indeed possible with the
simple act of planting trees.
Possible Solutions
The situation at hand is a complex one. No single unilateral solution can minimize the
environmental damage of rapid urbanization, nor can a solution work for all socioeconomic
backgrounds. However, there are certain guidelines that all nations can follow that will indeed help
with this issue.
First and foremost, a more globalized definition of urbanization must be created so mapping
of urbanized areas can leave the speculative models and become realistic.
Moreover, clearer distinctions must be made between countries bound for a rapid increase in
urbanization and those that must simply deal with the aftermath– this line already subtly exists with
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a divide between developed and developing countries, but it has exceptions such as Brazil which
is 85% urban.
Furthermore, countries should strive to map their cities’ carbon emissions through time, and see
how much that number is changing. With that, specific plans to reduce emissions or prevent an
increase can be created and followed so that even with city growth pollutant growth does not
occur. Following this, repopulation plans for damaged biomes can occur, as was done with the
River Thames, and city planning can work in a more organized and intelligent fashion.
Internally, countries should adopt less individualistic policies, like a focus on automobile usage and
extensive personal property, and invest in public transportation and compact travel distances.
While it is up to each sovereign State to engage with its economy as it sees fit, the aim of the
several existing conferences is also to help advise countries on the best way to do so. Perhaps
creating a new one or reshaping the emphasis of this on another one would help tackle the issue.
Though inevitable, urbanization can indeed be managed, especially with newer technology and
sociological principles, to affect the environment less. This is an incredibly large topic that spans
several different areas and requires a multifaceted approach for true change. At times it may seem
ambiguous and at times the several influences it has may seem daunting, but the need for a
solution outweighs these challenges.
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Appendix
I.
The Stockholm declaration:
http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default.asp?documentid=97&articleid=1503
II.
Burtland Report:http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf
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Forum:
Environmental Committee
Issue:
Combating the overfishing of seas and oceans
Student Officer: Erik Mendes Novak and Josefina Alvarez
Position:
Chair and Deputy Chair of the Environmental Committee
Introduction
Throughout the years, humans have hunted and fished animals. This has little by little become an
exaggerated practice, which has caused and continues to cause severe environmental issues.
Animals are indispensable in an environment and thus, their existence in great amounts is vital. In
order to keep nature’s balance, an equal or lesser amount of fish have to be both consumed than
their offspring. Approximately 63% of global fish stocks are considered overfished, that is,
consumed faster than sustainable reproduction can occur.
With the increasing demand for exotic foods, the noticeable rise in consumption of seafood, and its
diversification of species in rare dishes, fishing in areas where marine animals are common has
become an extreme abuse of power from humans. This practice has been profitable for years, and
a constant source of income for many, but the problem begins when fishing becomes excessive
and sometimes even for sport. Overfishing not only unbalanced the environment, but also
increased the type of endangered species that exist. Fish such as the Atlantic Bluefin tuna have
become in danger of extinction due to overfishing. Illegal fishing in non-permitted areas is an issue
that has been in debate for several years now. Sometimes the massive slaughter is not for sport or
even profit, but for celebrations. This also counts as overfishing. It is in each nation’s best interest
to remove and avoid any and all methods of illegal and excessive fishing in any ocean and sea.
In 2010, the FAO estimated that approximately 180 million tons of captured fish were destined to
production, almost 85% of it destined to the production of food. For some countries this production
of food is vital to survive as an economy and have a balanced trade in goods, but there are
numerous activities to enrol in that do not include species overfishing. For these countries, the key
is to diversify in the exportation of primary goods or raw materials in order not to abuse their
ecology and step into a massive destruction of their own resources.
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Definition of Key Terms
Overfishing:
According to the Australian government overfishing is “Catching too many fish; fishing so
much that the fish cannot sustain their population. The fish get fewer and fewer, until finally
there are none to catch”4
Ecosystem:
Area where animals and plants interact with each other and with the environment.
Fish Stock:
Total population of a certain species of fish, which are located in a specific area.
Fishery:
An area of space that is used to fish with the aim of selling them.
Bycatch:
A kind of collateral damage, meaning fish that were caught unintentionally while doing
fishery.
Minimum Viable Population (MVP):
Measurement which states the minimum possible number of individuals in a species before
its extinction in the wild.
Marine Biodiversity:
Refers to the great amount of species in the oceans and seas of the world.
Total Allowable Catch (TAC):
It refers to the limit catch of fish set for a specific fishery or period of time.
4
Australian Government: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
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Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQs):
Regulates fishing by setting a physical amount of it. This regulation sets a species-specific
total allowable catch, typically by weight and for a specific period.
Background Information
A note on whaling
It is historically assumed that the first blatant example of overfishing came in the early 18th
century, when the whale population was decimated due to human desire to use their blubber for
soap and perfume. The collapse in whale fisheries was such that certain populations were never
recovered. Even worse, this set a precedent in whaling in the last century, such that today it is
estimated that there are around 10 times less whales than there were in the year 1900. A species
like the Blue Whale, which used to have a population of 250,000, today has between 10,000 and
25,000 specimens. It is also estimated that from 1900 to 1960 over 350,000 blue whales were
killed in the Southern hemisphere alone, not to mention Soviet fishing.
Such was the lack of legislative moderation in whaling that pop culture even laid critique to the
practice in 1986 in the movie “Star Trek IV”, which put the survival of humanity in the hands of
extinct humpback whales (which were on the verge of extinction when the movie was made),
prompting the protagonists to travel to the past and retrieve a mating pair of whales.
However, with greater conscientization efforts on whaling starting in the 1980s, the whale
population has stopped decreasing and has started a slow, though existent, comeback. After their
1967 protection (which came much earlier than efforts elsewhere because of their characteristics),
the blue whale population has stagnated, and is showing recovery only in the coast of California as
of yet.
Historical overview
After the start of localized overfishing practices, like the blubber rush in the 19th century, all of
which are already detrimental to the environment, widespread overfishing became more prevalent
as of the mid-20th century. In this period, international efforts to increase the availability of proteinrich food sources led to widespread governmental incentives towards increasing fishing capacity.
Hitherto a less commercial affair, hefty loans, motivational policies and relaxed legislation entailed
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a rise in the number of big fishing operations, which inexorably outperformed and thus substituted
local boatmen as the source of the world’s supply of fish.
As can be seen historically, leaving production practices to neo-liberal private and government
institutions leads to “gloves-off” policies of maximizing yield above all, creating the concept of
global overfishing as we know it. These companies had a notoriously aggressive approach by
scouring all areas of the world’s oceans and developing new fishing technology for efficiency, all
while aiming at increasing the profit yield of their commercial fleets. Even more worryingly, this
blunt increase in fish availability decreased the prices of big catch to the point where consuming
sea life became a much more common international cultural practice.
It is believed that output peaked in 1990 at around 90 million cubic tons of fish a day, after which
the unbalance in fishing practices led to widespread destabilization in fisheries around the world,
which has ultimately lowered output ever since. This downward path is set to continue without a
resounding move towards sustainable fishing, which preserves the output of fisheries, and bleak
estimates from a 2006 scientific report show, that at this rate all the world’s fisheries will have
collapsed by 2048. A similar report from 2003 estimates that the number of large ocean fish has
been reduced to around 10% of levels before overfishing began. This is an interesting statistic as
the amount of fish on the market has still not had a sizeable enough decrease for the international
population to have a big decrease in consumption.
Indeed, this problem which started as a question of greed has now permeated culture and created
societies entirely dependent on the fishing industry for economic stability, making possible
solutions much more complicated to implement. It is estimated that this industry provides financial
security and sustenance to over 500 million people, too large a number for any type of radical
change to occur in a short span of time.
Quota System
There are currently two quota systems trying to see which will best prevent corporate overfishing.
These methods do not deal directly with diminishing the culture of fish consumption, but prevents
the collapse of fisheries. The first is more liberal while the second is more conservative.
Catch Shares
This is a system proposed by the United States to commercialize fisheries. In this system,
fishermen need a permit to work certain fisheries, and that paper grants them the rights to a
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certain portion of the fishery, similar to stocks being representative of a particular percentage
of a company. These papers can also be exchanged by papers in other fisheries and more
can be bought for a larger quantity of money, functioning in essence incredibly similarly to
stock markets.
What is indeed a novel approach does not have enough practice to be considered either a
success or failure, but it has drawn criticism due to its overreliance on laissez-faire
economics to get the job done. Apart from the obvious setbacks that an 100% market-run
economy brings, even when it comes to fishery distributions, the biggest concern behind this
system is the inability of regulators to correctly allocate ownership without superseding the
equilibrium level and reaching overfishing routines. Given natural fluctuation and residual
private pressure to allow for more fishing, it is predictably very common for the equilibrium
point to be overestimated, even if it must be reached upon a scientific consensus. Only time
will tell if this practice, whose roots are as neoliberal as the United States they are planted
in, will work.
Individual Fish Quotas (IFQs)
This is a straight and unambiguous quota system capping off fishing according to individual
species’ needs. It has been widely implemented by several different countries including the
United States, several countries in Europe and, more recently, China. It can be introduced to
a country’s legislation simply and has proven effective as a first measure of how much
overfishing happens in a country’s fisheries and how much it needs to decrease. However,
due to the natural fluctuations of fish capacity, what tends to happen is the creation of an
average over a course of, for example, 5 years, which will help denote how much of a
particular fish will be allowed to be fished. Thus, this system works based on quantity
(usually in kilos or tons) over a certain quantity of time, and has proven a reliable method
that allows for flexibility while also keeping the government firmly in control.
Lack of international organizations
When it comes to global efforts to define and advise on action in the high seas, there is no
international governmental organization that constructively and holistically does so. This is one of
the main reasons why international treaties on sea exploration are so rare. The International
Maritime Organization (IMO) is involved with legislating transnational high-seas trade, including
those involved with fishing. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) pertains to undersea mining
practices, which indirectly impact fisheries and fishing as terraforming, though incredibly
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detrimental to the environment, can aid in making the practice more efficient. Regional agreements
also exist in certain areas, making the process even more confusing if looked at via a truly
international lens. This gap is mostly due to conflicting State interests in high seas, but in a
breakthrough UN General Assembly meeting in December 2015, States finally decided to
acknowledge the international ramifications of sea exploration (including fishing) and to create
united solutions to the problems that may occur. One thing that is still missing is a sea resource
management agency.
Sustainable fishing
Put simply, this is the practice by which a fishery can remain, for an indeterminate amount of time,
a viable fishing location. However, the definition of this viability has had to be linked to the
socioeconomic demographic of the region for general acceptance. For example, in areas of high
subsistence to fishing, preserving all species in balanced numbers may not be a popular choice as
it will lower food output; a more accepted definition would be one where what is sustainable is the
fishery’s ability to deliver products the society can use, irrespective of shifting population numbers.
In his book “Marine Conservation Biology”, Ray Hilborn outlines three possible ways of defining a
fishery, depending on the economic context of the fishing industry behind it. His first definition,
Long Term Constant Yield, argues that nature establishes normalized rates of return over time,
which fluctuate little, and that there must be a point of maximum long term yield that does not
affect this rate negatively (its elasticity). However, this view is today considered outdated as it
hinges on the principle that nature’s natural stocks fluctuate little over time, something which has
been proven to be false.
His other two definitions, however, remain widely relevant.
Preserving Intergenerational Equity is a less stringent version of the previous definition, where
natural fluctuations are accounted for and practices of fishing that deplete stock levels or destroy
habitats are only deemed unsustainable if the damage cannot be repaired in one generation. This
definition allows for growth and repair, as well as a realistic maximum economic output, which both
bodes well with the coastal communities most directly serviced by fishing and also allows for
moderate preservability of the habitats. In a world that is still far away from even a moderate
solution as this one, adopting it globally would be a huge boost in efforts to counter overfishing,
and certainly a stepping stone for other more conservative definitions.
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The distinction was that of Maintaining a Biological, Social and Economic System, where the
human system is slightly preferred over the marine system, by putting all aspects of sustainability
in the intrinsic integrity of the fishery -that is, its ability to still have a viable source of fish,
independently of the species. This means that certain species may be allowed to go extinct and
certain biological erosion could happen as long as the overall trophic balance of the ecosystem
remains similar.
These definitions are inherently hypothetical, yet they can be specified for most legal scenarios
today, and range from most to least conservative. Nevertheless, however utopic the first solution
may seem and however uncaring the last may appear, the current global situation is much more
unchecked. With no one institution or government having total control over the fishing market
trends, overfishing is deleting ecosystems beyond repair. Legislatively and judicially, however, this
is a way to start unifying the combat of this practice.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
Greenpeace
The job of this organization is primarily that of conscientization through shock protests. In this
sense, they have been heavily engaged in promoting this sort of change in overfishing. Since one
of the key areas to counter overfishing is public perception, Greenpeace has an important gap to
fill and help fill in regards to conscientization. However, this organization has been criticized for the
nature of some of its protests. In order to become a true agent of change, a joint effort with other
marketing policies could prove more effective.
World Wildlife
This NGO serves as an advisory agent of change in communities throughout the world, instructing
individuals on the best practices for a particular environmental action. In Australia, where they are
most active in containing fishing practices, they engage in the development of management
agreements (by creating better policies and advising legislation), implementing their smart fishing
initiative, which seeks to bring certain species of fish into long-term sustainability, banning fishing
gear that creates bycatch, conducting a crackdown on illegal fishing, helping create marine
protected areas, and making seafood labelling more widespread, among others.
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United States of America
Originally one of the countries that incited overfishing, the USA is today one of the greatest forces
trying to contain it. From pioneering their fishery catch share market, to adopting several IFQs
throughout the fisheries in its coasts, to influencing other countries to also pay heed to overfishing,
the United States seems to believe in a sustainable fishing community. However, profit is still very
much on the table in this regard, and this country is only willing to go so far in terms of general
restrictions on fishing.
Australia
This State is of particular interest due to its incredibly rich marine life. Any overfishing policies here
have widespread impact worldwide due to the rich sea fauna of the region. Unsurprisingly, this is
also a region where overfishing has hit harder. While legislative change has taken place recently,
with policy switches being highly credited to WWF advice as well, regrettably there is still a large
amount of illegal fishing in the region. Perhaps the area that would most benefit from an increase
in programs to monitor fishing activity would be this country.
Timeline of Events
1961
1967
1990
2003
2015
World Wide Fund is founded
The Blue whale receives special legislative attention that diminishes its illegal
fishing.
The peak of fishable fish quantity is reached. Fishery collapse starts.
Scientific paper shows the number of big-catch fish in water is 10% of quantity in
1900
Oceans and Sea Law passes, recognizing international aid behind diminishing
overfishing.
United Nations Involvement: Relevant Resolutions, Treaties and Events

Resolution A/RES/70/235 - Oceans and the law of the sea, 2015

Resolution A/RES/70/226 - United Nations Conference to Support the Implementation of
Sustainable Development Goals.

Resolution A/RES/69/292 - Development of an international legally-binding instrument under
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use
of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction, 2015.
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
Resolution SC/RES/140/16/0618 - World Regulations 23 of Overfishing in Our Oceans,
2016.

United Nations Development Goals 2015, Goal 14: Conserve and Sustainably Use the
Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources for Sustainable Development.

1982- The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (Articles 61, 62, 65):
provides protection for marine environments, provisions regarding legal boundaries within the
oceans, maintains traditional regulations for ocean uses, introduces modern regulations.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
July 1st, 1975.
The Daily Mail: Faroe Islands Celebration.
Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue
Evidently, through several resolutions passed by the General Assembly and with joining efforts of
numerous countries, the intention of eradicating overfishing in seas and oceans is a clear target for
world leaders. The goal number 14 in the Millennium Development Goals of 2015 was to
“Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources for Sustainable
Development”.
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The United Nations together with numerous countries has signed resolutions attempting to work
out a solution, hence the quotas were put in practice by several governments, such as Australia,
Canada and the USA, in order to control the harvest and supply fish, so as to disable the
oversupply and therefore the overfishing in oceans to an allowable amount of fish. Other countries
like China imposed restrictions so as to erase overfishing, such as illegal fishing of foreign vessels.
In May 2013, new global fishing rules were imposed, enabling the restriction of fishing specific
species in the seas and oceans in order to preserve marine life.
The International Maritime Organization supported the new code of conduct on piracy and other
illegal maritime activities, based in the persecution of suspicious criminals and potential illegal
activity.
Not just governmental organizations have recurred and taken action to tackle this issue, but also
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as Greenpeace, that does Ocean Expeditions
every year to combat and defend the oceans and also World Wildlife that works so as to save the
marine animals and restoring our ecosystem as a whole.
Possible Solutions
Combatting this issue in any scale, be it local or global, has several setbacks in political discord,
cultural differences and even private interest. Moreover, even when all parties are in accord
problems like illegal unrestricted fishing and legislative impediments still exist. Indeed, this problem
is not only one of clashing ideologies, but also of lack of monitoring and legislative action.
Adequate solutions involve establishing an accepted definition of sustainable fishing, and working
towards creating transnational cooperation in moving in that direction, rather than having countries
engage individually in trying to correct their own problems. Moreover, creating more programs to
monitor fishing activity can kill two birds with one stone: this would enable monitoring of fishing
quantities while also impeding illegal fishing. Finally, the creation of an organization that takes
specific care of ocean resources is of vital importance not just for fishing practices, but for any use
of ocean water not to become unrestrained. This would make it simpler for marine protected areas
to be created and for global cooperation in the above topics to be successfully sought.
These solutions must take into consideration the sovereignty of each country, yet they must also
ground to what extent countries may plan to exploit their waters. In fact, they must, above all,
guide the usage of international waters as this area is where the most ambiguity lies, allowing for
unrestricted fishing.
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Bibliography
“Overfishing” 2016. http://overfishing.org/
“Overfishing Threats” (2016) http://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing
"Ocean Missions." Greenpeace International. Greenpeace, 2006. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/ocean-missions/>.
Norse, Elliott A., and Larry B. Crowder. Marine Conservation Biology: The Science of Maintaining
the Sea's Biodiversity. Washington: Island, 2005. Print.
"Blue Whales, Blue Whale Pictures, Blue Whale Facts - National Geographic."National Geographic.
Your Shot, 1996. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/blue-whale/>.
"Overfishing -- Pristine Seas -- National Geographic." National Geographic. Ocean, 1996. Web. 10
Aug. 2016. <http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/explore/pristine-seas/critical-issuesoverfishing/>.
"Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQs)." Department of Revenue -- Washington State Government.
Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQs), 2010. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://dor.wa.gov/Content/GetAFormOrPublication/PublicationBySubject/TaxTopics/IndivFishingQ
uotas.aspx>.
Bratspies, Rebecca M. "Why the Free Market Can't Fix Overfishing." The Atlantic. Atlantic Media
Company, 3 Aug. 2009. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2009/08/why-the-free-market-cant-fixoverfishing/22524/>.
“Endangered Species” (2016)
http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/cetaceans/about/blue_whale/
Boyd, Robynn. "World Closes in on Consensus to Regulate Fishing on the High Seas." Scientific
American. Scientific American, 23 Feb. 2015. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-closes-in-on-consensus-to-regulate-fishing-onthe-high-seas/>.
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Forum:
Environmental Committee
Issue:
International Cooperation on water recycling
Student Officer: Josefina Alvarez
Position:
Deputy Chair of the Environmental Committee
Introduction
Water is undeniably the most important and vital natural resource to sustain life on Earth, not just
human life but any other kind of survival. As stated previously, water is a natural resource,
therefore a limited one. Therefore, it needs to be carefully allocated and treasured, so as to not run
out of it. Recycling water is the safest way of ensuring its preservation.
Due to the unfortunate situation in several countries, where clean water has become a rare
resource, numerous diseases such as malaria and hepatitis have spread through their population.
As known, water, hygiene and sanitation are key factors to take into account when suffering health
issues and diseases. This lack of access to clean water forces the population to consume or
handle insufficiently treated water or even untreated, causing diseases such as the
aforementioned.
Today, there are 663 million people who do not have access to water sources. In other words, 1 in
10 human beings are at extreme risk due to their inability to satisfy their basic needs. Daily, more
than 800 children die from avoidable diseases, caused by poor water quality and inadequate
sanitation and hygiene. In children under 5 years of age, the leading causes of death are water
related diseases. Insufficient access to fresh water does not only impact on diseases, but also has
a negative influence in food security, livelihood choices and educational opportunities for poor
families across the world. Drought affects some of the world’s poorest countries, worsening hunger
and malnutrition. If the issue is not tackled, by 2050 at least one in four people are likely to live in a
country affected by chronic or recurring shortages of fresh water.
The 6th Goal of the Millennium Development Goals of 2015 aims to “ensure availability and
sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”. UNICEF has worked hard in order to
achieve its goals by the end of 2015, helping and encouraging governments to comply with this
initiative. In September 2015, world leaders met at the United Nations once again, in order to set
new goals. These are called “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development”. Once more, the 6th goal is to ensure access to water and sanitation for all.
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Definition of Key Terms
Water Availability
The water availability varies depending on the country which is taken into account, due to
that fact that the each country has different water resources available and different
populations. Availability refers to the fact that it is present in a specified time, space and in
sufficient quality and quantity. It depends on numerous factors, such as rates of rainfall,
evaporation and river and aquifer flows.
Water Recycling
Recycled water is wastewater that has been purified from solids and impurities so it can be
used again for new purposes, such as consumption and for commercial and industrial water
needs.
Water Scarcity
It is the lack of water availability to consume or use for personal matters, within a region. It
varies depending on the precipitation and availability of water, growth of population, demand
for water and affordability of factors of production.
There are two types of water scarcity:
I.
Physical water scarcity: When consumption exceeds 60% of the water supply.
II.
Economic water scarcity: lack of water where it is potentially but not physically
available.
Water Quality
The quality of the water is a key factor regarding its consumption and use. Unfortunately,
although some developing countries have access to water, its quality is poor because it is
not completely clean due to pesticides or fertilizers from the plantations, as well as its
contamination from industries and transports in urban areas.
Greywater
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It refers to the wastewater from domestic and industrial use. It is different from blackwater,
which includes the waste of toilet water and needs more treatment than greywater.
Desalination
It is the process through which the minerals and salt are separated from the saline water.
This turns the water suitable enough for safe consumption and domestic or agricultural use.
World Map: Total Renewable water resources in 2011.
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Background Information
Water resources
Water availability
Although 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, less than 1% is used for
consumption. As most of the freshwater is stored in glaciers and ice sheets, unfortunately
the amount of water accumulated in them varies with temperature change. So as the world’s
temperature is rising due to global warming, the amount of water stored decreases and
global sea level rises, mixing consumable and non-potable water. The problem of water
supply is mostly seen in countries of the Middle East, such as Jordan, Palestine and Israel.
The difficulty in accessing to freshwater is directly related with the level of economic
development the country possesses as well as the inability of governments to finance
satisfactory water and sanitation systems.
The majority of the water used worldwide is extracted from rivers, aquifers and sweet
sources of water. Unfortunately, water supply is not equally allocated, due to the fact that the
majority of the water supplies occur either seasonally or yearly in areas that contain
minorities of the world’s population and thus, the majority of it receives lesser amounts of the
annual rainfall (See Appendix I). Logically, urban areas always have better access to water
than rural areas, due to their sanitary measures and amount of population.
Although the access to fresh water for personal and domestic use is a Human Right since
2010 according to the UN’s General Assembly, there are still -as stated previously- 1 in 10
people that lack access to safe water, meaning there are still 1.8 billion people worldwide
that use water which is fecally contaminated.
Renewable sources of water
Water is considered a renewable material, as when specifically treated greywater can
become freshwater once again. Water pollution is one of the main issues regarding water
resources: approximately 22% of the available water is used for industrial purposes (mainly
as a solvent) and more than 80% of it is discharged into rivers and other water sources,
contaminating them even more.
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In order to renew water as a resource, several high-developed technology and infrastructure
is needed and some countries, such as the Less Economically Developed Countries
(LEDC’s) do not have the necessary means to achieve it. This is why international
cooperation from the wealthiest countries is needed.
Proportion of renewable water resources
withdrawn around 2011 (percentage)
Advantages of water recycling
Environmental advantages
When recycling water, the ecosystem is positively affected by reducing the impact water
extraction produces in the environment. The flow of water in any ecosystem on Earth needs
clean water for its living creatures to survive, or they run an important risk which can
potentially deteriorate the natural habitat. The pollution of water due to industries, urban
areas, fertilizers, pesticides and such creates a general degradation of the planet’s water
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resources, and taking into account that approximately 0,008% is available to use, its care
should be massive.
Secondly, if water is not to be renewed, the remaining sources will be contaminated as well,
reducing even more the percentage of water available for humanity and living creatures to
use.
At the same time, renewing already extracted water means saving large amounts of energy,
due to the fact that water extraction requires a lot of energy not only for the extraction itself,
but for the purifying procedures it has to be subject to and transportation, amongst others.
On the other hand, wastewater can be treated and recycled locally and at a much more
reduced cost that the extraction could ever signify.Moreover, by recycling wastewater the
natural resource is not exploited to its maximum potential, and therefore it allows the planet
to have untouched natural water reserves.
Economic advantages
As stated previously, recycling water saves a great amount of energy. This energy saving is
translated in capital savings for the government. The machinery and specific technology
needed to extract water from aquifers in remote places causes the practice to be costly. By
recycling wastewater and carefully selecting the use it will be given (differentiating toilet from
drinkable) countless amount of capital and exhaustive work are saved.
Social advantages
The use of recycled water improves the growth of crops for farmers, because they keep their
natural nutrients, which allow the former not only to have improved products, but also save
money from fertilizers. Furthermore, water recycling allows society to take advantage of this
water in times of drought for different uses, such as irrigation in suburban areas.
Uses of recycled water
Agricultural uses
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The percentage of food demanded by the world’s population is continuously rising (along
with the population itself) and therefore supply must be equal to demand to have a healthy
world. Very important portions of the world’s consumed products are vegetables and fruits,
which are planted in farms and obviously need water to grow. As stated previously, recycled
water provides nutrients that no other kind of water is able to supply, encouraging the growth
of these crops so as to enhance food production.
According the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), by 2050 the
world’s demand will rise significantly and therefore the food production will have to increase
by almost 70%, due to the growth in world population to approximately 9.1 billion people.
This reflects an increase in energy, water, and labor among others. Therefore, it is vital to
have several sources of water to use and the only way of complying with such figures is
through water recycling.
Industrial uses
The industrial area is one of the main consumer of water, mainly in Europe, where almost
40% of water abstractions are directed to industries, due to its usefulness in the area (for
example, used in cooling, washing and cleaning). It may reach over 90% in some countries
such as Bulgaria. On top of that, this area is also one of the main polluters of freshwater.
Due to all this, using recycled water for industrial purposes seems a suitable option.
The portion of energy production in total water use goes from 9% in Turkey to 95 % in
Estonia, said energy being majorly used in the cooling process. Cyprus and Malta report the
highest self-supply for energy production, all of which is used as cooling water.
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Proportion of abstractions for the manufacturing and production of electricity-cooling industries, 2011 (%)
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
The FAO is an organ of the United Nations whose strategic objectives are to help eradicate
hunger, food malnutrition and insecurity, to reduce rural poverty and make rural activities
sustainable. This agency helps both developed and less developed countries to defeat hunger
around the world. According to it, around 793 million people are still suffering from malnutrition,
161 million of them being children under the age of 5. They fight to provide everyone high quality
food and ensure their access to good nutrition. To guarantee that in 2050 the predicted amount of
people
-9.1 billion- will have access to high quality food, a big increase in the agricultural sector
is needed and without the presence of clean and fresh water this objective is impossible to
achieve. This is a preoccupation for the FAO, and therefore it is working together with farmers and
different governments, preparing them to be able to cope with the ever-increasing demand for
food.
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO)
The UNIDO specializes in the promotion and acceleration of industrial development to reduce
poverty worldwide and environmental sustainability. Their main aim is to stimulate inclusive and
sustainable industrial development (ISID) in developing nations. ISID contains three pillars of
sustainable development, which are recognized by the agenda of the 2030 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG’s) and each represents different key aspects of ISID:
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I.
Creating shared prosperity
II.
Advancing economic competitiveness
III.
Taking care of the environment
Taking its main objectives into account, the involvement of UNIDO is vital to tackle the issue of
water recycling.
World Health Organization (WHO)
The World Health Organization is an agency belonging to the United Nations that is concerned
with the health of society as a whole. Daily it combats obesity, malnutrition, and hunger-related
diseases, among others.
It is a member of the United Nations Development Group, which is a corporation of UN agencies
created with the aim of improving the effectiveness of the United Nations’ activities.
This agency is responsible for the annual or biennial World Health Report, the World Health
Survey and the World Health Day. It has partnered with several other governmental and nongovernmental entities, such as the World Bank, which monitors the International Health
Partnership (IHP+), a group of organizations committed to tackle societies’ health issues. This
partnership involves different organizations, such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the
Rockefeller Foundation and the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs).
The WHO has numerous programmes, which involve health emergencies, outbreak of diseases,
mortality, lifestyle, water, sanitation and food (See Appendix I). Their main areas of work include:
health systems, corporate services and response and effectiveness of the corresponding services.
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
This United Nations Intergovernmental Organization (IGO) and humanitarian agency helps
children and mothers with developmental assistance in LEDC’s in the long term. It provides food,
water, healthcare and shelter to children in need. UNICEF’s income originates from governments
and private donors.
UNICEF is present in 191 countries and has been working with and for children for approximately
70 years. It works not with only governments, but also with the civil society in general.
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With UNICEF’s help of spending US$70: in water supply and sanitation for needed children, their
active participation in the water recycling cooperation is substantial.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is a global entity, which coordinates and
controls the UN’s environmental activities, through environmentally sound policies and practices
done by developing countries. Its mission is: “To provide leadership and encourage partnership in
caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve
their quality of life without compromising that of future generations."
The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda encourages the promotion of better and more
sustainable ways to handle the ecosystems globally. It is working on the Ecosystem Management
Aqua Republica Project, which focuses in the promotion of renewable water resources and their
management, in order to raise awareness about the importance of such resources.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia has been the world’s leader for several years in desalination, hence its first position
in the largest producer of desalination ranking. It uses solar energy to power the equipment
needed to desalinate water and the country’s main objective is to have all desalination plants
powered by solar energy by 2019. The largest desalination plant produced approximately
1,025,000 cubic meters of water per day in 2014.
Israel
Due to the fact that Israel has a constant struggle regarding water supply, their efficiency in water
recycling is superior to that of any other nation. They produce approximately 40% of all the water
they use, through recycling and purifying almost 70% of the water for irrigation processes. The UN
is perfectly aware of this remarkable feat and thus, Israel was named the world's most efficient
recycled water user.
The United States of America (USA)
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With California being its main water-recycling centre, USA plays an important role in the
international cooperation for water recycling. The “California’s Water” is an American segment of
water recycling and empowers its importance. This helps fight droughts, reduce the use of
freshwater and at the same time, maximize its resources. Almost half of the recycled water is used
for irrigation and agricultural purposes and it is estimated that for the year 2030, California will
recycle so much water that approximately 17 million people will be able to live with it.
Greece
Due to its location, Greece participates actively in the renewal of geothermal energy. As magma
goes underneath the water through the rocks, water heats up, evaporating itself and then being
transformed into potable water, useful for consumption or for irrigation purposes. Taking
advantage of this, the government has implemented a new project called MIDES (Milos
Geothermal Energy Driving ORC Turbogenerator and Seawater Desalination Plant) whose aim is
to provide the Greek community of Milos with a sufficient amount of fresh water but at the same
time with an energy- and cost-efficient solution that does not harm the environment. This will be
done through the use of advanced technology and experienced professionals.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of events
1977
UN water conference
1992
Earth Summit
2003
International Year of Freshwater
2005-2015
International Decade of action “Water of Life”
2010
UN General Assembly recognises water and sanitation as
a basic Human Right.
2012
Millennium Development Report
2013
International Year of Water cooperation
April 12th-17th, 2015
7th South Korean World Water Forum
September, 2015
Adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals 2015
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November, 2015
The Paris United Nation’s Climate Conference (COP21)
January 18th-21st, 2016
Abu Dhabi International Water Summit
Relevant UN Treaties and Events

Inauguration of the International Year of Water Cooperation 2013 in December 2012.

International Conference on Water Cooperation, 20-21st August 2013.

Budapest Water Summit, 8-11th October 2013.

International World Summit 19-22nd January 2015

European Protocol on Water and Health

Global Water Summit, 19-20th April 2016

The UN Sustainable Development Goals:
o
Goal 6: “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for
all”

Target 1: “By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and
affordable drinking water for all”

Target 3: “By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating
dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials,
halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing
recycling and safe reuse globally” 

Target 5: “By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all
levels, including through trans-boundary cooperation as appropriate”.

Target 7: “By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building
support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and
programs, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency,
wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies”.

Human Rights Council Resolution A/RES/64/292: “Human Right On Water and sanitation”.

International Decade for Action, “Water for Life”: A/C.2/69/L.12

World Health Assembly Resolution 64/24.

Resolution of the UN General Assembly A/RES/67/204: “Implementation of the International
Year of Water Cooperation”.
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
Resolution of the UN General Assembly A/64/692 “Water, peace and security: transboundary water cooperation”

UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/68/118: “The law of trans-boundary aquifers”.
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
In the year 2000 in the Millennium Summit, world leaders drafted the Millennium Development
Goals, which ended in the year 2015. Its goal number 7 was to “Ensure Environmental
sustainability” and since then, there have been several improvements. The UN was able to allow
2.6 million people to gain access to freshwater, ergo 58% of the population is able to drink clean
water. Also, there was an increase of 15% in the amount of population with access to a safe
supply of water. But although there has been an improvement in water accessibility, water
recycling has not been tackled yet. No cooperation between the United Nations and governments
has yet taken place.
Nonetheless, several organizations and foundations have implemented projects to stimulate the
recycling of water through the improvement of infrastructure. The Water Environment Foundation
(WERF) has been working together with the Soap and Detergent Association (SDA) conducting a
research program into long term grey water recycling, landscape irrigation and how this may affect
human health.
Also, the United States Environmental agency has set a series of guidelines in order to raise
awareness of the recycled grey water and its personal uses, as well as to regulate together with
the Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Agency for International Development the development of
water and water-related resources and the best practices in doing so. The Integrated water
resources organization is another process, which stimulates the efficient development and
management of water, land and natural resources in order to decrease their economic and social
costs without compromising the world’s sustainability in any possible way.
Several nations have attempted to help as well, as for example the triangular cooperation between
Bolivia, Mexico and Germany to promote the reuse of recycled grey water for irrigation in Bolivia
between the years 2014 and 2016 and to improve the wastewater treatment as a whole. This was
driven by not only the lack of water in the long term, but also due to the significant climate change
the world has started to face and thus, the affected soil in the Latin American countries. As a
result, six Bolivian areas were able to improve their groundwork regarding water recycling due to
the technology implemented.
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Possible Solutions
One obvious solution is to conduct further research regarding the different processes in water
recycling, its different stages and utilities, taking into account the level of impurity it may have. The
second step would be to improve infrastructure and technology, mainly in LEDCs for them to be
able to conduct this type of processes in water themselves. The correct infrastructure and labour is
needed to be able to succeed in this area. The collaboration of scientists and experts, who are
specialists in this issue as well as in health, is important when taking into account that this
renewed water may be used for direct consumption of society. Therefore, it is important to
encourage nations into working together, especially LEDCs together with developed ones, in order
to make notorious advances in this field. The creation of training centres to encourage recyclingoriented labour and the import of labour with the right knowledge and experience is also key.
Engineers and chemists are vital in this process of recycling and it would be best for a long term
solution to encourage local people to get involved and so pass on the knowledge and expertise
throughout generations. Also the help of UN entities may be needed, due to the fact that they are
the ones that are deeply involved in humanitarian matters. Finally, agencies such as the World
Bank are vital in order to finance these advances and progress in countries where sanitation is not
even present.
Secondly, society is a key factor in the cooperation regarding water recycling. In order to raise
awareness that water is a natural finite resource and therefore there will be a time when it runs
out, instruments such as advertising campaigns and new training centres need to be implemented.
The general public has to be made aware that our duty is to protect water for future generations as
inhabitants of the world. Not only the society as a whole is responsible, but also other entities such
as municipalities and governments, where this issue may not be a problem yet, because their
society has not been forced to tackle the issue due to ignorance in the matter or temporal water
abundance which is bound to come to an end rather sooner than later.
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Bibliography
“Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits”. United States Environmental
Protection Agency.
“Triangular cooperation between Mexico, Bolivia and Germany: promoting the reuse of recycled
wastewater for agricultural irrigation in Bolivia”. German Corporation for International Cooperation.
http://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/12980.html
“Water”: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN. http://www.fao.org/about/what-we-do/en/
“Guidelines for Water Reuse” United States Environmental Protection Agency
http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/P100FS7K.pdf
“The sustainable development goals” The UN Department for Economic and Social Affairs: the
sustainable development knowledge platform. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300
“Water and Sanitation”: Sustainable Development:
http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/
“National Policy and Regulation”: Federal Agencies
https://watereuse.org/advocacy/national-policy-and-regulation/
“Facts about Water and Sanitation” http://water.org/water-crisis/water-sanitation-facts/
“Water Recycling”: California. http://www.acwa.com/content/water-recycling/californias-waterwater-recycling-imitates-nature
“Water in Industry”: Statistics Explained. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Water_use_in_industry
“Water 2050: The Future is now”: Global Water Summit 2016. http://www.watermeetsmoney.com
“Water Convention”: UNECE. http://www.unece.org/env/water.html
“Geography Book”: Oxford IB Dipoma Programme
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“Milos Geothermal Energy Driving ORC Turbo generator and Seawater Desalination Plant”:
Community Research and Development Information Service (CORDIS)
http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/57624_en.html
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Forum:
Legal Committee
Issue:
Legal measures to combat corruption in administrations
Student Officer: Tien Yu Ma and Pilar Inchausti
Position:
Chair and Deputy Chair of the Legal Committee
Introduction
In almost all countries child labour is illegal; however thousands of children can be found working.
And, not only working, but being exploited, forced to work in inhumane conditions. One may
wonder, how does this happen if legislation exists to prohibit it? The answer can be found in
corruption. Corrupt officials can be paid off by wealthy business owners to remain silent. And in
this way, no matter what legislation the state may come up with, it becomes irrelevant if those who
enforce it are corrupt.
Corruption undermines the government, and in violating existing legal measures becomes a threat
to international peace and security, because the situation can only evolve to become even more
corrupt and if all legal measures are broken by corrupt officials the world would be chaos.
Corruption in public administrations has become a growing problem in the world, and as such must
be tackled and dealt with immediately. The “Transparency International” index of corruption shows
alarmingly few countries to be in the “low
corruption” end, and this is a troublesome
matter for a world that intends to regulate
itself via laws and the enforcement of
them.
The picture opposite was taken from
Transparency international and is quite
alarming. There is no country completely
free from corruption, and the colour red (indicating high levels of corruptions in public
administrations) appears liberally throughout the whole map. Furthermore, it is important to note
that the country with the least corruption is ranked to be Denmark at number 1, while Somalia and
North Korea appear on the opposite side of the spectrum, both coming in at number 167 over 168.
Moreover, the index shows that 68% of countries in the world have serious problems with
corruption, with half of the G20 countries as part of this percentage.
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Definition of Key Terms
Corruption
Dishonest, fraudulent or illegal action that destroys people’s trust, usually by those in power
or with a certain degree of power over others.
Public Administration
It is the systematic ordering and management of affairs to make the government
function as well as seeing their policies being applied. It is also an academic
discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants for working in
the public service.
Money Laundering
Money laundering is a term used to describe the process by which criminals transform the
proceeds of criminal conduct by making such revenue appear to have been obtained from a
legitimate source, disguising its original ownership. Carrying several definitions, it is possible
to use this term in more general aspects regarding the misuse of the financial system and
evasion of internal sanctions.
Transparency
“Lack of hidden agendas and conditions, accompanied by the availability of full information
required for collaboration, cooperation, and collective decision making. Essential condition
for a free and open exchange whereby the rules and reasons behind regulatory measures
are fair and clear to all participants.”5
Benefit or favour
A form of compensation, could be in the form of a payment or gift, as one made to help
someone, which grants an advantage or profit.
Background Information
Forms of Corruption
5 "What
Is Transparency? Definition and Meaning." BusinessDictionary.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Aug.
2016.
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Bribery
Bribery happens when one individual bestows a benefit on someone else in the hope of
influencing that person to behave in a certain way that is beneficial to the person paying the
bribe. It can be initiated either by the person who demands a bribe be paid to them or by the
person who offers the bribe. The benefit in bribery can be anything, either money or favours
or anything else that benefits the person who is to take action.
Nepotism
Nepotism can be understood as favoritism that is granted to relatives in the political sphere.
For example, in the political context a cousin or a sister of a politician is granted tax
exemption or a political position without there being a supporting context that validates this
decision.
Embezzlement
It is theft or larceny (theft of personal property) of money or property by someone who is
responsible for this money or property. Accounting embezzlement is when funds are
manipulated to hide theft. in short, it is the situation where someone who is supposed to take
care of assets in a responsible manner, does not do so and instead steals from or
manipulates these assets under their command for their own personal gain. There are four
charges that must exist for there to be grounds for embezzlement: there has to be a fiduciary
relationship; the defendant has to have gotten to the property through the relationship; the
actions were intentional and that the defendant has become owner of the property or given
ownership to someone else.
Fraud
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines fraud as “intentional perversion of truth in order to
induce another to part with something of value or to surrender a legal right". What this
means in the context of corruption is that there is a manipulation of the truth and of legal
matters to induce the other to part with their legal rights, which once done there is no going
back to the previous rights. Therefore, if in an administration these efforts to convince or
manipulate legal documents (which are at their disposal) occur, there will be a very negative
impact.
Types of Corruption
Grand Corruption
This term is used to refer to acts of corruption at the highest level of a national government.
It involves the corruption of the central functions of a Government. This type of corruption is
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especially harmful to the people, seeing as it erodes the faith and trust in the government as
a legislative unit.
Petty Corruption
Petty corruption refers to bureaucratic corruption that take place in small-scale cases. It
usually takes the form of bribery and it is what most people come into contact with on a daily
basis. Contrary to political corruption, petty corruption is based upon the implementation of
existing laws. That is, an officer accepting money from someone who wants to pass his
driving test would be someone committing an act of petty corruption.
Political Corruption
“Political corruption means the abuse of political power by the government leaders to extract
and accumulate for private enrichment, and to use politically corrupt means to maintain their
hold on power.” This means that any overuse of the power afforded to those politicians by
the volition of the people, in order to either become richer themselves or maintain their
political status will be deemed as corruption. Political corruption can either be a case where
the politicians extract money from the public sector, or the economy or the case where
money is extracted from the administration to extend their reach on their political position. 6
Corporate Corruption
“Any corporation or employee of a corporation who, in their dealings with a public official and
seeking benefits for himself or any third party, engages in behavior which promotes the
violation of law or abuse of power on the part of the government official”7 Being that a
corporation is a legal entity that acts as an individual, this definition is essentially stating that
corporate corruption is when this “individual” engages in any form of corruption or adhering
itself to the an abuse of power (corruption) from the part of the government or any of its
official
Systemic Corruption
Systemic corruption is largely due to the weakness of the institution that is corrupt. It can be
defined and identified as those situations in which corruption is deeply ingrained in all
aspects of a country, be they economic, political or social. In this type of situations there is
little way out for people battling corruption, given that the whole system finds itself based
upon corrupt pillars.
6
"Political Corruption Law & Legal Definition." Political Corruption Law & Legal Definition. N.p., n.d.
Web. 09 Aug. 2016.
7
"National Association of Attorneys General." NAAG. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Aug. 2016.
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Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime has taken an active stance against corruption
stating, for example that it perverts the rule of law, stunts economic growth and undermines
democratic institutions. As such it has several measures in place that constitute their anticorruption policies, such as their e-learning opportunity to attack corruption. There is also a
TRACK (Tools and Resources for Anti-Corruption Knowledge) portal and an anti corruption legal
library that aims to create a gateway and database for the anti-corruption community. The
objective of these programs is to create a community where users communicate and exchange
information. The UNODC has also been a firm supporter of the UNCAC and the measures it has
implemented and suggested are a complement to this convention.
United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC)
The United Nations Convention Against Corruption was created as a result of resolution 55/61 on
December 4th 2000 by the General Assembly. It was decided that it should be a separate entity
from the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. The UNCAC stands
on four main pillars: prevention, criminalization, international cooperation and asset recovery.
The first refers to the prevention of the corruption crime. In its published regulations an entire
chapter refers to prevention. For example, it is stipulated that anti corruption bodies should be
established and that financial transactions should be investigated to ensure transparency. The
second can be understood as the requirement for countries to make corruption a criminal offence,
or at least to consider doing so if their legislation does not allow for direct criminalization. This
criminalization would in theory contemplate all aspects of corruption and not only the most basic
ones. The third pillar is simply to ensure that the fight against corruption is not one that countries
should battle on their own, but instead the world should be united as one against corruption. The
fourth and last pillar refers to the return of the lost assets to the administration that lost them.
Argentina
Sadly, an article in the New York Times noted that in Argentina “payoffs, kickbacks and
government corruption are considered part of everyday life”8. It is ranked in the bottom quarter of
8
Sims, Calvin (Mar 9, 1996). "I.B.M. Contends With a Scandal In Argentina". New York Times
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Transparency International's index of corruption, indicating that it is a country troubled by
corruption. Many claims have been made by the people to stop the widespread political corruption
in the administration. Most recently, cases of embezzlement or straight out theft from the public
sector have been discovered and have created anger in the Argentinian population. The scandal
that has ensued is worthy of noting, seeing as the media has covered the incidents meticulously,
resulting in a people that have lost faith in their political system. Tax evasion has also haunted
Argentina's public finances, with the recent Swiss Leaks revealing that HSBC Bank Argentina had
allowed for evasion on 3.8 billion dollars. The Argentine courts are also prone to corruption. In the
last few administrations the government has been accused of using its power for illicit means, and
of manipulating the public sphere in such a way as to remain in power, as such the faith in the
government has been corrupted. However in recent years, and answering to the inescapable
corruption, there have been laws that monitor corruption imposed by people in the administration.
However, corruption is still very much a latent issue in the country.
North Korea
North Korea is ranked 167 out of 168 countries in Transparency International's 2015 Corruption
Perceptions Index. Strict rules and severe punishments imposed by the regime, for example,
against accessing foreign media or for modifying radio or television receivers to access foreign
media, are commonly evaded by offering bribes to the police. Fake medicine and backdoor
payments are just some of the consequences of its institutions; but because bribery and backdoor
payments are by nature conducted in a clandestine manner, it remains impossible to accurately
assess this country's exact level of corruption. After 1994, Kim Jong-il assumed power, turning the
People’s Republic of Korea from a traditional communist government to a military dictatorship,
leading to what is known as the “North Korean Famine”, an era in which countless people died of
hunger, whilst only the higher classes and the government, partially, had access to the so called
“daily portions”. Ever since then, corruption has evolved to the point where bribes have become
part of their daily life; according to studies, people would be surprised if an official refuses a bribe.
Additionally, in the past, the UN has accused North Korea for the corrupt act of Illegal weapon
trafficking and the use of its embassies as a medium to this.
Venezuela
Transparency International (TNI) currently ranks Venezuela among the top 20 most corrupt
countries, tied with four other countries as the 8th most corrupt nation in the world. A 2014 Gallup
poll found that 75% of Venezuelans believed that corruption was widespread throughout the
Venezuelan government. Discontent with corruption was cited by opposition-aligned groups as one
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of the reasons for the 2014 Venezuelan protests. Not only the simplest way of corruption, being
bribe, is present in this country; the actual president Nicolas Maduro, successor of Hugo Chavez,
assumed in 2013 and his election win generated several protests claiming for a re-count to be
done. At first, president Maduro showed no problem with a re-count be done, yet, afterwards
changed his mind and dismissed the re-count by saying: “The people’s will has spoken”; this has
led to multiple doubts on the possibility of a corrupted election count. Since Maduro assumed
power, several of his wife’s close relatives became employees of the National Assembly, arising
doubts on nepotism. Several other accusations on officials about nepotism and drug trafficking
have been done, among which, Maduro’s electoral funds are claimed to have come from drug
trafficking done by two of his nephews, both proven to have taken part in illicit activities.
Somalia
Ranked as the most corrupt Nation in the world by Transparency International ever since it entered
the ranking in 2014, Somalia carries an index of very high levels of corruption in its government,
private and public sector.
As many other conflict-torn countries, Somalia faces many major
challenges to overcome the levels of corruption in its core; problems such as lack of resources,
weak leadership structures, poor administrative capacity and limited capability of paying public
officials only worsen the issue at hand. Corruption in all forms and sizes happens in this nation’s
territory, taking tax collection, telecommunications and management of aid resources as major
problematic examples. Nevertheless, several measures by the officials over the course of recent
years have tried to tackle the problem, and even though no major results have been achieved;
Somali government is an example to follow in this aspect, as most countries with high corruption
do not actually aim to tackle it. Still, corruption in this country is a long way from being solved.
Timeline of Events
1995
Creation of the index of corruption by Transparency International.
December 1999
Signing of the UNCAC.
December 2003
General assembly directed the ad hoc committee on the elaboration of a
convention against transnational organized crime.
9 December, 2003
First celebration of the International day against corruption.
14 December, 2005
UNCAC comes into force.
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July 2006
140 State Parties have signed the Convention.
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

Action against corruption, December 12th,1996 (A/RES/51/59)

United Nations Convention against Corruption, October 21st, 2003 (A/RES/58/4)

International Cooperation in the fight against corruption, July 27th, 2006 (2006/24)
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
The strongest attempt to solve the issue to this date has been the creation of the UNCAC, which
originally needed 30 ratifications to proceed with its application, a number that has been well
surpassed over the last decade. Today, the convention stands with 178 parties involved, having a
very strong impact on countries with very high indexes of corruption such as Afghanistan; the
growth of appetite for a global anti-corruption instrument, and the possibility of this convention
being it, has helped the international community understand the need to end corruption at all levels
of government.
Despite all the effort the international community has put up against corruption, 17 member states
have still not ratified the convention; among which we can find American, African and Asian
countries in addition to countries that rank high in corruption according to Transparency
International. This arises many possible assumptions as well as concerns if we consider how deep
corruption may lay in these governments for them to not ratify this convention.
However, even if the convention has clear points on how to eradicate corruption, support from all
parties in a country is needed, that is the main reason why the UNCAC has failed in several
countries that have tried to implement it. In the Middle East, 12 countries have ratified the
convention while 4 have signed it, yet, according to studies, the problem on the application of the
convention does not rely on the non-cooperation of the government rather than in other sectors of
society. Anti Corruption acts and agencies have been established to execute UNCAC, but local
boundaries do not allow the full implementation of it; lack of political will and underfunding are
some examples of constraints held up against the correct implementation of the convention. While
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the convention might tackle some of the most important aspects of corruption as it is known today,
it lacks certain other aspects (for example educational or cultural aspects).
Possible Solutions
‘Every law has a loophole’, corruption has been present ever since law was first created; and
throughout history, there has been a constant attempt to solve the problem with a wide variety of
actions. As an example, recently in China, death penalty for corrupt politicians was approved, yet,
that does not mean corruption in Chinese government has disappeared. Singapore has ranked as
one of the less corrupt nations by Transparency International, how did it achieve this? The
government settled strict control on its policies and maintained very high salaries for politicians,
yet, in certain countries in Africa, people in power receive high salaries and corruption rates are
still very high; so what is the real factor that determines the eradication of corruption?
Firstly, nations ought to face the term ‘transparency’. The need for transparency in governmental
actions sounds obvious at this point; but it must be taken into account that there are established
systems around the world that even with transparency on the authorities’ actions, the level of
corruption would not change. Transparency is imperative, but it is also only the first step.
Secondly, understanding that corruption has grown to a magnitude to which only long-term
solutions can solve in a far future; the complexity of corrupted networks is grand. The UNDP
(United Nations Development Programme) has online information and programmes aimed at
raising awareness on corruption. Awareness may become key if we want to achieve a less-corrupt
world.
However, just thinking about the future will not solve the actual problems, that is why the last step
to solving this problem is actually composed by all four pillars of the UNCAC (United Nations
Convention Against Corruption). Starting from the Prevention and going through criminalization
can help lower the amount of corruption, always taking into account the need of cooperation from
all nations, including those that have not signed the UNCAC.
Putting boundaries to corruption and raising awareness could be then, the basic pillars to a
solution; an analysis on why government officials are corrupt and, in case of being needed, harsh
measures like sanctions and the criminalization of corrupted acts in government, could diminish
the amount of corruption around the world.
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Bibliography
"Political Corruption Law & Legal Definition." Political Corruption Law & Legal Definition. N.p., n.d.
Web. 09 Aug. 2016.
"Front Companies, Embassies Mask North Korean Weapons Trade." Reuters. Thomson Reuters,
11 Mar. 2014. Web. 13 Aug. 2016.
“Corruption in Venezuela." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 13 Aug. 2016.
"Transparency International - The Global Anti-Corruption Coalition." Transparency International The Global Anti-Corruption Coalition. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Aug. 2016.
"Anti-Corruption." UNDP. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Aug. 2016.
"United Nations Convention against Corruption." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 13
Aug. 2016.
Lankov, Andrei. "Why North Korea Is so Corrupt, and Why That May Be Good." Nknews.org. N.p.,
16 Oct. 2015. Web. 14 Aug. 2016.
Argandoña, Antonio. "UNITED NATIONS (U.N.): CONVENTION AGAINST CORRUPTION."
International Legal Materials 43.1 (2004): 37-73. Http://iese.edu/. Oct. 2006. Web. 13 Aug. 2016.
"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime." Convention against Corruption. N.p., n.d. Web. 14
Aug. 2016.
"OVERVIEW OF CORRUPTION AND ANTI-CORRUPTION IN SOMALIA."Transparency.org. N.p.,
13 July 2012. Web. 16 Aug. 2016.
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Forum:
Legal Committee
Issue:
The legitimacy of military drone operations
Student Officer: Tien Yu Ma
Position:
Chair of the Legal Committee
Introduction
The origins of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or commonly known as ‘Drones’ date back to
more than fifty years ago, having satisfied several purposes throughout history, mainly espionage.
Although it was not until the beginnings of the 2000s that the first militarized UAV was used by the
United States of America in a targeted killing in Afghanistan. This first action led to a fast
development of military drone technology in the following years, thus nowadays, even less
developed countries such as Nigeria have reported use of military drones, while many other
countries claim to own their own militarized UAVs.
Many nations claim the use of militarized UAVs not only allow strikes of greater precision, but
lower the risk for soldiers, yet, no action comes without a consequence and it is, after all, human
life that we are speaking of. Targeted killings carried out by drones, were firstly justified as a
measure to counter-terrorism, but how far can the world agree on their legitimacy when studies
have shown there has been more collateral damage, meaning innocent dead civilians, than actual
targeted objectives killed? Even with the justification of fighting terrorism, by what means could it
be proven that the person ordering the attacks complies with the framework of the law of armed
conflict which has been present since World War 2?
This leads to the doubt if legitimacy could actually be achievable when speaking of drone attacks.
However, the Law of armed conflict does not condemn civilian casualties as long as the objective
is fulfilled, still, it does not allow military actions to take place if collateral damage is higher in
number of casualties, than the number of actual enemy casualties. Several claims about the
legitimacy of drone operations, mainly said by the USA, have lead to much discontent regarding
moral and ethics. A considerable handful of nations or individuals ask for transparency regarding
this issue. But one thing must be clarified about the law of armed conflict, which either agrees or
not with the legitimacy of drone attacks. It does not require transparency at all; nonetheless, it
would be impossible to doubt the legitimacy of drones attack regarding the number of casualties,
without some transparency given on the matter, due to the fact that it would never be known the
number of actual collateral casualties in comparison to the actual enemy casualties, if they were in
fact, enemies.
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Definition of Key Terms
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
Aircraft in lack of a human pilot, which can operate with different degrees of autonomy. The
autonomy may range between a human operator in use of a remote control, or complete
autonomy, meaning a control by computers onboard. UAVs are often used for military
operations considered to be too dangerous for humans. Nowadays, although they firstly
originated mostly for military purposes, civilian drones outnumber military drones by a vast
majority.
Targeted killing
The murderer or intentional killing of an individual, it can either be by a state, organization or
institution and it must take place outside a judicial procedure or in a battlefield. This term is
mostly used when addressing the issue of counter-terrorism.
Law of War
Term that makes allusion to a particular aspect of public international law, which concerns
acceptable justifications to engage in an armed conflict and the limits to wartime conduct,
meaning that decisions and operations comply with international humanitarian law. This
body of law is to be considered as different from other bodies of law, such as domestic law
to a particular party in a conflict due to the fact that the latter may implement additional legal
limits to conduct and justification of the conflict.
Legitimacy
The state or quality of being in accordance with the law and the established or accepted
rules and standards it carries.
Collateral damage
Death, injuries or any other type of damage to which an unintended target was exposed.
Military speaking, this term is generally used for the accidental lesion or death of noncombatants or the damage to their property during an attack on a legitimate military target.
International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
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“Branch of international law which seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict by protecting
persons who are not participating in hostilities, and by restricting and regulating the means
and methods of warfare available to combatants.”9 International Humanitarian Law is driven
by the principles of considerations to humanity and the mitigation of unnecessary human
suffering.”
War Crime
“A war crime is an act that constitutes a serious violation of the law of war that gives rise to
individual criminal responsibility.”10 War crimes can be thought of as actions taken against
the enemy party, for instance, hostage taking, torture and the use of weapons that cause
superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering. Evidently, actions against civilians, including
intentional killings and rape of civilians are also considered war crimes. And even actions
within a party’s own militia can be considered war crimes, taking child soldiers as an
example.
Background Information
Principles of Law regarding armed conflicts
As mentioned before, these principles must be carried out in order to achieve legitimacy when
taking any military action.
Distinction
This principle addresses the need for respect of both civilian population and their objects.
Parties involved in the conflict have the obligation to distinguish between soldiers and
between civilian population and between military and civilian objects, thus operations must
only be directed against military objects. In order for an attack to be considered legitimate in
an armed conflict, the object of attack can only be military property or personnel, this
becomes imperative. However, this does not mean that the harm or death of a civilian in an
armed conflict in unlawful for as long as the attack complies with the principle of distinction,
meaning that the object or purpose of the attack was not civilians nor civilian properties at
any moment.
Proportionality
9
"International Humanitarian Law." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 27 July 2016.
"War Crime." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 26 July 2016.
10
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As the name suggests, the key idea given on this principle is surrounded by the word
proportion. During an armed conflict, loss of life and damage to property, described as
collateral damage, can never be at an excess in comparison to the expected military
advantage gain. The law of armed conflict does not require proportionality if, and only if, the
target of the attack is purely military. Additionally, this principle also requires a variety of
considerations to be taken when making operative decision from either of the parties
involved, these considerations range from weapon usage and target verifying to warning and
evacuations of populations, ensuring civilian warfare.
Military Necessity
The principle of military necessity aims to reframe the extra damage done to the conflicting
party. It states that without exception, every injury done to either party of the conflict,
although permitted by the rules, can only be considered lawful so far as it is completely
necessary; injuries beyond that are to be considered crimes. This principle prohibits the
wounding or permanently injuring of an enemy unless it was done during a fight; it also
forbids activities that inflict additional damage to the enemy without furthering the military
objective, such as torture to extract confessions. Any act of hostility that hardens
unnecessarily the return to peace can be considered unlawful.
Unnecessary Suffering
“It is prohibited to employ weapons, projectiles and materials and methods of warfare of a
nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering.”11
United Nations highlights in detail regarding drone usage
Report by Christof Heyns
The Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, Christof Heyns,
presented a report on the use of militarized UAVs to the General Assembly’s third committee
that deals with social, humanitarian and cultural issues. He underlined that “Both States
using drones and States on whose territory drones are used have their own obligations to
respect international standards and prevent violations”
In his report, Heyns constantly reminded Member States present in the committee that the
advantages gained from using drones as police can be outweighed by the protection of
11
“Growing Use of Drones in Law Enforcement May Violate Human Rights, Warns UN Expert."
Un.org. N.p., 22 Oct. 2014. Web. 27 July 2016.
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different rights, for instance the right to life, the right to personal security and the right of
human dignity.
Additionally, the Special Rapporteur also noted the requirement for States to use the less, if
not the minimum amount of force depending on each case and its circumstances. This call
was made under human rights law and was preceded by the citing of a variety of examples
where individuals were either severely injured or killed as a result of inaccurate use of
weapons considered not to be as lethal as they turned out to be.
Relevant comments given on the meeting
Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental
freedom, Ben Emmerson, highlighted in the meeting that, while countering terrorism, “civilian
casualties” was not an easy term do define when it came to drone usage. Drone technology
was developed specifically for usage in conflicts with non-State armed groups; the
Rapporteur stated that civilians may provide varied degrees of either voluntary or involuntary
support, creating a possibility that their location could be seen as a participation in hostilities.
Emmerson mentioned examples of different investigations based on the release of
declassified information and explanations given by the United States as regards of loss of
life in Afghanistan. Nonetheless, the real predicament may rely on implicating guilt or holding
accountable those who neither denied nor accepted responsibility in the conflict.
United Nations Human Rights Council
On May 2014, the United Nations Human Rights Council voted to approve a resolution
presented by the delegation of Pakistan (Resolution nº A/HRC/25/L.32), which was entitled:
“Ensuring use of remotely piloted aircraft or armed drones in counter-terrorism and military
operations in accordance with international law, including international human rights and
humanitarian law.”12
The resolution proposes various solutions to the controversy, principally aiming towards a
higher degree of transparency to be given on the issue by every country operating with
armed UAVs.
USA’s response
To the public, the USA has shown opposition and non-acceptance towards this resolution,
stating in addition:
12
Goodman, Ryan. "United Nations Human Rights Council Adopts Resolution Calling for Drone
Transparency and Accountability." Just Security RSS. N.p., 28 Mar. 2014. Web. 27 July 2016.
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“We just don’t see the Human Rights Council as the right forum for discussion narrowly
focused on a single weapons delivery system”.13
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United States of America
USA was the first country to use militarized UAVs and since then, it has kept continuous and
persistent drone strikes over the Middle East and Africa (particularly Somalia, Afghanistan, Yemen
and Pakistan), claiming them as legitimate as they aim to end terrorism. USA’s presidency and
army both claim it is the fastest and most effective way, whilst also making no comments on
collateral damage in public. It is also the country with the highest amount on drones registered to
this day, not to mention the amount of bomb strikes.
Pakistan
The prime minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif has stated that Pakistani government regards drone
strikes as a violation of its country's sovereignty as well as international law. According to the
“Bureau of Investigative Journalism”, Pakistan has been the country with the highest amount of
drone strikes to this day with an approximate of a thousand verified innocent civilian deaths.
Yemen
Yemeni authorities, like their neighbouring nations governments, firstly joined efforts with the
United States in order to oppose terrorism, but the constant striking has led to counter-productivity,
meaning a rise of despise towards the drone programme as a hole, making people put their views
on terrorism rather than not. The Yemeni government has stated the need to stop the drone strikes
on its territory, but it has also stated in the past the need for the UAVs due to the fact that Yemeni
military force cannot complete certain missions without them.
Afghanistan
An extremely widespread and high-casualty drone war is being waged in Afghanistan, where U.S.
drones continuously operate on targeted killings, even though due to recent events, the number of
strikes has decreased significantly in comparison to previous years. From 2009 to 2012, there
were a total of 1,160 “weapon releases” conducted by unmanned aerial vehicles. Still, given all of
13
Tyler, Letta. "The Truth about the United States Drone Program." Human Rights Watch. N.p., 24
Mar. 2014. Web. 26 July 2016.
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these and multiple further strikes from other countries from the NATO, Afghan government has not
had a firm opposition to these operations.
United Kingdom
Since 2008, the UK has had several operations of strikes over Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria. Its
military force has stated the aim of growing widely in armed UAV technology with clear objectives
by the year 2030, including a wide expansion in number of the UAVs in comparison to the Manned
Armed Vehicles.
Israel
In recent years Israel has become the world's biggest UAV exporter, with Israeli drones being used
by six NATO armies in Afghanistan and a wide list of other nation clients Israeli enterprises refuse
to expose. The country itself has used them too in operations against terrorism in Egypt.
Somalia
Operations of counter terrorism in Somalia started during the Obama administration, rising to 19
raids and 17 drone strikes to this day. Somali Government has shown certain arguments against
the strikes in the past but mainly because of lack of communication between the two partners.
Other than that, the government has shown no problem with the increasing number of targeted
killings during the last year.
Amnesty International (AI)
Based on the drone attacks in Pakistan, the organization wrote a report stating the amount of
uncertainty generated by the lack of information given by the striking country, in this case, USA.
“What is certain from Amnesty International’s research, however, is that the cases in this report
raise serious concerns that the USA has unlawfully killed people in drone strikes, and that such
killings may amount in some cases to extrajudicial executions or war crimes and other violations of
international humanitarian law.”14
Human Rights Watch (HRW)
14
Rawlings, Nate. "Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch Blast U.S. Drone Strikes |
TIME.com." World Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch Blast US Drone Strikes
Comments. N.p., 22 Oct. 2013. Web. 26 July 2016.
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Human Rights Watch did a report detailing missile attacks in Yemen, believing it could go against
the laws of armed conflict, international human rights law and Barack Obama's own guidelines on
drones.
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
The president of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) was interviewed on 2013
about aspects of drones regarding International Humanitarian as well as International Warfare
Law.
Stating controversies and facts all surrounded by the lack of information given on drone strikes,
and that the problem is not the drones as a machine, since drones are lawful; president Peter
Maurer considers the real unlawfulness of the issue may rely on the operations themselves.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
September 11th, 2001
Coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the
United States of America.
February 4th, 2002
CIA first used an unmanned Predator drone in a targeted killing in Afghanistan
June 18th, 2004
First drone strike on Pakistan by the United States of America.
May 2008
First UK Reaper weapon launch in Afghanistan.
rd
November 3 , 2008
Wech Baghtu wedding party airstrike where 63 people were killed including 37
Afghan civilians, mostly women and children.
th
March 28 , 2014
UN Human Rights Council voted to approve a Pakistan-sponsored resolution
(A/HRC/25/L.32).
rd
October 23 , 2015
United nations office for disarmament affairs (UNODA) debates under the title:
“Discussing Drones: Engaging the international community on unmanned
systems.”
rd
February 3 , 2016
Drone ‘destroys Boko Haram base’ in Nigeria.
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events
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
Ensuring use of remotely piloted aircraft or armed drones in counter-terrorism and
military operations in accordance with international law, including international human
rights and humanitarian law, March 28, 2014 (A/HRC/25/L.32)

Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, 25 OCTOBER 2013

Discussing Drones: Engaging the international community on unmanned systems,
October 27, 2015
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
Among the previous attempts to solve the issue, we can include both the report of Special
Rapporteur Heyns and the resolution approved by the United Nations Human Rights Council,
although none of them have actually had a great outcome when it comes to actually finding a
solution; as it is said above, the United States has shown complete opposition to the Pakistanisponsored resolution.
Of course, among countries, every time the USA or any other NATO country steps out of place by
accidentally killing a group of civilians, governments tend to have moments of tension, leading to
an exchange of opinions; and several times, countries fail to take responsibility. And even if we
consider these as “attempts” to solve the issue, nothing has even been close to ending this issue.
But why hasn’t it been stronger attempts to solve this issue with this much importance regarding
human rights? The answer to that may rely on the amount of hidden knowledge. The Internet is full
of stories and videos of people showing the reality of drone strikes, nevertheless, the knowledge
of, for example, US civilians regarding drone programs, is limited. The precision of drones is only
as good as the intelligence that feed them, the lack of information, the partial justifications under
the law of war and, most important of all, the justification to the strikes have led to ambiguous
interpretations around it, making it an issue with a very harsh to solve, complex, issue.
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Possible Solutions
Demanding a complete removal of the drone programme would not only be unachievable, but
unthinkable of at this point, however, if we manage to find a way in which these strikes comply
completely not only partially with international law, we could possible find a solution to this
problem.
Transparency is key if we want to reach legitimacy, the principle of proportionality in the so called
‘Law of War’ must be respected and without transparency that will not be achieved. Drones are a
clear sign of what humans can do and they have had an incredible impact both military and
socially, they have facilitated surveillance and many other actions to humans. Militarized drones
are not a deplorable measure, not at all; as long as their objectives and methods are clear and
transparent, therefore legitimate.
No longer can we speak of these two terms separately, the requirement of transparency regarding
the tapes of the strikes could be a viable solution to all the darkness there has been around the
targeted killings. Always bearing in mind that experts in international law, specifically about law of
war, and human rights watchers must be present at all times; so maybe even the creation of a
commission or the schedule of an annual session in order to address this fast-scaling issue could
help regulate legitimacy regarding militarized UAVs.
Still, even as we comply with the Law of war, it is necessary to balance it with the IHL
(International Humanitarian Law). The first mentioned does not focus clearly on damage done to
innocent civilians nor their property that get caught in the middle in every armed conflict. A deep
research and a good consideration of these would be key to achieving their lesser loss.
And finally, the lack of information of civilians about the drone programmes within the countries
being operated on has led to an increase of favouritism towards the terrorist groups rather than the
government, which firstly allowed the drones into the country. Rising awareness has become key
in countries such as Afghanistan where only 40%, mostly men, are literate and actually understand
the situation and do not only see how drones constantly strike and kill people, which has become,
after all, counterproductive.
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Bibliography
Blank, Laurie R. "Drones, Transparency and Legitimacy." Thehill.com. The Hill, 28 May
2014.
Web.
27July
2016.
<http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/defense/207352-drones-
transparency-and-legitimacy>.
Davis, Sean. "Drone Warfare and the Geneva Convention." Engineering and Technology
Magazine, 15 Aug. 2011. Web. 26 July 2016. <http://eandt.theiet.org/magazine/2011/08/justwar.cfm>.
"The Use of Armed Drones Must Comply with Laws." ICRC. International Committee of the
Red Cross,10 May 2013. Web. 26 July 2016.
<https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/interview/2013/05-10-drone-weapons-ihl.htm>.
Goodman, Ryan. "United Nations Human Rights Council Adopts Resolution Calling for
Drone Transparency and Accountability." Just Security RSS. N.p., 28 Mar. 2014. Web. 27 July
2016. <https://www.justsecurity.org/8712/unhrc-adopts-drones-resolution/>.
Hopkins, Nick. "British Military Has 500 Drones." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media,
06 May 2013. Web. 26 July 2016. <https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/may/06/british-military500-drones>.
"UK Drone Strike Stats." Drone Wars UK. N.p., 29 Feb. 2012. Web. 26 July 2016.
<https://dronewars.net/uk-drone-strike-list-2/>.
Faizi, Aimal. "Drones Kill Any Chance of Peace in Afghanistan." Aljazeera, 29 June 2015.
Web. 27 July 2016. <http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2015/06/drones-kill-chance-peaceafghanistan-150628132016117.html>.
"Secret Memos 'show Pakistan Endorsed US Drone Strikes'" BBC News. N.p., 24 Oct. 2013.
Web. 27 July 2016. <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-24649840>.
Almasmari, Hakim. "Drone Strikes Must End, Yemen's Parliament Says." CNN. Cable News
Network, 13 Dec. 2014. Web. 27 July 2016. <http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/15/world/meast/yemendrones/>.
"Get the Data: Drone Wars Archives." The Bureau of Investigative Journalism. N.p., n.d.
Web. 26 July 2016.
<https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/category/projects/drones/drones-
graphs/>.
Rawlings, Nate. "Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch Blast U.S. Drone Strikes |
TIME.com." Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch Blast US Drone Strikes Comments.
N.p., 22 Oct. 2013. Web. 27 July 2016. <http://world.time.com/2013/10/22/amnesty-internationaland-human-rights-watch-blast-u-s-drone-strikes/>.
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Forum:
Legal Committee
Issue:
Measures and cooperation to deter the spread of extremist
ideologies through the Internet
Student Officer: Pilar Inchausti
Position:
Deputy Chair of the Legal Committee
Introduction
Extremist ideologies have been around for a long time, unfortunately often resulting in violence or
unspeakable crimes. The Ku-Klux Klan or the Jewish holocaust are clear examples of the
humanity’s deep rooted and regrettable history of extremism. However, ideological extremism has
found a new way to express itself, through the internet. The allure of the net is no surprise, the
anonymity it presents sets the perfect climate in which a myriad of different radical ideologies have
room for growth. The internet and its long reaching arm has resulted in an exploitation of this
resource on behalf of extremist groups for the purpose of spreading their ideologies. An example
of this is the jihadist expansion of ideology through the use of popular social media.
The main problem with the use of the internet as a tool to expand ideological extremism lies in the
fact that it becomes non-filtered, non-censured material all the public can easily access. It further
creates grounds for extreme responses to extreme ideologies, thus perpetuating an endless cycle
of violence and extremisms to which the world struggles to put a stop to. However, today the main
ideological threat the world is fighting against is one and only one, the Islamic Extremism threat.
Today, the main task the world has at hand is to find a way to discourage the spread of extremist
ideologies, curbing the exposure and amount of propaganda they are allowed on the World Wide
Web without overstepping on the civil liberties that have risen with the invention and further
adaptation of the internet into our day-to-day lives.
Definition of Key Terms
Ideological extremism
Ideological extremism refers to an exaggeration and oftentimes depravation of traditional
ideologies. That is, the beliefs and aims of an ideology are modified and taken to the
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furthest point of their application where they lie outside the mainstream accepted behaviours
and ideas.
Islamic extremism
Islamic extremism is the main extreme ideology using the internet as its main divulgation
tool to aid its expansion. It sustains the belief that Islamic Law is the all-encompassing
religious-political system that has to be imposed on the rest of the globe.15’
Propaganda
Extremist propaganda is understood by the UNODC as “multimedia communications
providing ideological or practical instruction, explanations, justifications or promotion of
terrorist activities”. Propaganda has taken the form of the adhesion to violence in most
extremist ideologies, encouraging and inciting violent acts through graphic content and an
offensive approach to those different to the organization.
Cyber-terrorism
According to the CCRC “Cyber terrorism is the premeditated, politically motivated attack
against information, computer systems, computer programs, and data which result in
violence against non-combatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents." That
is, cyber terrorism is the manipulation of the cyber space for political purposes that result in
violence against innocents. For example, an extremist group hacking into the computer of
the government for espionage and then using the information recollected to plan an attack
against the government.
Cyber-security
It is the effort to protect the cyberspace (computer programs, data, systems, information,
etc.) from threats by groups that intend to harm and wreak havoc in a country, organization
or group.
Xenophobia
Xenophobia is the intense or irrational fear of foreigners. For example, there is fear of
widespread xenophobia in European countries regarding the people of the Middle East due
15
http://www.clarionproject.org/understanding-islamism/islamic-extremism
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to their association to recent terrorist actions perpetrated by organized minorities who in no
way represent Islam in particular or the Arab world in general.
Internet
Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the internet as “an electronic communications network
that connects computer networks and organizational computer facilities around the world”.
The key concept being that it connects computers across the world, leading to international
cooperation and connection.
Background Information
How do extremist groups use the Internet?
It can be argued that the whole issue of extremist ideologies being spread through the Internet
started with the Arab Spring in 2010-2012. One Egyptian protest leader very clearly stated their
use of social media as a way to expose the protests and incite others was a key factor in
producing the domino effect the Arab Spring caused. However, although this was a show of the
power the web has on propagating ideas, there is evidence of earlier use of the internet on behalf
of Al-Qaeda or white supremacist groups, which shows that this is a problem that has been slowly
growing until reaching the present crisis, where the internet is used by the so-called Islamic State
in a very comprehensive way, triggering the success of their extremism both online and offline. As
Jospeh Kunkle (US Department of Homeland Security) puts it: "No longer do traditional media
control the messages that terrorists seek to deliver. Today instant-messaging jihadists can
communicate with anyone (...) and is increasing the potential for recruiting operatives legally living
in targeted countries."
Propaganda
Until the invention of the World Wide Web, the only means available for extremist groups to
gain an audience and promote their ideas was through traditional media (television, radio,
etc.). These media channels have mechanisms that allow them to decide what to publish or
what to suppress, thus diminishing the impact actions of extremist groups have on the
population. However, internet allows for an un-edited promotion of their ideas.
The promotion of violence is the main theme in extremist-related propaganda. Violence is
mainly spread through videos, audio files, online magazines and posters. This well-tailored
material is available on the internet regardless of physical presence. It has been proven that
the perpetrator of the recent attack at a nightclub in Orlando had been watching Islamic
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propaganda prior to the shooting, and was influenced by it. This is the effect that
propaganda has on the public, raising the level of violence as well as creating a bubble of
fear that induces radicalization of not only sympathizers but also of those against the
ideology, as seen in the recent case of an Arab man who was violently held when entering
the US, an incident said to be caused by Islamophobia.
Terrorist propaganda is also used to recruit potential members for organizations. Islamic
propaganda is usually tailored for the vulnerable and marginalized echelons of a society, and
its availability of different languages makes propaganda a global issue. It is also tailored to fit
the majority of users, minors, in the form of video games (glorifying acts against a head of
state), music videos and cartoons (mixing popular children stories with extreme acts such as
suicide bombings). This spreading of ideologies into immature minds who are easily
impressionable is one of the most worrisome actions of internet recruitment.
Financing
The internet provides a cover for financial operations. Most extremist groups have divulged
on their websites bank accounts to which one can donate. This aids divulgation and makes
the threat of extremism take over more aspects of society, thus becoming ingrained in it.
Financing takes place over four main aspects: direct solicitation, e-commerce, charity
organizations and abuse of online payment tools.
Direct solicitation is the means by which terrorists, using their WebPages and propaganda
outlets, request for donations to help keep the organization running.
E-commerce is the selling of material items on their own websites, thus gaining a profit to aid
in funding. Charities are often a cover for extremist groups who use legitimate organizations
as a front to funnel donations from unsuspecting users. These funds are then illegitimately
redirected towards the organization. Charities may also be used as a medium on which to
express ideas that indirectly contain the extremist ideology pertinent to the group. Further
illegitimate activities to gain funds can be found in the committing of “identity theft, credit
card theft, wire fraud, stock fraud, intellectual property crimes and auction fraud.”
What are the types of extremism?
Ideological extremism
Extremism is usually political or religious in nature. Politically extremist groups are usually
comprised of nationalistic based issues, such as would be a Neo-Nazi group, of which
several can be found in Australia. Religious extremism relates to religious issues, as would
be the widely-known Islamic extremism, but it is not limited only to these groups. There are
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several extreme Christian groups reported, one example of which is the attack carried out by
Peter James Knight on an abortion clinic. One key difference between nationalist and
religious extremism is that the former tends to defend national culture and even democracy,
an ideology where the state is strong. However, religious extremism, particularly Islamic
extremism, tends towards a division of the world between ‘us’ (referring to those who abide
by the religion and their rules, the good ones) and ‘them’ (those who do not, the bad ones).
Ideological extremism, in both its branches, tends to justify the use of violence, advocate for
uniformity, place collective goals over individual liberties and use orders instead of dialogue.
Political and religious extremism can sometimes overlap and result in an extreme ideology
that although appears to be purely religious may have political interests at heart.
Issue-based extremism
Issue-based extremism tends to be somewhat non aggressive although there are reports of
criminal actions, violence, threatening, etc. carried out by issue-based extremist groups. As
the name indicates, it is based on an issue and for example animal rights activists are
considered issue-based extremist groups.
Ethno-nationalist or separatist extremism
This refers to a group that is involved in a violent independence fight, trying to gain freedom
that has been taken from them because of race, culture or ethnic background.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
Islamic State (IS)
The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria is the main actor in the worldwide threat of ideological
expansion. Nowadays, IS is the main threat in the internet. Through online interaction, it is
managing to expand its ideology to places it physically cannot achieve, recruiting vulnerable
members and receive financing. Their use of popular social media outlets such as Twitter and
YouTube to expand their ideologies, and their stable website shows how adept they have become
at mastering the internet for the advancement of their own agenda. There are several reported
cases where the internet has sparked violent issues such as the recent attack in Nice and the
Orlando shooter, as well as reports of people leaving to join the extremist fight after being
influenced by online material.
Counter Extremism Project (CEP)
The CEP (Counter Extremism Project) is a non-profit international organisation that has been
created specifically to target the growth of extremist groups. It attempts to stop the financing and
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economic support for extremist organizations, build a database of extremist groups and examine
their financial and social networks as well as the tools and methodologies they use. Their main
principle is to disseminate a counter narrative to extremist narratives that will grant an alternative
view to those being fed by extremist propaganda, particularly to those in at risk communities and
youth. At present, they are working in a petition that requests Twitter to shut down and censor IS
accounts that are recruiting new members for their organization.
UNODC
The United Nations office on drugs and crime has been a key member in attacking and addressing
the problem presented. It has launched an investigation seeking to provide information about
cybercrime and responses to it by Member states, including legislation, information and practical
assessments amongst several others. It has also been active in creating instances of divulgation of
information, like the Geneva conference on religious extremism.
UN Counter-Terrorism Committee
Established by the Security Council resolution 1373 in 2001, after the 11th September attacks in
the United States. The committee is comprised of all 15 Security Council members, and is aimed
at making the financing of terrorism a criminal activity, ensuring that information regarding the
practice or planning of terrorist acts is shared with all member states and intends to “Cooperate
with other governments in the investigation, detection, arrest, extradition and prosecution of those
involved in such acts.”16
United States of America
The United States of America called for a White House summit on countering violent extremism in
February 2015, in which they agreed to find ways to target online extremism in a communityoriented manner. Prevention frameworks are in place and the Federal Government has supported
the summit by appointing a CVE Coordinator in the Department of Homeland Security, establishing
on-the-ground staff to help with the implementation of the prevention frameworks established, and
with the sharing of information amongst the community. President Obama also asked the UNGA to
come up with a solution that will address the “underlying grievances and conflicts that feed
extremism”.17 It has partnered with the UAE to establish a hub that will attempt to counter IS
16
"About Us | UN Counter-Terrorism Committee." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 19 July 2016.
FACT SHEET: The White House Summit on Countering Violent Extremism." The White House. The White
House, 18 Feb. 2015. Web. 19 July 2016.
17
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threats online, and also has established technology camps to give social media directors the
opportunity to discuss with the government solutions regarding online extremism.
Russian Federation
Russia has become an avid campaigner against online extremism. It was one of the first countries
to impulse the UN into taking action against cybercrime, proposing a resolution to the First
Committee in 1998. This was followed in 2011 with the publishing of a convention on International
Information. In 2014, Putin signed a new law that imposed criminal liability on extremist calls
online. This law implies violations of human dignity, and using the internet to incite hatred or
animosity will be criminally liable. Furthermore, the funding of extremist organizations is liable to
three years of imprisonment. This law is rather strict and plotting or committing at least one offense
in favour of an extremist group is hereby punished.
Russia is on the verge of violating the right to freedom of expression. Its recent block of 4500
websites on the basis of alleged extremist affiliation is considered by some as an overreach of
existing legislation. Some critics say that the new law allows for the government to stifle
opposition. It has also been accused of carrying out cyber-attacks on the people of eastern
European nations.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
July 2014
Dabiq released
June 17 2014
Charleston Church Shooting
August 19 3014
Video released of James Foley’s beheading
February 2015
November
2015
June 12 2016
July 1 2016
July 14 2016
13
London girls leave to join ISIS fight
Attacks in Paris
Orlando Shooting
Dhaka café attack
Nice attacks
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events
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
Threats to international peace and security (Security Council Summit 2005), 14 December
2005 (S/RES/1624)

United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, 21 December 2010
(A.Res.65/230)

Prevention and suppression of Daesh terrorist attacks 20 November 2015 (S/RES/2249)

Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts, 20 December 2010
(S/RES/1963)

Geneva Conference on Preventing Violent Extremism, 1-8 April 2016

14th April 2016 Security Council Meeting (SC/12320)

Security Council Resolution 2170 on the Abuse of Human Rights by Extremist groups.

32nd Session of the Human Rights Council, 13th June- 8 July 2016, which targeted the
freedom of online speech
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
Popular social media outlets have rallied together to solve the issue of online extremism. Twitter,
for example, shut down 125.000 Islamic State accounts in February 2016 alone. On the basis of
removing the threat from the internet and contributing to a more secure global sphere, it has been
controlling spam messages with extremist tinges and shutting down affiliated accounts. Facebook
has tried to follow this course but has ran into trouble when taking resolute action, given that once
they take down either a post or a comment users have the opportunity to demand said content be
re-established and are usually successful at getting their publications back up. In the recent Turkey
and Nice attacks, both social outlets have censored material that has been filtered and could
enhance paranoia and fear. Both have mechanisms in place that allow for a report on a comment
or account that could be potentially harmful or of extreme tendencies, which pose a threat to the
community as a whole.
The Counter Extremism Project (CEP) has opened up several pathways that target extremism
online. They have 4 distinct programs that help curb the presence of extremist ideologies on the
internet. Their global research strategy is the means by which they construct worldwide databases
based on research conducted through surveys in multiple countries. The counter narrative
program aims at disrupting and countering extremist narratives online, such as extremist
WebPages or online magazines. This program is complemented by their digital disruption
campaign which targets profiles of extremist fighters on social media, exposing and reporting
them. Finally their “Eye on Extremism” campaign provides a daily update of extremist news in both
Arabic and English.
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The UNODC has also strengthened its measures to combat online extremism. It has aided Jordan
in its efforts to combat the misuse of the internet for extremist purposes, providing training for the
practical aspects of the internet being misused. A conference was also organized where the issue
of religious extremism was particularly addressed; reaching the conclusion that religion is not the
problem but the solution. People are thus educated in what their religion really states, turning them
away from extremes and creating a more neutral common ground.
The council of Europe has created and endorsed the only legally binding covenant regarding
cybercrime and the misuse of the internet. It establishes legal minimums for cybercrime and
criminalizes several actions on the internet that are commonly used by extremist groups such as
“illicit tampering with computer systems, programs or data; computer-related fraud and forgery;
and attempting, aiding or abetting the commission of such acts.”18
Possible Solutions
Social media companies should be contacted to help curb the amount of exposure extremist
propaganda has online. It should be noted that the extremist discourse is one that fosters not only
advocates for that cause but creates counter-ideology extremism, as well as inciting a great level
of fear in the population. Social media companies such as YouTube are incited to filter the results
that a search for extremism, or associated key words, yield (see appendix I). Of course, a measure
of what they are doing should be available for viewing, given that ignorance is as harmful as
overexposure, but there is no need for explicit videos, as they increase levels of propaganda and
fear.
Furthermore, an organization could be set up to deal with illegal financing of extremist groups by
thoroughly investigating all charities, web sites and online payment accounts. Surveillance could
be heightened and all transactions closely examined to uncover their final destination, and should
a misuse be found the charity or whatever front should be immediately suspended. This
organization could also monitor all extremist websites so as to be as informed as possible and not
have the world taken by surprise. A closer examination could also result in a way to predict any
actions taken by terrorist groups, or put people on a list of suspected extremists (those who
frequent the sites or read the magazines frequently).
18
UNODC report on “The use of the internet for terrorist purposes”, September 2012
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Education is key in the fight against extremism. The lack thereof regarding extremist ideologies is
what makes people so vulnerable to be tempted into the extremist group. Education should be
given to all people, not only those that are at risk of being recruited into the group (so that they
have a clearer picture of what exactly they preach regarding ideology) but also to those outside the
range of risk so as to reduce collateral damage of extremism (i.e. xenophobia). Relevant world
leaders should take a stance so that the message can be clearly distributed and has the highest
possible level of incidence upon the population.
The best way to deal with extremism online is to turn their tools for propagation of ideologies into
tools that will stop the aforementioned. The internet can be used to spread counter narratives of
ideologies. For example, in a white supremacist group that says that all black people are
undeserving of basic human rights, a site could that argues logically for equality of races could be
set up. This will provide alternative, more neutral, information to counter the extremes that
ideologies usually reach.
Bibliography
"What Is Cyber-terrorism?" What Is Cyber-terrorism? N.p., n.d. Web. 21 July 2016.
http://www.crime-research.org/library/Cyber-terrorism.htm
"Cyber Security Primer." What Is Cyber Security? N.p., n.d. Web. 21 July 2016.
http://www.umuc.edu/cybersecurity/about/cybersecurity-basics.cfm
"MUNISH."
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http://www.munish.nl/pages/downloader?code=spc104&comcode=spc1&year=2014
"Cybersecurity: A Global Issue Demanding a Global Approach | UN DESA | United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 21 July 2016
http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/ecosoc/cybersecurity-demands-globalapproach.html
FACT SHEET: The White House Summit on Countering Violent Extremism." The White
House. The White House, 18 Feb. 2015. Web. 19 July 2016.
"Russian Internet Watchdog Blocked 4,500 Websites Last Year for 'Extremism'" Russian
Internet Watchdog Blocked 4,500 Websites Last Year for 'Extremism' N.p., n.d. Web. 21 July
2016.
http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/russian-internet-watchdog-blocked-4500-websites-
last-year-for-extremism-46203
"Understanding the Real Impact of Russia's New Anti-extremism Law." Russia Direct. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 21 July 2016. http://www.russia-direct.org/opinion/understanding-real-impact-russiasnew-anti-extremism-law
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UNODC. "The Use of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes." (2012): n. pag. Web. 17 July
2016. https://publicintelligence.net/unodc-terrorist-internet/
Nuraniyah, Navhat. "Online Extremism: Challenges and Counter-Measures." (n.d.): n.
pag.Web.https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/cens/co14218-online-extremism-challenges-andcounter-measures/#.V4--Z8d_jdk
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Forum:
Issue:
Human Rights Committee
Measures to protect the human rights of street
children in urban areas
Student Officer:
Magdalena Rojas
Position:
Chair of the Human Rights Committee
Introduction
In the current era the problem of street children has become a significant and preoccupying issue
that has clouded the minds of organizations and countries alike. Although the quantity of street
children depends on culture, political, social, economic and demographic situations, due to the
increasing economic crises, war conflicts, urbanization and disparities the number of street
children has become unjustifiable and problematic. This is why the international community is
concerned with the severe conditions and colossal magnitude of infringement of basic human
rights that force children onto streets.
Although street children tend to have family links, they spend their whole lives living in abandoned
areas, under bridges or in public spaces, begging in the streets trying to find a source that will help
them survive. The root of the problem with street children lies in the perpetuation of their living
conditions to future generations as their setting only enables them to perpetuate their situation.
Street children who live in harsh environments tend to be uneducated and thus, incapable of
finding decent jobs and therefore end up in the informal sector or black market of the economy, or
worse, fall onto the temptation of stealing.
This problem has become a central issue that presents itself to authorities of different countries,
organizations and NGOs as they try to make the world a more hospitable area for the whole of
humanity. This is why actions have to be taken and a course of arrangements has to be proposed
and completed in order to start reducing the amount of street children in the planet and decreasing
the probability of children entering this harsh and atrocious context.
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Definition of Key Terms
Human rights
“Human Rights are inherent to all human beings, whatever nationality, and place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. We
are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all
interrelated, interdependent and indivisible.
Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed by law, in the forms of treaties,
customary international law, general principles and other sources of international law.
International human rights law lays down obligations of Governments to act in certain ways
or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and
fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.” (Office of the High Commisioner of Human
Rights)
Child
A child is considered a person below the majority of age, it varies when considering the
place, for example, in some countries is eighteen years and in others twenty one.
Street children
“Any girl or boy who has not reached adulthood, for whom the street (in the broadest sense
of the word, including unoccupied dwellings, wasteland, etc.) has become her or his habitual
abode and/or sources of livelihood, and who is inadequately protected, supervised or
directed by responsible adults” (United Nations International Children's Emergency )
Child labour
“Work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is
harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to work that: is mentally, physically,
socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and interferes with their schooling by:
depriving them of the opportunity to attend school; obliging them to leave school
prematurely; or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively
long and heavy work.” (International Labour Organization)
Hazardous Child Labour
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Hazardous child labour is a form of referring to the worst form of child labour, defined by the
Article 3 of ILO Convention No. 182 and refers to “labour that jeopardizes the physical,
mental or moral well-being of a child, either because of its nature or because of the
conditions in which it is carried out”. (International Labour Organization)
Urban areas
Urban areas are areas with high population density and infrastructure including residential
areas, commercial areas, bridges and railways. They are classified by their morphology as
cities, towns, suburbs, etc.
Urbanization
Urbanization is the process by which a country’s population starts living in towns and cities
involving rural to urban migration and natural increase. Urbanization causes struggles in
sustainable consumption, management of resources, waste and social equality.
Background Information
Why are children on the streets?
There are various reasons that cause children to end up in the streets which include push factors
that encourage and/or force children into the streets or pull factors that are the ones that make the
street appealing to children. The main ones are the following:
Poverty:
Considering the UN’s definition of poverty as the inability to participate in a satisfactory manner in
society, not accessing enough resources to purchase food, clothing and to receive education, it is
possible to understand why children end up in the streets. Generally, family support systems are
lacking in force and quality and thus, when enduring poverty, people may tend to leave their
descent in the streets in order to evade responsibility and be able to have more resources to feed
and clothe themselves or the rest of their families.
Abuse:
At young age and in certain societies, children are very prone to being abused by their family
members; this can lead to them believing that life in the streets is more beneficial for their
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wellbeing, security and comfort. However, this is far from the truth and they only encounter the
actual reality once they have emancipated themselves and come across child labour and
prostitution. By then they have no chances of going back to their prior life.
Abandonment:
If children are born or encounter a situation that leaves them with disabilities, chronic diseases or
incapacities, families in the lower spectrum of society incline to leave them aside instead of taking
the responsibility and cost of supporting them.
Displacement:
When countries are in conflict and people end up in the middle of a war zone families need to be
internally or internationally displaced this generally leads to higher levels of children in the streets.
Not only because their families lose their place of living, but also in some unfortunate cases they
lose their relatives in bombings or similar occurrences.
What challenges do street children phase? Which human rights are violated?
It is a reality that challenges faced by the society as a whole are enhanced on the streets,
particularly those in regards to health, access to services and violence. Street children face very
concerning issues in the day-to-day life that endangers their wellbeing and infringes human rights.
One of the challenges that can be considered the root of all the others that succeed it is the fact
that street children are sometimes not considered right holders. It is more than likely that street
children before becoming such have been subject to human rights violations. There are two main
ways in which they can be addressed but both of them forget to put the child’s interests first: the
welfare approach and the repressive approach. While the former considers street children as
victims and aims to rescue them, the latter sees street children as delinquents that can be targeted
to join gangs or delinquent groups that are driven away from society and repressed by authorities.
All in all, the greatest challenge faced by street children is being recognized and treated by society
as right holders (recognition and equality).
Restricted access to services:
Street children end up with their basic services neglected as a result of the lack of necessary
documents for health care and education. As street children do not have a residence they lack
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access to sanitation and this situation leads to the area’s fecal contamination. Moreover, these
children reside in areas with restricted access to potable water supplies so this forces them to get
water from other sources that may damage their health, or to collect it from illegal sources. The
congested and unsanitary conditions street children are living is a preoccupying situation as these
high-risk areas are the birth place of epidemics and endemics outbreaks.
Lack of physical and mental health
The problems regarding physical health of street children has to do with the fact that they do not
have continuous access to a stable health care system and they are left unsheltered to every
situation that can happen. Also, the probability of HIV Aids and other sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs) increases significantly in this sector of society. Moreover, in regards to their mental health,
these children while growing up and due to their living conditions suffer from high levels of
depression and distress that undeniably leads to their susceptibility to disproportionately high rates
of substance abuse including legal and illegal drugs and alcohol. This can be considered a
mechanism of defense in order to deal with their issues and coping with their situations. This
explains why street children have very high rates of suicide.
Malnutrition:
Malnutrition, the lack of food ingestion, is one of the most common conditions that street children
suffer from. Considering the poor health street children are prone to, malnutrition is one of the
collateral situations that happen to arise and also, hunger shows how the social protection systems
fail to help all sectors of society. Malnutrition drives children to become affected with diseases and
illnesses easily. With malnutrition, children have increased chances of having lower IQ levels,
blindness and prompt deaths.
Lack of education:
As mentioned previously, street children do not have easy access to primary educational
institutions and even less opportunities to study at a secondary or tertiary level. Although in some
nations programmes to help alleviate this situation are put into place, they are not efficient enough
and children end up being unable to attend school. Problems in regard to education are not minor
in any sense; illiterate people have a hard time fitting in a society, principally in the working
industry. Education is a basic human right that gives all children the opportunity to develop their
whole potential, and as street children are deprived from it, they often end up developing conducts
that interfere with their personal wellbeing and the safety of society as a whole.
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Recruitment:
As they are vulnerable, exposed and defenceless, young girls and boys are recruited by rebel
groups or armed forces to serve as combatants. Child soldiers are generally ones who have not
had access to education and who are not aware of the dangers and hazards that being in that
situation signifies. This is why they might volunteer to be engaged in such situations, unaware of
the abuses and exploitation that they will suffer later on. Other characteristics that make street
children more susceptible to recruitment is that they live in war zones or conflict areas, and do not
have a close relationship with their families.
Trafficking:
Human trafficking refers to the recruitment of people by threats abduction, deception and abuse of
power for the purpose of exploitation, such as prostitution, forced labor, slavery or organ removal.
Street children are a sector of society that is very prone to being subject to trafficking as they do
not have legal papers and documents and are generally abandoned and have no family
connection or support. Getting street children for trafficking from the sidewalks and crosswalks can
lead to loss of identity and escape and this situation makes it very difficult for the government to
offer protection.
Violence and abuse
Street children are exposed to situations of high risk of violence that are rarely investigated.
Violence that includes altercations between gangs, sexual violence, authority clashes, killings,
rape, shootings, whippings and armed combat. All these forms of violence add up to the
psychological distress and traumas that they most likely already have.
Child labour19
Child labour can be considered the consequence of all the other situations street children need to
endure. One of the clearest instances that drive into this is poverty: impoverished families count on
the income that children bring in to survive. Children end up working in unsafe and manipulative
environments that uncover the risks of child labour in its worst forms, including forced work, illicit
activities, armed combat and sex slavery. However, poverty is not the only driver to child labor as
poverty alone cannot justify all forms of employment that children engage in. Education, or lack
thereof, is a factor that also motivates children into early work. Sometimes education is not
affordable for all and when it is, its quality is both inadequate and poor. In such cases, children
19
See appendix for distribution of child workers
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engage in labour activities as they much rather be working in atrocious situations than learning
irrelevant things. Family pressure is another factor that may lead children into work, as if
traditionally engaging in work early is considered effective and is encouraged children will start
working at an early stage of their lives. In some cases, there is a higher demand for child labour
than for adult workers as they bring benefits for the employer. These are lower salaries or wages,
no need for the preservation of working rights, easily unessential and can be dismissed whenever
convenient with no special payment whatsoever.
All of these situations add up to the conclusion that in regards to child labour, the policies that
address this problematic are poor and legislation to safeguard street children are inadequate.
Unless suitable and sufficient legal mechanisms are put into place child labour will still continue to
be practiced.
There are different forms of child labour, the worst being hazardous child labour that includes
slavery, prostitution, usage of children for illicit activities and work whose nature will harm the child
in any way. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has stated that the eradication of these
forms should be prioritized (3rd Article of the ILO Convention No. 182).
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
The presented issue is a continuing and underlying problem in nearly all nations worldwide and
thus, no specific country will be addressed solely. Each and every country that is affected by
poverty, inequality, disparities and social abuse possesses troubles in regards to this problematic.
This section will be devoted to the specification of organizations, entities and UN bodies that have
a say in this cause and have been actively involved in the issue throughout the recent past.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
Since the early 1980’s UNICEF has become the main promoter of children’s rights and defender of
this sector of the society by declaring the “Rights of the Child” as international law. The fund and
the affiliated NGOs try to involve all citizens in accurate and necessary treatment towards children,
offering technological assistance, care and different types of aid. The role of UNICEF in trying to
make children a top priority includes the provision of services to help this sector of society develop
in the international community.
Human Rights Watch
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Human Rights Watch is an independent and international NGO whose aim is the protection of
human rights of people all around the globe. When incapable of preventing infringements, it
investigates exploitations and exposes facts and evidences with the aim of securing justice and
integrity. HRW is known for its advocacy towards upholding human dignity and its effective inputs
through its partnership with local humanitarian groups.
International Labour Organization
The International Labour Organization (ILO) works to promote and safeguard work rights by the
consolidation of employer-employee dialogue, employment opportunities, and social protection. Its
structure enables all sectors of labour to be involved and thus ensures that all points of view are
considered and taken into account. This is reflected in their conventions and reports on several
issues including street children and child labour. The organization has created a 2016 goal of
eradicating all the worst forms of child labour (hazardous child labour).20 Also, the ILO is
responsible for the creation of the “International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour
(IPEC)”, a very important and relevant programme that continues to presents its efforts to eliminate
such problematic and demanding issue.
The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
The OHCHR is in line with the UN and the Human Rights Council (HRC) human rights
mechanisms, treaties and ideologies. It monitors the fulfillment of universal ratifications and
implementations of human rights treaties and laws by consolidating human rights all across the
world. This UN related entity represents universal ideals and commitment to human rights and
human dignity as it leads world efforts to speak objectively about human right violations. Their
input is fundamental for presenting a resistance to the human right challenges that present
themselves in society and its commitment to education, research, and instruction is needed to
advocate towards the compliance of these needed rights. The OHCHR gives governments and
entities assistance in regards to expertise and training in different areas of need such as
administration of justice and process to implement international human rights standards, amongst
others.
Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
The Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is an OHCHR body that is composed of a number
of experts that monitor the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its
protocols.
20
Specified in Relevant UN Treaties and Events and included in the Appendix.
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Street Invest
Street Invest is a nonprofit NGO that supports private investments in children in order to ensure
that all their rights, needs and potential can be satisfied. They have been active participants in this
cause through humanitarian investment to secure street children and allow them to have a fulfilling
future. They do this by assigning one adult to a street child in need and providing this person with
the necessary resources to make the child’s life better.
Consortium for Street Children (CSC)
The Consortium for Street Children is an international network that gives voice to street children
worldwide by focusing on advocacy, research and development in order to promote children’s
rights and improve their rights.
Not only are there non-profit and NGOs involved in the quest to solve this issue but also
recognized international corporations have had a really important participation in the cause. One
example of this is the “The Street Children’s Day”, a day that provides a platform for the millions of
street children worldwide to speak out and fight for their rights to be respected. Partners of this
instance include famous insurance corporations, banks, airlines and retailers.
Timeline of Events
Date
December 1948
June 1973
November 1989
June 1999
May 2002
Description of Event
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
ILO’s Minimum Age for Employment Convention
Convention on the Rights of the Child
ILO’s Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Optional Protocols to the Convention on the Rights of the Child
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

December 1948, Universal Declarations of Human Rights (A/RES/217)

June 1973, ILO Minimum Age for Employment Convention (N° 138)

November 1989, Convention on the Rights of the Child (A/RES/44/45)

December 1992 and 1994, GA Resolution on the Plight of Street Children (A/RES/47/126) and
(A/RES/49/212)

June 1999, ILO’s Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (N° 182)
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
March 2008, HRC Resolution: Rights of the child (A/HRC/RES/7/29)

March 2010, HRC Resolution: Rights of the child: the fight against sexual violence against
children (A/HRC/RES/13/200)

March 2011, HRC Resolution: Rights of the child: a holistic approach to the protection and
promotion of the rights of children working and/or living on the street (A/HRC/RES/16/12)

April 2012, HRC Resolution: Rights of the Child (A/HRC/RES/19/37)

July 2012, HRC Resolution: Trafficking in persons, especially women and children: access to
effective remedies for trafficked persons and their right to an effective remedy for human rights
violations (A/HRC/20/L.1)

March 2013, HRC Resolution: Rights of the child: the right of the child to the enjoyment of the
highest attainable standard of health (A/HRC/22/L.27/Rev.1)

March 2014, HRC Resolution: Rights of the child: access to justice for children
(A/HRC/25/L.10)

March 2015, HRC Resolution: Rights of the child: towards better investment in the rights of the
child

(A/HRC/28/L.28)
June 2016, HRC Resolution: Trafficking in persons, especially women and children: protecting
victims of trafficking and people at risk of trafficking, especially women and children in conflict
and post-conflict situations (A/HRC/32/L.6)

2016, ILO’s goal of eradicating the worst forms of child labour by this year
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
In line with all the resolutions and UN treaties and events presented above, action to alleviate and
eradicate the problem at hand has been taken. Although the efforts were taken and the UN and
NGOs have tried to tackle the issue, the actual effect and influence of what seems to be efficient
theoretically is not so effective practically, as the problems in regards to street children have not
ceased to exist.
Since the creation of the UN, frameworks, protocols and outlines that define courses of action
towards the quest for human rights have been set, including the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Moreover, NGOs, mainly the
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aforementioned, have played a crucial role by coordinating and aligning their efforts towards the
cause and implementing measures that coexist between each other. These organizations
implement what the UN’s resolutions state, as they are prepared with institutional strategies, legal
instruments, plans and strategies to prevent children from ending on the streets or to try to
ameliorate the living conditions of those who are on the street. UNICEF, CRC, ILO, CSC and
others have worked together with different governments to devise strategies and action plans
aimed at limiting the number of street children, protecting said children and promoting their rights.
The issue of street children has gained importance in recent times and this is why the conjoint
efforts of the international community are directed towards this cause.
However, the success of all these shared efforts was not what was expected. The number of street
children is still rising, their human rights are still being violated and children are still enduring
different challenges that they should not be subject of. The solution is to be sought in a strategic,
comprehensive and coordinated manner and thus contributing to the further enhance the
effectiveness of past actions together with new ideas and programmes to tackle the issue.
Possible Solutions
As specified by the UN Human Rights Commissioner, there is no exact data in regards to the
amount of children in the streets worldwide, so a first step to the improvement of the situation is
the finding and systematizing of accurate information that would bring a numerical standpoint for
action to be taken. In order for this to take place, States should ensure that birth registration is
available for children in a free and accessible manner.
It is necessary to ensure that nations enforce the Universal Declarations of Human Rights and that
they also ratify and abide by the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its protocols so that an
international consensus is achieved and can act as a base for future and further efforts to tackle
the issue. Said measure should ensure that disruptions and transgressions cease to exist in order
to safeguard children’s rights and their general wellbeing.
In order to come up with solutions that tackle the issue in a holistic manner, the recognition of the
causes of why children end up in the streets is crucial in order to target each and every one of
those conductive to the prevention of the phenomenon. Coordinated plans of action in order to
share information in between national and international entities and authorities is vital, so as to
develop common mechanisms and synchronized methods to collect, assemble and transfer
information in regards to street children.
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When children are in the streets, they suffer from different types and kinds of violence, so it is
necessary to introduce and inflict endorsements and sanctions against all perpetuators of violence
and abuses. Moreover, assistance should be offered to children that have already suffered any
type of exploitation through counselling and reporting mechanisms. It could be very beneficial for
society as a whole to offer a commitment towards the fulfilment of human rights after childhood too
if the effects of these abuses were not addressed by the age of eighteen, even though legal
obligations specific to children might be inapplicable. All of these new efforts could but not
necessarily be funded by partnerships between both governmental agencies and NGOs.
Spaces to offer street children sustainable atmospheres for their wellbeing should be created and
encouraged. Although in some places these ‘homes’ exist, the quantity needed is much greater
than the one provided. Governments, NGOs and pertinent entities should join efforts to make
these spaces a reality for street children.
For all these initiatives to be taken into consideration and to prosper, it is necessary to agree on
the fact that these changes are structural and thus a certain period of time is needed before
achieving the intended results. However, in this issue, as in life, patience is key.
Bibliography
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13th, 2016, from About US: http://www.streetchildrenresources.org/
Convention on the Rights of the Child. (n.d.). Guiding principles: general requirements for
all rights. Retrieved on July 13th, 2016, from Convention on the Rights of the Child:
http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Guiding_Principles.pdf
Human Rights Watch. (n.d.). Children's Rights. Retrieved on July 13th, 2016, from Human
Rights Development: https://www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k/Crd.htm
Human Rights Watch. (n.d.). Rights of Children to Protection from Abuse, including
children in custody, or otherwise deprived of their liberty. Retrieved on July 13th, 2016, from
Human Rights Watch Overview: https://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/drc0406/7.htm
International Labour Organization. (n.d.). International Programme on the Elimination of
Child Labour (IPEC) . Retrieved on July 13th, 2016, from International Labour Organization:
http://www.ilo.org/ipec/lang--en/index.htm
International Labour Organization. (n.d.). What is child labour. Retrieved on July 13th,
2016, from International Labour Organization: http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/index.htm
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Maravi. (March 26th, 2007). Finding a solution to the problem of street children. Retrieved
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OHCHR. (n.d.). Protection and promotion of the rights of children working and/or living on
the street. Retrieved on July 13th, 2016, from Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights:
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Street Invest. (n.d.). Investing in children on the street. Retrieved on July 13th, 2016, from
Street Invest: http://www.streetinvest.org/about-us
UNICEF. (2012). Children's rights in urban settings. Retrieved on July 13th, 2016, from de
The State of the World's Children: http://www.unicef.org/sowc2012/pdfs/SOWC-2012-Chapter-2Childrens-rights-in-urban-settings.pdf
UNICEF. (March 22nd, 2011). Child recruitment by armed forces or armed groups.
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Appendix or Appendices
I.
Distribution of child workers
II.
The following link will redirect you to the ILO webpage, specifically to the “The ILO’s Global Action
Plan to Eliminate Child Labour”. In it, the page offers the possibility of downloading two documents
that are relevant and pertinent to the issue (Global Action Plan and technical cooperation priorities”
and “The end of child labour: Within reach”)
http://www.ilo.org/ipec/programme/WCMS_113276/lang--en/index.htm
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Forum:
Human Rights Committee
Issue:
The right to privacy in the digital age
Student Officer: William Goedbloed
Position:
Deputy Chair of the Human Rights Committee
Introduction
In this current day and age, technological developments and innovations have brought a change to
everyday life given the noticeable impact they have upon us as members of society. This “digital
age” we find ourselves in is seemingly becoming more open and complex, putting the fundamental
right to privacy under scrutiny. Social media platforms including Facebook and Twitter are just
some of the examples whereby millions of people are able to interact with one another by posting
messages, photos, discussing important topics, etc. It brings to light the fact that nowadays, there
is simply little if not no limit to what we wish to do online, as technology in effect has digitalized us
and made this possible.
Nevertheless, we as human beings realise the importance of privacy as a form of personal
secrecy. Whilst we enjoy our rights and freedom by communicating, discussing, posting and
sharing different things in the internet, the will keep certain information to oneself is still latent.
Personal data, passwords and bank details are the main topics that jump to mind. However, there
is a wider range of equally important things that today exist not only in the form of a hard copy but
also digitally. It must not be forgotten that in many places around the world, government officials,
special forces and other members of an equal level within society have the right to access basic
information about citizens within a country. Different laws and regulations ensure that personal
information remains private at nearly all costs.
Overall, the various components which make up this issue are particularly important given the
importance they hold in our daily lives. A key debate lies among the topics of legitimacy, human
rights and technology as a revolutionising platform. Continued efforts attempt to solve the conflict
that lies in the right to privacy in an ever-changing world where technological developments are at
the forefoot of society.
Definition of Key Terms
Human rights:
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“Human Rights are inherent to all human beings, whatever nationality, place of residence,
sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. We are all
equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all interrelated,
interdependent and indivisible. Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed
by law, in the forms of treaties, customary international law, general principles and other
sources of international law. International human rights law lays down obligations of
Governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and
protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.” (Office of the High
Commisioner of Human Rights, Human Rights)
Privacy:
Privacy consists on the presumption that members of society each have an area whereby
development and interaction are at liberty in an autonomous environment. Although this
private area may or may not involve the participation of others, it is considered free of any
intervention. It is said that the right to privacy means that individuals have the ability to
decide who has access to and in what way their own information is used.
Digital age:
“The present time, when most information is in a digital form, especially when compared to
the time when computers were not used” (Press)
Technology:
Technology is made up various components including technique, skills and methods in the
production of technological equipment as goods or services or as a means of achieving a
scientific objective. It is considered to be not only as the knowledge of these multiple
components but also as something embedded in devices, equipment, computers or other
hardware.
Security:
Security generally considers the circumstance one is in, whether a secure, safe position
from harm, or a risky and dangerous one. It may be a measure taken to ensure people feel
safe or are at peace, not under threat in any shape or form. It can often infer a sentiment of
confidence, as in a secure environment there is no sense of fear or anxiety.
Data collection:
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Data collection is a process involving the measuring and gathering of information of specific
components in a systematic manner. This method then allows for an evaluative conclusion.
Data protection:
Data protection consists of a process which aims to protect information from being lost in
any form. It may involve various procedures that help reinforce the level of protection and
prevent access to information by third party members.
Legitimacy:
Legitimacy comes from the word legitimate. This suggests authenticity, validity or in
accordance with a rational conclusion arrived to by logic. Something is many times
considered legitimate if it is justified by law. Legitimacy therefore is a noun shaped by the
form of being legitimate.
Communication:
Communication involves conveying information through the use of speech (language),
symbols or any understood form to another person, group or entity through which this
information is then received. Whilst the process and medium through which communication
takes place may vary, the basic idea involving a transfer of information from one party to
another remains the same.
Sovereignty:
A state in which full right and power is given to the governing body; there should be no
outside interference. Being sovereign involves having supreme authority and freedom to
control or govern a specific territory.
Background Information
Digitalization
An important part of globalization lies in the technological breakthroughs and innovations that have
taken place. It should not go unnoticed that in the last 20 years, global markets and technology
companies have seen an exponential increase in the number of households that now possess at
least 3 different devices. Whilst many statistical reports exist to support the strong correlation
between globalization and digitalization, it is physically impossible to have not noticed the changes
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that have taken place which currently play an important role in shaping our lifestyle. It must be
mentioned that the significance wealth holds upon this change is undeniable, given the amount of
money that is currently generated through the sales, production, manufacturing and advertising of
the numerous technological gadgets which nowadays exist. Given the timeline of events over the
past 20 years, including the economic crisis of 2009, the reality is that our world has evidently
become an electronic hub whereby the impact of social networks and telecommunication centres
has allowed us to stay connected as a global society, constantly in contact with one another.
Social norms such as wishing someone happy birthday through a card or sending a relative a letter
have been overshadowed by the ability and facility a phone or computer signify. Whilst these
traditions still take place all over the world, the impact of the expanding digital environment means
that it has ultimately become rather strange not to send a happy birthday message to someone
which you cannot physically see, as possible on Facebook.
Technology as a tool for secrecy
Notwithstanding its negative aspects, technology can hold a high value if it allows us to protect
what matters most. Email accounts block and protect important information and messages from
other people. This particular example is relevant in our current day and age, given the recent
controversy surrounding Hillary Clinton. It was found in March 2015 that Hillary used a private
email server to process official communications, including thousands of emails which were later
deemed to be classified by the State Department. Given that this is such a high profile situation, it
is difficult to consider whether information distributed is in fact reliable. In spite of this, the event
still holds relevance to the issue at hand. Above all, the use of a private messaging system was
particularly ironic, taking into account the position such a high profile figure holds within the United
States of America. Significantly, it also brings into question the overall level of privacy citizens
have in the United States, as many questioned the legitimacy of surveillance networks. Although
emails were found to have been “top secret” and many of her actions had come into doubt
regarding the protocols and procedures of the State Department, Hillary was not charged. Whilst
this example highlights the importance of a vigilant set of privacy rights which ensure people that
within this digital age are able to keep information secret, it once again shows the distinction
between something as such (concerning issues of national significance) and something which is of
no interest to parties other than he/she who owns the information.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
As part of dealing with global issues, the key lies in ensuring support is provided not only by the
countries who are considered most important within the issue, but also the expertise, knowledge
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and aid from other places who wish to work together with other member states to solve the
problem. Many leading countries and important organizations mentioned are those who have
seemed to play a key role in, or hold a valuable position, in relation to the stated issue.
United States of America (USA)
As one of the world’s leading global forces, the United States of America is home to an enormous
network of information that is consistently being shared among its 324 million inhabitants. Statistics
show that in fact 88.5% of the total population uses the internet. This figure does little justice
however to the even greater amount of communication networks which exist in the United States
of America. Companies such as Verizon, Facebook, Apple, Twitter and Microsoft all originate from
the USA and therefore make it one of the largest information networks in the world. As a result, the
importance of privacy and ownership lies high, not only in the interest of the public but also of the
more important figures who are in charge of managing different projects, programmes, call
centres, information networks and others. In light of this, the United States of America does
recognize that with “transparent laws” including “effective and meaningful oversight” electronic
surveillance methods are not abused and instead enhance privacy and civil liberties for all.
Council of Europe (COE)
The Council of Europe maintains a valuable opinion on the issue given the responsibility it holds
on behalf of its 47 member states. It therefore stands as one of the most important international
organizations and its contribution as an international entity to universal issues is essential in order
to provide an equal and fair opinion representing all nations. Within Article 1 of the European
Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), evidence underlines that the sovereignty of “private and
family life, home and correspondence” shall be respected as part of the rights and freedoms “set
out therein”. A clear distinction is also made between the form of security states should provide as
they comply with the European Court of Human Rights which they can be held to account under.
Not only should there be no “interference with the individual’s rights” but efforts must be made to
enhance security and protection of individuals from third parties. In mentioning such an
organization, the question of accountability comes into perspective and it is thus essential that all
states comply with and follow the European Convention on Human Rights.
United Kingdom
A country that currently still sits in a strong position among the world’s leading forces, the United
Kingdom reaffirms the importance of secret intelligence as a measure to “protect our rights and
freedoms and to promote human rights”. In the secret intelligence service (MI6), the United
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Kingdom has one of the world’s most important surveillance organizations as it aims to gather
information and use secret intelligence. The UK states that this should be carried out in an
“appropriate and non-arbitrary manner, with legitimate purpose”, such that it falls in accordance
with the rule of law. Albeit a controversial topic that often causes public debate, the UK believes
that it is necessary to find the right balance between public accountability and the protection of
national security.
Internet Society
As a global organization which supports the independent rights of Internet users, the Internet
Society holds an important position in regard to the issue at hand. Privacy as an issue not only
within the digital age is a controversial issue given the discussion which often takes place around
what we as citizens consider to be public information and private. The Internet Society asks the
global community to “confine the ambit of data collection” to those “exceptional” instances where in
the interest of the public, national security purposes “outweigh an individual’s right to privacy”.
Singapore
Singapore as one of the few only (Southern) Asian countries mentioned has a considerable albeit
polemical stance on this issue. Note No. 049/14 (Singapore) demonstrates Singapore’s efforts in
regard to the issue whereby all “information and communications service providers” are legally
required to ensure “strict confidentiality of the information they retain”, as they certify the “respect
for and protection of the right to privacy”. It is also underlines that, where risks lie within national
security which warrant surveillance, legal framework in the form of “proper safeguards” and
“external oversight mechanisms” are set in place to account for those who infringe the rights of
individuals and pose a threat to national security. In contrast, the report “The Right to Privacy in
Singapore” (International) submitted by Privacy International contains information which regards
Singapore’s surveillance infrastructure as “unknown”. Furthermore, it brings to attention a concern
in Singapore’s ability to comply with “applicable international human rights standards”, as
surveillance infrastructure entails methods such as: internet monitoring, CCTV, drones, access to
communications data, obligatory SIM card registration and others. Evidence as such leads many
to question the legitimacy of Singapore’s position on this issue.
Japan
Japan’s internet penetration rate of 91.1% speaks volumes of the country’s link to this issue. Japan
as a global leader in technological companies is evidently a country which by nature is engulfed in
a large database of information, including that of its residents. Therefore, the country uses the Act
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on Protection of Personal Information as part of its efforts to ensure respect for and protection of
the right to privacy, including in the context of digital communication.
Norway
Norway as the number one country on the Human Development Index is a significant country
within all issues mainly due to the frequently made assumptions. Many believe that, given the
positive status and situation in such a country, there is less concern or attention given to those
issues which are discussed. In spite of this, Norway insists that the different methods of
surveillance which are used to gather information become subject to particular security
requirements in order to protect the “integrity and quality of the data”. Significant and sophisticated
regulations ensure that interception may take place during the investigation of a crime that leads to
imprisonment of 10 years or more. Other forms of surveillance such as control of communication
may be put in place if the penalty is 5 years or more. Furthermore, Norway clearly states that these
forms of surveillance will only be permitted if the situation at hand “will be of substantial
significance for the clarification of the case”.
Canada
As one of the key G8 (G7 after Russia’s suspension) nations, Canada has a stronghold of
measures in relation to the issue concerning the right to privacy in the digital age. Not only does it
possess essential laws and policies “pertaining to electronic surveillance” which encourage respect
for an individual’s privacy, safety and security but it also uses “independent and effective
mechanisms to ensure Canadian national security organizations conduct their activities in
accordance with their legal mandates” which are accompanied by “ministerial direction and judicial
oversight”: accountability and legitimacy are in this example particularly relevant given the
importance of ensuring democracy and justice is done to the rights and privacy of individuals.
Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) states that any
interference with privacy considered to be “arbitrary or unlawful” is prohibited. Canada stands as a
State party to the ICCPR.
Timeline of Events
Date
10th December 1948
4th November 1952
6th October 1978
Description of Event
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
National Security Agency (NSA) established
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) signed into American law
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January 2009
March 2012
September 2014
United Kingdom adopts plan to allow police access to individuals’ computer
without a warrant
European Union develops The Data Protection Regulation
Report on the right to privacy in the digital age presented by the OHCHR to
the Human Rights Council
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events
Only in recent years has this issue become of real significance, given that the OHCHR presented
the report on the right to privacy in the digital age in September 2014. Prior to this, efforts had
been made in an attempt to resolve the issue. However, in such an unpredictable and
unforeseeable future, particularly in an issue involving the constant development of technology
which in turn affects information and communication, it is difficult to find solutions. Listed below are
the relevant resolutions, treaties and events in regard to this issue:

December 1948, Universal Declarations of Human Rights (A/RES/217)

28th December 2009, General Assembly Report of the Special Rapporteur on the
promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering
terrorism (A/HRC/13/37)

2011 – UNESCO Freedom of Connection Freedom of Expression: The Changing Legal
and Regulatory Ecology Shaping the Internet

2012 – UNESCO Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression

17th April 2013, General Assembly Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion
and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/23/40)

November 2013, General Assembly Resolution on The right to privacy in the digital age
(A/C.3/68/L.45)
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
In regards to the aforementioned UN resolutions, events and treaties, measures to ensure the right
to privacy in the digital age have been taken and in many aspects, the issue has become severely
less influential upon today’s society. Nevertheless, such a precarious issue must still be tackled in
a sophisticated and specific manner in order to ensure all areas of such an intricate and complex
issue are dealt with in the correct way, respecting the rights of those within the community.
Previously, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has turned its attention to the issue as it took
the initiative to want to control various social media platforms as a method of tracking and
identifying threats. It suggested creating a new application to monitor Twitter or Facebook (as
examples). However, with such a proposal comes the risk of a backlash, whereby law
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enforcements and other officials consider such a measure to be a compromise in the right of
freedom of speech.
Furthermore, such an example brings to light the issue of distinction. Many previous attempts have
as a matter of fact been aimed at drawing the line between what information or evidence can be
considered as a threat to national security and what we as citizens consider important, and
ultimately, the right to privacy. It must therefore be recognized that this issue’s difficulty lies in
being able to determine and distinguish between one of the most essential areas: the true
definition of the issue at hand.
Another important factor to this discussion must also be remembered in that, such a highly secure
issue involving the publicity of information by governments, federal agents or other significant
officials will provide little evidence on how to deal with the privacy of individuals: any real steps
taken may be confidential and a leak may have considerable consequences for the security and
sovereignty of a country.
Possible Solutions
A viable solution to this issue exists within the differentiation of the two significant areas already
mentioned. An organized and well-structured approach to solving this issue consists of being able
to define that which is at the heart thereof. Therefore, Member States and organizations should
attempt to and agree on a specific and commonly understood distinction between a citizen’s right
to privacy and the boundaries of mass surveillance in regard to an individual’s right to privacy.
Whilst this may ease the polemic situation as it aims to reduce the discussion concerning security
of others over the privacy and rights of an individual, human rights activists hold a key position in
the argument. It ought to be suggested that maintaining effective and professional communication
between those who stand in favor of human rights and those in charge of the law (government
officials, politicians, etc.) is another possible solution.
Although governments all over the world hold legislative power in their ability to change laws or
provide legal framework, the extent and manner in which this is done should be legitimate, such
that the rights of those under which changes take place are equally and legally respected.
Regulations and measures regarding control over the degree to which someone’s privacy lasts
and where it becomes a matter of interest to those who sit behind surveillance networks are an
ideal solution as they ensure complete legitimacy between the two parties involved. Strictly
speaking, a surveillance network that is highly transparent will show no interest in the matters of an
individual if there is no concrete reason to do so.
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However, the question lies in ensuring individuals are not labelling something as private whilst as a
matter of fact it is of high importance to officials. Member States may increase accountability
through passing laws on the vigilance of telecommunication networks. Without perpetrating
innocent citizens, companies may seek to strike legal agreements to those buying products. Albeit
perhaps complicated and socially disruptive, this ensures that those are found to be wrong are
brought to justice and avoids the need to monitor mobile phone networks.
On a global scale, organizations operating in multiple continents may encourage cooperation
between Member States. As the challenge lies in sustaining a country’s sovereignty, a universal
understanding of the risks and dangers that online threats hold to a nation is essential. Moreover,
diplomatic relations should not be put at risk: raising awareness on the importance of
communication will encourage governments to hold an equal perspective on an issue that can
largely be considered a global problem.
A frequent suggestion considers abolishing laws that infringe upon the rights of individuals,
specifically the right to privacy. Whilst citizens as members of a national community defend their
rights and freedoms, it is undoubtedly Governments as sources of power which hold the ability to
prosecute those who neglect and abuse law regulations. A possible solution might suggest an
increase in accountability.
Bibliography
Group, Miniwatts Marketing. Internet World Stats. 2016 February 17. 2016 July 24.
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm#links
Nations, United. United Nations General Assembly. n.d. 18 July 2016.
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session23/A.HRC.23.40_E
N.pdf
Office of the High Commisioner of Human Rights. Human Rights. n.d. 13 July 2016.
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session23/A.HRC.23.40_E
N.pdf
Press, Cambridge University. Cambridge Dictionary. 2016. 18 July 2016.
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/diccionario/ingles/digital-age
Project, Real Time Statistics. Internet Live Stats. n.d. 25 July 2016.
http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users-by-country/
Singapore, The Permanent Mission of the Republic of. The Right to Privacy in the
Digital Age. n.d. 31 July 2016.
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Privacy/Singapore.pdf
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International, Privacy. The Right to Privacy in Singapore. June 2015. 31 July 2016.
https://www.privacyinternational.org/sites/default/files/Singapore_UPR_PI_submission_FINAL.pdf
United Nations Human Rights Office for the High Commissioner. (n.d.). Retrieved
August 7, 2016, from
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/DigitalAge/Pages/Contributions.aspx#states
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/DigitalAge/Pages/Contributions.aspx#states
United States response to OHCHR questionnaire on "the right to privacy in the digital age". 7
August 2016. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Privacy/United%20States.pdf
United Nations Human Rights Office for the High Commissioner. (n.d.). Retrieved August 7,
2016, from http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Privacy/COE.pdf
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Privacy/COE.pdf
Barlow, John Perry. Timeline of NSA Domestic Spying. 7 August 2016.
<https://www.eff.org/nsa-spying/timeline>. https://www.eff.org/nsa-spying/timeline
General Assembly: The right to privacy in the digital age. (n.d.). Retrieved August 7, 2016,
from Human Rights Watch:
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/UNGA_upload_0.pdf
General Assembly: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the
right to freedom of opinion and expression, Frank la Rue. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2016, from
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner:
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session23/A.HRC.23.40_E
N.pdf
Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8,
2016, from United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002182/218273e.pdf
Freedom of Connection, Freedom of Expression: The Changing Legal and Regulatory
Ecology Shaping the Internet. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2016, from United Nations Education,
Scientific and Cultural Organization:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001915/191594e.pdf
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Forum
Issue
Student Officer
Position
Human Rights Committee
Educating women and girls as a tool for
sustainable development
Magdalena Rojas & William Goedbloed
Chair and Deputy Chair of the Human Rights
Committee
Introduction
The world is currently full of disparities such as the education women receive. In an effort toward
sustainable development, women need to have the largest amount of opportunities possible, but
these opportunities are not available to them in many locations. The world’s global economy has
entered a new period combining slower growth, widening inequalities and turbulence and these
have had an impact in education. Gender gaps represent an imminent impediment to development
as they hinder the economic opportunities and access to human rights, and thus the conjoint
efforts of the global community are needed in order to tackle the situation and ameliorate women’s
condition worldwide.
The link between education and sustainable development is made through the critical condition the
world currently faces. Commonly, sustainable development refers to environmental situations,
economic struggles and social conflicts. Education is key to deal with these situations and find
solutions in a viable manner. Education is the key for development in every sense: if education is
considered as the ability to reason, the acquisition of discipline, the shaping of character or the
capability to gain spectrum of knowledge and thus the aptitude to surge deeper into the literate
skills that were imparted on a person it is easy to understand why education would undoubtedly
lead to sustainable development. According to the World Bank, nearly 50% of the world’s total
population is composed of women in 2015 and about 12% of them are illiterate. This situation
clearly hinders the probabilities of finding sustainable development solutions and thus obstructs
the world’s path into what is hoped and wanted.
There are various reasons that communities use as excuses to explain why educational
opportunities are denied to women, all of them defendable in one way or another but not in any
sense strong enough to taint the belief that education is the main contribution needed to make the
Earth a better place with more benefits for all the living. There are very few countries that can
affirm that gender gaps are not latent in their society as generally these present themselves very
visibly in educational systems. This situation hinders not only the development of women but of the
world as a whole, as productivity, effectiveness, innovation and usefulness are all tarnished. The
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only way to use education in a viable way in regards to development is to have a significant
increase in literacy rates for women worldwide conductive to cut down gender gaps and benefit
every sector of society. As UN Women affirms, “empowering women fuels thriving economies,
spurring productivity and growth.”
Definition of Key Terms
Education
Education is the acquisition of knowledgeable skills, discipline of character and the
understanding of a certain field of study that deals with specific methods and principles.
Literacy
Being literate entails the ability to read and write.
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is a type of development that fulfils the necessities of the present
generations without the depletion of natural resources and therefore, without compromising
future generations and their needs’ satisfaction. It considers economic, social and
environmental factors.
Empowerment
Empowerment are the measures done in order to increase the autonomy and selfdetermination of certain social groups to enable them to achieve their full potential and
contribute to society in the best way possible.
Gender equality
Gender equality is the condition in which women and men have the same rights,
opportunities and privileges all across the various sectors of society, considering economic
participation, decision-making, political appearance, etc.
Gender gap
A gender gap occurs when gender equality is not respected and causes a disproportionate
disparity between job, educational and salary opportunities, creating differences between
men and women.
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Background Information
Women, education and sustainable development
Until recently, women were excluded from educational systems, as they were not deemed capable
of participating in the labour market or political spectrum. In the 1800s women started being
accepted in education and began to partake central roles in the system, as teachers and students
in all the existent educational settings. In the current era, this situation is ameliorating at a fast rate
if we compare our situation to older ones, but the rate is not as fast as we would hope for. Gender
equality is a thing that the global community is rooting for and is working to achieve through the aid
of the UN, its charters, agencies, NGOs and authorities.
Gender equality is considered essential in various ways: as a goal on its own and as a vital
impulse to the acceleration of the world’s sustainable development. The root of this belief is the
idea that when addressing inequalities, policies need to be redesigned and reformed and when
this is done, women and girls can become catalytic agents of change, transformation and even
contribute revolutionary ideas. When this happens and women become equal partners of men in
the aim of promoting inclusive growth for all, development ends up being sustainable, equitable
and an endorser of equality. The participation of women can become very powerful in the sense
that cooperation may arise and surge with the purpose of engaging the world as a whole in the
eradication of poverty, the promotion of all basic human rights and the fostering of sustainable
consumption, production, management and administration.
As previously expressed, education is key for these ideals to become a reality. It gives women
equal chances as men in the field of their choosing. If education provides everyone with the
possibilities to act upon their full potential new ideas, businesses, entrepreneurships and
motivations will arise, and therefore women’s participation can attribute a significant advance in
sustainable development can be achieved. Studies from the UN, the World Bank and the IMF have
shown evidence that a focus on women within the process of developmental assistance has led to
a faster and stronger economic growth.
Reasons for disparities between men and women
Disparities in relation to gender have existed constantly throughout the past due to different
reasons. The motives of gender gaps do depend on the society and culture they rise from.
Consequently, the most common, usual and most seen causes of gender inequality are going to
be presented.
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Tradition and stereotypes
Traditions and stereotypes reflect societal choices and recurrent circumstances throughout
decades which are generally past upon to new generations by their elders. These adoptions
interfere with societal expectations, demands and mannerisms. If traditional societies place
women below men in their structure it is very difficult to change the idiosyncrasy of the
population that has been governed by those ideals for a very long time, one of the main
problems when trying to change the perspective towards women. Whilst in some cases, it is
difficult to understand how women are considered less than men in any way, some
ethnicities find that the common course of thought and therefore of action.
Culture and religion
Some civilizations place religion very highly in the cultural influential structure and
interpretations of Holy Scriptures for each religion might reflect that men are superior to
women. This is the case of many nations that position religion in a very important place,
sometimes intertwined with the political construction and assembly, so women are left
behind in relation to opportunities, instruction, education and possibilities. When countries
are ruled in this way, it is very difficult to modify their structural practices.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
UN Women
UN Women is the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. Its
aim is to meet the needs of the world’s women in general. Among other ideals, the charter works
for the elimination of discrimination, empowerment of women and drives for equality, equity and
fairness. The agency has different divisions that focus on tackling the situation of women from
different angels, such as the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), International
Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), Office of the Special
Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI) and United Nations
Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM).
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
UNESCO can be considered the intellectual agency of the UN as it strives to strengthen the ties
between nations and societies by enhancing the importance of solidarity through intercultural
understanding, scientific cooperation and the protection of free speech. It is a mobilizer for
education conductive to the understanding of intercultural dialogue in order to address economic,
social and environmental problems through holistic policies. UNESCO is a founder of the
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Education for All movement, a global commitment plan aimed at the provision of quality education
for children and young adults across the globe.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
Since the early 1980s, UNICEF has become the main promoter of children’s rights and defender of
this sector of the society by declaring the “Rights of the Child” as international law. The fund and
affiliated NGOs try to involve all citizens in the accurate and necessary treatment towards children,
offering technological assistance, care and different types of aid. The role of UNICEF in trying to
make children a top priority includes the provision of services to help this sector of society develop
in the international community.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
The UNDP is an UN charter that assists nations “to develop policies, leadership skills, partnering
abilities, institutional capabilities and build resilience in order to sustain development results.” Their
work is mainly based on the former Millennium Development Goals and the active Sustainable
Development Goals as they try to shape the world into a course of global sustainability. In regards
to gender equality, UNDP advocates for women’s rights, combating discriminatory occurrences
and the idea that “unless women and girls are able to fully realize their rights in all spheres of life,
human development will not be advanced.”
Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch is an independent and international NGO whose aim is the protection of
human rights of people all around the globe. When incapable of preventing infringements, it
investigates exploitations and exposes facts and evidences with the aim of securing justice and
integrity. HRW is known for its advocacy towards upholding human dignity and effective inputs
through partnership with local humanitarian groups.
UN Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI)
UNGEI is a group of UN-based organizations that are committed to the shortening of the gender
gap in primary and secondary education worldwide. Closely associated to Education for All,
UNGEI is determined to accelerate the progress and action in regards to women’s education. It
works together with governments and community leaders in order to influence and support policy
changes to make educational access for girls easier.
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Iceland
Iceland figures as the country with the best gender equality index with excellent literacy rates for
men and women (100%) and curiously, more women participation in tertiary school enrolment: 103
to 60. In regards to political empowerment, however, women still are below men in numbers (41 to
59 women in parliament) and incomes still are lower for women than for men ($35.755 to $40.000).
Norway
Norway is another Nordic nation that is positioned highly in gender equality, ranking number 2 in
the World Economic Forum’s classification of the issue. In relation to salaries, Norway features full
gender equality as well as in education attainment for primary, secondary and tertiary education.
Similarly to Iceland, the political participation is much bigger for males than females: 12 to 38.
United States of America
USA is positioned at mid-table, being at position 28 of 145 nations. Literacy rates are shown to be
equal between both genders as well as primary and secondary education. However, disparities are
shown in regards to labour force participation and political empowerment, in the latter the rate is 6
women to 44 men in state governors.
China
China has a score of 0.682 (with 1 being equity) and is ranked in position number 91 in the
aforementioned ranking. Literacy rates, though not excellent, are balanced between men and
women (87%). Political empowerment, economic participation and opportunities convey disparities
when the levels are high up, for example managers and senior officials with rates of 17 women to
83 men.
Yemen
Yemen is the country featuring more enhanced gender disparities. Literacy rates are 55% for
women and 85% for men; gender pay gaps show a disproportion of $4530 between men and
women in the same position. The labour force participation numbers also show deploring situations
as well as political empowerment with no women in parliament.
Pakistan
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Pakistan shows a similar situation to Yemen’s. Literacy rates are 46% and 70% for women and
men respectively, the labour force participation is 26 women to 86 men and political empowerment
has a 0.26 female to male ratio.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of Event
10th December 1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
10th June 1963
Equal Pay Act passed by Congress in the USA
1966
National Organization for Women is established
1966
United Nations Development Programme is born
1972
UN General Assembly acknowledges the year 1975 as the International Year
of Women
1992
UN Conference on Environment and Development organized in Rio-deJaneiro and adopted the Agenda 21.
2010
UN Entity for the Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women founded
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

December 1948, Universal Declarations of Human Rights (A/RES/217)

1979 – Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) adopted by the United Nations General Assembly

7th
December
1987,
General
Assembly
Resolution
International
Literacy
Year
(A/RES/42/104)

23rd December 1994, General Assembly Resolution United Nations Decade for Human
Rights (A/RES/49/184)

6 – 8th September 2000, United Nations Millennium Declaration (A/55/L.2)

20th
April
2001,
Commission
on
Human
Rights
The
Right
to
Education
(E/CN.4/RES/2001/29)
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
19th December 2001, General Assembly Resolution United Nations Literacy Decade:
Education for all (A/RES/56/116)

18th June 2008, Human Rights Council Resolution, The right to education (Resolution 8/4.)

2010 – UN Entity for the Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women founded (UN
Women)

25th September 2015 – United Nations Sustainable Development Summit adopted 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, including 17 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDG’s) to be achieved by 2030
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
In the past, the United Nations Millenium Development Goals (2000) encouraged countries around
the world to tackle some of the most important issues at hand. In relation to the empowerment of
women, goal numbers two and three stand out as previous attempts. In aiming to achieve
universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empowering women, some of the
issues’ key areas are being approached.
Recent attempts include the renewed and in-depth Sustainable Development Goals (2015)
developed by the United Nations. Within, goals four, five and ten stand out as relevant targets
thereof. These aim to be achieved by 2030. However, speculation remains given the debate about
the effectivity of the Millenium Development goals and, whether these will be similar or instead a
worthwhile endorsement in an attempt to solve global issues.
Otherwise, little evidence exists to show that efforts and measures have been taken by
governments to solve the issue. In contrast, the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF) as an international organization has played a key role in supporting rights and freedoms
of women and girls. It has stood and continues to stand strong in the fight against gender
inequality; global awareness campaigns are just one of many examples through which UNICEF
attempts to promote gender equality. 2010 was a significant year, given the new gender equality
and empowerment of girls and women policy which was issued.
Overall, a universal stance in favor of educating women and girls as a tool for sustainable
development exists. Nevertheless, disciplinary action must be taken in order to ensure sustainable
development consists both of intelligent men and women.
Possible Solutions
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Educating women and girls is worthwhile only when facilities are in place to account for them.
Thus, suggestions such as an enhancement of public and educational facilities will allow girls to
attend school, learn in an equally fair way and much more. This as a basis for what may be in the
future is essential; all children (regardless whether boys or girls) require this as part of their
development. Girls who are often regarded as less fortunate in some areas of the world need the
assistance of governments to have the opportunities to succeed.
Governments may therefore create legislation regarding infrastructure of public facilities. As
Member States agree to encourage and reach out to those who are in less economically
developed areas, they are taking a step forward in the process of educating women as a tool for
future development. Raising awareness of the challenges women and girls face due to
misconceptions and undermining of personal values will help NGOs to take further initiative. Often
stronger in their ability to bring change about than governments, NGOs are a useful way of
attracting attention to the issues and consequently encouraging more to take action.
Providing incentives for those in charge of educational facilities is a possible measure to help
tackle the issue. Governments and trade unions may wish to advertise the importance of
employment. A bigger labour force will mean more women and girls can attend school. With everincreasing global populations, questions arise around the availability and space limit. A coherent
government will realize the importance of not only providing more buildings, but also increasing the
working population.
As disparities exist all over the world, vigilant action needs to be taken to present some form of
change in the attitude to those who stand against gender equality. Legal framework standing in the
way of women’s rights and laws prohibiting women from attending school must be abolished.
Whilst obvious, it is often the biggest of barriers as such which stand in the way of women and girls
from standing on an equal level to men.
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"A/RES/49/184 - United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education - UN Documents:
Gathering a Body of Global Agreements." A/RES/49/184 - United Nations Decade for Human Rights
Education - UN Documents: Gathering a Body of Global Agreements. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2016.
http://www.un-documents.net/a49r184.htm
"A/RES/42/104 - International Literacy Year - UN Documents: Gathering a Body of Global
Agreements." A/RES/42/104 - International Literacy Year - UN Documents: Gathering a Body of Global
Agreements. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2016.
http://www.un-documents.net/a42r104.html
"Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women." UN News
Center. UN, n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2016.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/
"UN Women - United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of
Women." Headquarters. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2016.
http://www.unwomen.org/en
http://ap.ohchr.org/Documents/E/HRC/resolutions/A_HRC_RES_8_4.pdf
"A/res/55/2." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2016.
http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm
"Sustainable Development Goals - United Nations." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 12 Aug.
2016.
http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/
"United Nations Millennium Development Goals." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 12 Aug.
2016.
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
"About Gender Equality and UNICEF." UNICEF. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2016.
http://www.unicef.org/gender/gender_57317.html
Appendix or Appendices
I.
Global Gender Gap Report Ranking by country http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gapreport-2015/rankings/
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Forum:
Security Council
Issue:
The situation in Libya
Student Officer: Ignacio Uria
Position:
President of the Security Council
Introduction
After Muammar al Gadhafi’s (Qadhafi/Gaddafi) death in 2011, local militia that had fought the
dictatorial regime were left without a clear objective. A group of these people formed the National
Transitional Council (NTC), but even at this early stage, opposition was constant and the country
was divided in two. During the following years, this division only intensified, culminating with the
creation of a dual government, one in the West and one in the East.
This political fragmentation and instability, following the short mandates of groups of only 2 years,
led to the outbreak of a civil war in 2014. When the elected House of Representatives fought with
the Islamist-led GNC over the control of Libya. Needless to say, this war brought countless
atrocities, war crimes, and human rights violations. Libya is now in a very delicate situation and if
not dealt with correctly, the country could fall again into the hands of the Islamic State and/or, the
civil war could continue.
Map illustrating the complex political situation in Libya, main cities their control.
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Definition of Key Terms
Dictatorship
Form of government in which one person or a small group possesses absolute power
without effective constitutional limitations. Dictators usually resort to force or fraud to gain
despotic political power, which they maintain through the use of intimidation, terror, and the
suppression
of
basic
civil
liberties.
They
may
also
employ
techniques
of
mass propaganda in order to sustain their public support.(Encylopædia Britannica)
GNA
Government of National Accord. Interim government proposed during UN brokered talks
between Libyan leaders. This government was accepted with the signing of the Libyan
Political Agreement in December 17, 2015, in which among other things, Libyan leaders
agreed a temporary cease-fire and the creation of a new unified government, with the hope
that this new government can bring peace and political stability to Libya.
House of Representatives
Current officially recognized government in Libya. It takes power in August 2014, after being
elected in June of the same year. Those elections were marked by having an extremely low
electoral turnout of only 18% of voters, mainly due to security concerns. This led the Libyan
Supreme Court to rule the new House of Representatives, unconstitutional. However, it was
not acknowledged by it because the ruling was issued while militias where surrounding
Tripoli, base of the Supreme Court. Thus, the House of Representatives, understood that
the ruling was not official, but rather, it was bullied out from the Supreme Court.
Islamist-led GNC
This is a section of the Grand National Congress, which after not being re-elected in the
August 2014 elections, self-proclaimed themselves as the new Libyan government. This
group is led by Nouri Abusahmain with the support of Islamist Groups, especially ISIS. This
group was one of the main parties involved in the Libyan civil war of 2014-2015.
GNC
General National Congress. The GNC was elected in July 2012 and took power in August of
that same year. It continued in power until August 2014, when the House of Representatives
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took power. This group took power from the National Transitional Council, with the aim of
transitioning Libya to a permanent democratic constitution.
NTC
National Transitional Council. As its name states it, this was a group that took power
transitionally, until formal democratic elections could be held. This group took power,
following the death of Muammar al Gadhafi in 2011, in order to establish order in Libya after
the collapse of the government, that Gadhafi’s death generated.
ISIS – ISIL – IS
Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also called Islamic State in Iraq and Syria
(ISIS) and, since June 2014, Islamic State, transnational Sunni insurgent group operating
primarily in western Iraq and eastern Syria. In June 2014, after making significant territorial
gains in Iraq, the group proclaimed the establishment of a caliphate led by the leader of
ISIL, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.(Encylopædia Britannica) This group is responsible of numerous
and repeated violations of human rights, including bombings, mass killings, genocide,
among others.
Background Information
Gadhafi’s rule in Syria
Muammar al Gadhafi overthrew King Idris in 1969, with the help of insurgent groups, in what was
called a bloodless coup. After that, he established himself as a Dictator in Libya. Although he
officially “passed” authority to the “General People’s Committee his reign was de facto and he
exerted power through passing decrees, like it is common for dictatorial regimes. Even with the
order of killing dissidents and opposition of the regime.
His regime actually helped the Libyan per-capita income rise until positioning Libya as 5th in Africa
and positioning Libya’s HDI as 1st in Africa. Furthermore, he managed to keep Libya debt free and
carried out education and work programmes, which benefited the population greatly.
However, much of Libya’s income was spent on the buying of weapons and sponsoring
paramilitary groups and terrorist groups in the region and around the world, thus ontinuing with
Gadhafi’s idea of removing imperialistic remains.
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Gadhafi’s death in 2011
In the events of the Arab-Spring, becoming tired of constant human right’s violations,
dictatorship and more, an armed uprising against Gadhafi rose in 2011. The uprising was led
by the NTC and assisted by NATO members. In October 2011, they managed to kill Gadhafi
and Libya was declared “liberated” by the NTC.
Post-Gadhafi era
Since Gadhafi’s defeat in 2011, Libya has been contested among numerous rival, armed militias
operating in different regions and cities, while the central government has been weak and unable
to effectively exert its authority over the whole country. Leading to a high political instability. The
different militias have fought against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians
and constitutionalists. On July 7, 2012, the GNC was elected, in Libya’s first parliamentary
elections since the end of Gadhafi’s regime. On August 8, 2012, theNTC officially handed power
over to GNC, which had the task of creating an interim government and drafting a new Libyan
Constitution, which would be approved in a referendum.
On August 25, 2012, unnamed assailants destroyed a Sufi mosque with graves, in the center of
Tripoli.
On
11
September
2012,
Islamist
militants
carried
out
a surprise
attack on
the American consulate in Benghazi, killing the U.S. ambassador and three others. This incident
generated outrage both in United States and in Libya.
On October 7, 2012, Libya's Prime MinisterMustafa A.G. Abushagur was removed from his post
after failing for a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet. On October 14,
2012, the GNC elected Ali Zeidan as Prime Minister. On 11 March 2014, after having been
removed by the GNC for his inability to stop an illegal oil shipment, Zeiden was replaced by
Abdullah al-Thani. On March 25, 2014, with ever-increasing instability, al-Thani's government
considered the possibility of restoring the Libyan monarchy.
Libyan Civil War
In June 2014, elections were held to elect the House of Representatives, which would take
over from the GNC. The elections were marked by violence and low turnout, with voting
stations closed in some areas, due to security concerns. Islamist politicians who were not
elected for the new House of Representatives, declared themselves as the continuation of
the GNC and as the Libyan government, refusing to recognize the new House of
Representatives. Armed supporters of the new “GNC”,led by Nouri Abusahmain, occupied
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Tripoli, forcing the newly elected parliament to retreat to Tobruk.Libya has been driven by
conflict between the rival parliaments since then.
Tribal militias and jihadist groups have taken advantage of the political instability and lack of
control in Libya, to gain territory and power. Most notably, IS fighters seized Derna in 2014
and Sirte in 2015. In 2015, Egypt launched airstrikesagainst the IS, in support of the House
of Representatives, based in Tobruk.
In January 2015, meetings were held to find a peaceful agreement between the rival parties
in Libya. These meeting were supposed to bring the new GNC and the House of
Representatives together, to find a solution to the internal conflict. However, the new GNC
never participated. Meanwhile, terrorism in Libya has steadily increased, bringing with it daily
violations to human rights and affecting also neighboring countries.
During 2015, the UN supported and helped broker several meetings and peace negotiations
carried out by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, Bernardino Leon. In July
2015, Bernardino Leon reported to the Security Council on the progress of the negotiations,
in which both parties had agreed to the creation of a new stable, democratic Libya. Leon
also informed the Security Council that Libya was in a critical state and if that negotiations
did not continue, Libya risked falling into armed conflict once again. He also added that the
only way for Libya to regain control and have political stability was if a new government was
accepted by both parties. These negotiations continued throughout 2015, culminating with
the signing of the Libyan Political Agreement.
The creation of the Government of National Accord
The GNA is an interim government for Libya that was created under the framework of the Libyan
Political Agreement, signed on 17 December 2015. The agreement has been endorsed by the
UN Security Council, which has welcomed the creation of a new unity government for Libya and
recognized that the GNA is the sole legitimate government of Libya. On December 31 2015,
Chairman of the House of Representatives, Aguila Saleh Issa declared his support for the Libyan
Political Agreement.
The GNA has 17 ministers and it is presided by Prime Minister Fayez al-Sarraj. The first meeting
of the GNA took place on January 2, 2016 in Tunis.GNA’s prime minister, Fayez al-Sarraj, and six
other members of the Presidential Council and proposed cabinet arrived in Tripoli on March 30,
2016. The following day, GNA had taken control of the prime ministerial offices.
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Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United States of America
The USA has played a major role in the past, alongside other NATO members, during the armed
uprising that overthrew Gadhafi in 2011, supporting the armed rebels. However, the USA has
entered back in Libya as of August 2016, with the assault on Sirte. During this assault, the USA
acted in conjunction with the GNA to eradicate the presence of IS fighters in Sirte. The Pentagon
has announced that this was the first of many joint operations in Libya and in the region to combat
IS in the region. However, no American ground forces were deployed in Libya yet, the American
presence in Libya is restricted to aerial operations for the moment.
United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL)
The United Nations Support Mission in Libyais a special political mission established in 2011 by
the UN Security Council in its Resolution 2009 (September 2011) at the request of the Libyan
authorities following six months of armed conflict to support the country's new transitional
authorities in their post-conflict efforts.(UNSMIL) This mission had mainly, the tasks of ensuring the
transition to democracy, promoting and protecting Human rights in Libya, assisting the Libyan
government in the controlling and disposing of arms and related material, assisting in the control of
its borders, and assisting Libya in forming a stable and effective government.
Timeline of Events
This timeline of events is mainly based upon the BBC’s Libya country profile, specifically, the
timeline of said profile. For full article and timeline, check appendix.
Date
Description of event
October 20, 2011
Muammar al Gadhafiis killed in Sirte and Libya is declared liberated by the
NTC
January 2012
Clashes erupt between former rebel forces in Benghazi in sign of discontent
with the NTC.
March 2012
NTC officials in the east, centered on Benghazi, launch a campaign to reestablish autonomy for the region, increasing tension with the central NTC.
June 2012
Government struggles to control local militias.
August 2012
NTC hands power to the GNC, in July.
September 2012
US ambassador and three other Americans killed.
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August 2013
Petroleum Facilities Guard militia begins blockade of oil export terminals.
February 2014
Protests erupt in response to GNC’s refusal to hand over power after
mandate expires.
May 2014
"Libyan National Army" launches a military assault including airstrikes
against militant Islamist groups in Benghazi.
June 2014
New parliament elected, islamists suffer heavy defeat. As a result, fighting
breaks out between forces loyal to the outgoing GNC and the House of
Representatives.
July 2014
UN staff pulls out, embassies shut, foreigners evacuated.
October 2014
IS extremist militia seizes control of port of Derna in eastern Libya.
January 2015
Libyan army and Tripoli-based militia alliance declare partial cease-fire after
UN-brokered talks in Geneva.
February 2015
Egyptian jets bomb Islamic State targets in Derna. Libyan Army offensive to
retake Derna fails. IS establishes control over Sirte.
January 2016
UN announces new interim government.Neither Tobruk, nor Tripoli
parliaments recognize its authority. IS attacks Ras Lanuf oil terminal,
threatens to move on to Brega and Tobruk.
March 2016
Members of the GNA arrive in Tripoli by boat after opposing forces block
airspace.
April 2016
UN staff return to Tripoli after absence of nearly two years.
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

The situation in Libya, 22 July 2016 (S/RES/2298)

The situation in Libya, 14 June 2016 (S/RES/2292)

The situation in Libya, 13 June 2016 (S/RES/2291)

Technical assistance and capacity-building to improve human rights in Libya, 20 April 2016
(A/HRC/RES/31/27)

The situation in Libya, 31 March 2016 (S/RES/2278)

Libya, 23 December 2015 (S/RES/2259)

Libya Political Agreement, 17 December 2015

Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to
paragraph 13 of Security Council resolution 2214 (2015) concerning the terrorism threat in
Libya posed by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant, Ansar al Charia, and all other AlQaida associates(S/2015/891) [for report see appendix]

Libya, 27 March 2015 (S/RES/2214)
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
Peace and security in Africa, 26 February 2011 (S/RES/1970)
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
UNSMIL
The UNSMIL has been assisting Libya in many of the issues on which the mandate was created,
and that were mentioned earlier; such as assisting Libya in the protection of human rights, in the
transition to a democratic, strong government, and controlling its birders. The UNSMIL was able to
make some progress regarding these aspects, including the promotion and brokering of the Libya
Political Agreement, the encouragement of peace talks between Libyan authorities and similar
However, Libya’s problems are deeply rooted and it will take time before any solution attempt will
show any evident change in Libya’s environment.
Libya Political Agreement
Members of the House of Representatives and members of the new Islamist-led GNC signed this
political agreement in December 17, 2015. Of the aspects covered by this agreement, the most
relevant one is the creation of the Government of National Accord, which would be the new
coalition government. The recognized group of the House of Representatives will continue to exist
as a political entity, known as the State Council.
After this agreement, a cease-fire was agreed upon. However, the presence of ISIS and its fighters
in the region is still in Libya, which have not suspended their fighting. Due to the fact that this
agreement was signed only at the end of last year, and the GNA has just established itself in Libya
on March 2016, it is still too early to determine whether it will be a successful attempt or a failure.
However, the creation of the new GNA, has created divided opinions and some rejection from
Libyan authorities.
Possible Solutions
Deciding on possible solutions is a delicate issue as the situation in Libya is highly unstable and
we must always bear in mind the principle of Self-Determination. Taking that into consideration,
here are some possible solutions.
If the GNA were to accept, a short intervention of UN troops to eradicateIslamic State fighters in
Libya could prove to root out some of the instability, human rights violations and daily attacks the
territory suffers. However, the UNSMIL would have to continue their mandate in Libya to ensure
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that the void left by the absence of IS fighters in not filled again, either by IS members or by any
other para-military group/organization.
Intensify the presence and assets of the UNSMIL in Libya, to control borders and secure the
country of current and possible IS fighters. Furthermore, to ensure the preservation of human
rights and assist the Libyan government to establish and maintain a democracy.
If the Libyan government agrees, helping the UNSMIL, member states could be encouraged to
send experts to Libya to assist the Libyan government in a wide arrange of issues. Such as could
be the matter of national security and control of Libyan territory, establishing a democratic
government and more.
The UNSMIL should continue to encourage peace talks and negotiations between Libyan leaders,
to avoid further confrontations between them and to encourage Libyan leaders to solve
discrepancies between their rule and the rule of the GNA, in order to avoid creating discontent and
opposition, that could create the conditions to resume the fighting.
Overall, it is of utmost importance that the principle of Sovereignty is respected at all times, as the
issue inside Libya could be worsened drastically if this principle is not respected, resulting in a
retrograde effect that could lead Libya further into civil war.
Bibliography
Encylopædia Britannica. Dictatorship. n.d. 8 August 2016.
<https://www.britannica.com/topic/dictatorship>.
—. Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). n.d. 8 August 2016.
<https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant>.
UNSMIL. Background. 2016. 11 August 2016.
<https://unsmil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=3545&language=en-US>.
Appendix
I.
Report concerning the terrorism threat in Libya posed by the Islamic State in Iraq and the
Levant,
Ansar
al
Charia,
and
all
other
Al-Qaida
associates
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2015/891&referer=/english/&Lang=E
II.
United
States
Institute
of
Peace
report
on
the
situation
in
Libya
http://www.usip.org/publications/the-current-situation-in-libya
III.
International Criminal Court statement to the United Nations Security Council on the
Situation in Libya, pursuant to UNSCR 1970 (2011) https://www.icccpi.int//Pages/item.aspx?name=otp_statementlib26052016
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IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Libya: Transition and U.S. Policy https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33142.pdf
Libya Country Profile http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13754897
Libya and IS http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35325072
“Libya, a nation in despair” http://www.globalresearch.ca/libya-a-nation-in-despair/5411041
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Forum:
Security Council
Issue:
The question of refugees in the Mediterranean: threats to stability
and security
Student Officer: Agustina Tabachnik
Position:
Deputy President of Security Council
Introduction
The continuous migration of people through the Mediterranean has been increasing over the years
creating enormous concern in every part of the world, especially in Europe. An overwhelming
number of refugees and migrants take their chances abroad using risky and life threatening
conditions in a desperate bid to escape from the conflicts in their countries. “The numbers have
fluctuated over the years due to a variety of factors, including conditions in countries of origin and
transit, geopolitical developments, and EU policies. In 2014, at least 219,000 people made the
crossing, up from 60,000 the previous year. According to the UN refugee agency United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 89,500 crossed in the first five months of 2015. The
principal route has long been from North Africa across the central Mediterranean, but increasing
numbers are now crossing the Aegean Sea (eastern Mediterranean) from Turkey to the Greek
islands.”21Immigrants are coming from the Middle East countries such as Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan,
Nigeria, Pakistan, Libya ,Somalia, Sudan, Lebanon; however, the most numerous flow of people
(with over 100,000) are Syrians trying to escape the chaotic civil war scenario at their territory.
Nevertheless, most migrants, although they are desperately seeking for better living conditions,
are illegal. This is creating a paranoid atmosphere in the countries who are taking them as terrorist
acts are increasing and more unemployment is seen. Although the majority of people are not
linked with terrorist groups, western countries are visualizing the flow of people as a threat to
stability and security to their territories.
Even though the country members of the European Union are the ones struggling on decisions
concerning this issue, the migrant crisis is not only an EU problem, but a global one. Countries
should tackle the problems one by one, and the first immediate complication they are facing is how
to deal with the unprecedented number of refugees entering Europe, so they need to identify what
role the international community should play in aiding the European Union Thus, the challenge of
each nation remains on how to find a solution to this growing dilemma.
21
"About This Website." Syrian Refugees.N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Aug. 2016
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The Migrant Crisis began in 2015, when a rising number of refugees and migrants risk their lives
making the journey to the European Union (EU) to seek asylum, frequently traveling across the
Mediterranean Sea or through Southeast Europe
Definition of Key Terms
Immigrant
A person who comes to one country from another country, usually for permanent residence.(
Dictionary.com)
Refugee
Refugees are people fleeing conflict or persecution. They are defined and protected in
international law, and must not be expelled or returned to situations where their life and
freedom are at risk (UNHCR.org)
Asylum
An institution for the maintenance and care of thementally ill, orphans, or other persons requirin
g specialized assistance. (Dictionary.com)
Migrant
The term "migrant" is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "one who moves, either
temporarily or permanently, from one place, area or country of residence to another". (Oxford
English Dictionary)
ISIL:
ISIL translates to “Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.” The Levant is a geographical term
that refers to the eastern shore of the Mediterranean -- Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel and
Jordan. It’s the term the U.S. government uses since the "Levant" is apparently a better
translation for al-Sham, the Arabic name for the region. Daesh: This is a term the militant
group. (Taken from International Business Time)
Background Information
The Migrant Crisis began in 2015, when a rising number of refugees and migrants risk their
lives making the journey to the European Union (EU) to seek asylum, frequently travelling across
the Mediterranean Sea or through Southeast Europe
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As stated above, the majority of people seeking asylum in Europe are recognize as Syrians. The
violence in Syria began in March 2011 and the Middle Eastern country has been crippled by a
brutal civil war ever since. Syria has been led by the al-Assad family since the 1970s, when the
regime was established by Hafez al-Assad, the father of the current President of Syria, Bashar alAssad. However, the trouble began in 2011 in the Syrian city of Deraa when locals took to the
streets to protest after 15 schoolchildren were arrested - and reportedly tortured - for writing antigovernment graffiti on a wall. The International Red Cross stated, in July 2012, that the violence in
Syria had become so extensive that it was consider to be under a civil war. Nowadays, The Assad
government currently controls the capital, Damascus, parts of southern Syria, portions of Aleppo
and DeirAzZor, much of the area near the Syrian-Lebanese border, and the northwestern coastal
region. Rebel groups, ISIL, and Kurdish forces control the rest of the country. It is estimated that
about 250,000 people have been killed and half of the country's population has been displaced,
with 4 million fleeing as refugees.
The Dublin Regulation (Regulation No. 604/2013) is a European Union (EU) law that determines
the EU
Member
State responsible
to
examine
an
application
for asylum
seekers seeking international protection under the Geneva Convention and the EU Qualification
Directive, within the European Union. This regulation tries to establish which Member state is
responsible for a particular candidate, and ensure that at least one member state process the
application.As a consequence member countries are withdrawing the EU so they are not force to
accept keeping the applicants. Moreover, border nations such as Italy, Greece, Hungary are
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overwhelmed and unable to handle the situation.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
Syria
It is estimated that 11 million Syrians have fled their homes since the uprising of the civil war in
March 2011. At the moment, after six ever of harsh war approximately 13.5 million civilians are in
need of humanitarian immediate help inside the country. Among the extreme large amount seeking
for new life conditions the vast majority have found a place in the neighbouring countries which do
not assure them the change they were looking for.“According to the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 4.8 million have fled to Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt
and Iraq, and 6.6 million are internally displaced within Syria. Meanwhile about one million have
requested asylum to Europe. Germany, with more than 300,000 cumulated applications, and
Sweden with 100,000, are EU’s top receiving countries”22
Turkey
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Turkey is now hosting the world’s largest community of Syrians displaced as they do not manage
to solve the ongoing conflict in their country. According to statistics done by the United Nations, the
Syrian refugee population was over 1.7 million in March 2015; however, there is a large quantity of
illegal refugee population which may result on a raise in the estimate number revealing a larger
number figure. Turkish reception policies, at the origins were predicated on the assumption that
the conflict would come to a rapid conclusion, allowing the displaced Syrians to return home within
a short time period, but as conditions in their country continue to worsen and the conflict has
stretched into its fifth year, the need of a quick shift in the policies it has become clear that a quick
shift in policy to enclose some longer-term solutions to this issue.
Greece
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) stated that 1,000,573 refugees
and migrants arrived in Europe from the Middle East and North Africa during 2015. Among
them,almost 850,000 landed on the Greek islands. Research reveal that 49% were Syrian, 21%
Afghan and 8% Iraqi. Greece is struggling to meet the terms of its international rescue risking their
economic stability as it is one of the main paths into the EU for the extreme number of refugees
crossing through every day.
Nevertheless, there are the closest islands to Turkey which are struggling the most with the whole
situation. Dodecanese archipelago, Chios, Samos and Lesvos are the major islands affected,
dealing with a quantity of migrants that decide to take the hazardous route from Turkey to enter
Europe. As a consequence Greece has been asking Europe for emergency funding and some
supplies which include blankets, tents, and sleeping bags, to try to tackle the singular refugee
crisis. Yet, as a positive aspect, Greece tourism has not been affected and people are still
frequently visiting the amazing country and its islands.
Afghanistan
The numbers uncover that 2.6 million Afghan refugees live in more than 70 countries spread
around the globe. However, an overwhelming majority, are hosted by just two countries: the
Islamic Republics of Iran and Pakistan. Afghanistan’s refugee crisis has arisen many decades ago
causing a continues flow of people since 1978 after the Saur Revolution began; more fled in the
opening scenes of the Soviet invasion in 1979 and throughout the war as well. Yet another
massive group of people fled in the transition of the civil war in the start of the 1990s, this
phenomenon increased in numbers when the Taliban took control. The war led by the US in
Afghanistan during the last decade has left even more Afghans with no other choice but to flee
their county. While the US and other international entities have been devoted in the assistance of
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returnees “The Costs of War project writes that “before the recent upsurge in violence in Syria and
Iraq, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reported that Afghanistan
remained the world’s top producer of refugees for the 32nd year in a row” in 2014, with more than
3.7 million as of July 2014, 700,000-plus of which are internally displaced persons (IDPs).”23
Lebanon
It is known that Lebanon is the neighbouring country hardest hit by the Syria crisis, as it is hosting
more than 1.1 million Syrian refugees. The enforcement of strict regulations by the Lebanon
Government has obstructed the entrance to the country from the ones fleeing the conflict in Syria.
Numbers outline an increase in undocumented refugees banning their ability to move and access
services.
Italy
Along with Greece, Italy is the leading country receiving immigrants. The number of refugees
arriving in Italy is rising sharply but a controversial deal struck with Turkey that could force
refugees to take longer and even more dangerous routes to reach Europe has raised fear among
the world. The Italian interior ministry has documented 16,075 people crossing to its borders so far
this year, in comparison to almost 10,000 during the same period in last year. In fact, the region
who is receiving most of the people is Sicily as refugees are rescued from the trafficking boats
found near the Libyan coast and brought toward the region by the coast guard.
Timeline of Events
Date
April 19, 2015
April 24, 2015
May 13, 2015
June 17, 2015
June 26, 2015
Description of event
A total of 800 persons died in the Mediterranean as the ship sinks in the middle
of the way from Libya to Italy.
A meeting was held by the EU leaders to discuss the Mediterranean issue
A 10- point plan was done by the European Community called the “European
Agenda on Migration” which tries to deal with the crisis.
Hungary disclose its plans to build a fence at its 175km border with Serbia to
prevent the continuous flow of people to the country
EU member states agree to relocation of refugees in Europe, but fail to reach
consensus on distribution quotas. They commit to resettlement of 20.000
23"Afghanistan's 32-Year Refugee Crisis." The Diplomat.N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Aug. 2016.
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refugees from outside of Europe.
July 1, 2015
August 20-23, 2015
August 24, 2015
August 31, 2015
Two new provisional registration centre close to its limits to Hungary and
Macedonia were opened by Serbia
To cut off the flow of migrants crossing from Greece, Macedonia deploys riot
police and calls for the state of emergency.
Germany’s Federal Office for Migration and Refugees publicly claims not to
return Syrian refugees under the Dublin Regulation.
Almost 2.500 people were rescued from the eastern Greek islands during one
weekend.
The World Food Programme announces liquidity problems so it has to drop one-
September 5, 2015
third of the Syrian refugees from its coupon programme in Middle Eastern
countries receiving immigrants.
September 8, 2015
September 15, 2015
September 18, 2015
A total of € 400.000 was given by the EU Delegation to contribute to the
construction of temporary accommodation for refugees.
The Hungary plan reveal in June succeed, and the construction of a 175
km fence along Hungary’s border with Serbia was completed.
As their first plan was succeed, Hungary begins to construct a fence along its
border to Croatia.
Because the construction of the fence with Hungary borders, around 2.500
September 19, 2015
migrants cross from Croatia into Slovenia, despite Slovenia hard effort to block
their passage.
September 22, 2015
September 29, 2015
EU Ministers shift their accommodation plans, so now the 54.000 places
consider will be divided between Italy and Greece.
Germany includes Albania, Kosovo and Montenegro in a list of safe Countries of
Origin.
Turkish President convene with EU leaders create a plan which includes the
October 5, 2015
establishment of six additional refugee camps in Turkey. With this new plan,
places for two more million people will be developed.
October 16, 2015
The first Greek hotspot centre opens its doors in Lesbos, trying to seek for a
solution to the problem
As in a time period of 24 hours an approximate number of 12.000 refugees enter
October 18, 2015
Slovenia, they called their army to control the limits with Croatia and restrict its
entrance to 2.500 incomes per day.
Joining the movement, Swedenalso restrict the number of entrance to the
October 23, 2015
country and is now expecting to receive 190.000 asylum applications in
2015,which is the highest rate per-capita in EU.
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The number of refugees entering Europe by sea in the entire 2014 was
November 2, 2015
incredibly the same as in October of 2015, announced by the UNHCR, from
whom the vast majority are Syrians
November 3, 2015
November 11, 2015
November 18, 2015
November 27, 2015
November 28, 2015
Harsh laws regarding asylum were proposed by the Austrian government as
they are desperate about a rapid solution to the issue
Slovenia begins to build a razor wire path along its border with Croatia to
decrease migrant flows.
Macedonia, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia announce that they would only allow
people from Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan to pass through their borders.
Motivated by Hungary’s plan, Austria starts constructing a 3.7km barrier along
its southern border with Slovenia.
As well as Austria, Macedonia starts constructing a fence on its southern border
with Greece.
The EU and Turkey finalise their agreement negotiated over the past weeks. A
November 29, 2015
key element is 3 billion EUR in EU aid for the 2.2 million Syrian refugees in
Turkey.
Slovakia declaresa claim at the European Court of Justice against the European
December 2-3, 2015
Union decision to reorganise 160.000 asylum seekers among member
countries, and Hungary does the same the day after.
December 8,2015
December 15, 2015
Germany reaches the million applicants for asylum in 2015
The EC proposes lifting Sweden’s obligation to relocate 4.358 persons from
Greece and Italy.
January 12, 2016
Germany sends refugees back to Austria
January 15, 2016
Austria joins Germany and sends back refugees to their homes
According to an investigation of IOM( International Organization of Migration) an
January 29, 2016
estimated number of 52,000 refugees arrived to the Greek Islands since the
beginning of the year from which approximately 240 died
The European Council seeking for quick solution to this controversy acted by:
February 18, 2016
March 7, 2016
May 4, 2016

Implementing an EU action plan

Operationalise of hot-spots

Bordering intensification
NATO ships patrol the Aegean between Greece and Turkey
The European Commission proposed amending EU member states if they do
not accept their quota of asylum seekers. Member states would be charge
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€250,000 for each refugee they do not take in.
June 23, 2016
Britain exit the EU after holding a referendum on its country, (Brexit)24
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

Strengthening of security and cooperation in the Mediterranean region, 8 January 1997
(A/RES/51/50)

The Middle East(Syria), 6 March 2015(S/RES/2209)

Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts, 12 February
2015(S/RES/2199)

The situation in the Middle East(UNDOF), 29 June 2015 (S/RES/2229)

Dublin Regulation – It is an agreement among the member states of the European Union,
which outlines the process countries are require to adopt regarding asylum for refugees.
Within the rules, one states that refugees and migrants are force to apply for asylum in the
first EU country they have arrived in, meaning that EU states with coasts are most
susceptible to asylum claims.

http://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/press/2015/7/5592b9b36/mediterranean-crisis-2015-sixmonths-refugee-migrant-numbers-highest-record.html
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
Regarding the UNHCR report “Stabilizing the situation of refugees and migrants in Europe
Proposals to the Meeting of EU Heads of State or Government and Turkey on 7 March 2016” six
main points have been made in order to encourage fellow nations to rise up and take action on the
much worrying issue of the Mediterranean Refugee crisis; said points are the following:
Implement the hotspot approach and the relocation schemes25
The main points tackled in this clause are carrying out proper registration in compliance with
European Union Standards for immigrants, the implementation of a relocation scheme for asylumseekers and the ensuring of the effective return of individuals not in need of international protection
24
:"2015 in Review: Timeline of Major Incidences and Policy Responses." 2015 in Review: Timeline
of Major Incidences and Policy Responses. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Aug. 2016.
25
"Stabilizing the Situation of Refugees and Migrants in Europe. Proposals to the Meeting of EU Heads of
State or Government and Turkey on 7 March 2016." UNHCR News.N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Aug. 2016.
<http://www.unhcr.org/56d94f7e9.html>.
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Support the emergency response in Greece26
The main issues tackled in this clause are those of the rapid investment in systems for orderly
processing in Greece, provision of support for long-term stay in Greece, the expedition of a roll-out
contingency plan drawn to respond to the large numbers of arrivals remaining in Greece and the
reinforcement of access to protection and lasting solutions.
Improve compliance with the EU Asylum Acquis27
The main points dealt with in this clause are the endorsement of the EU members to take
measures such as developing mechanisms with the capability of ensuring that minimum standards
for asylum systems are maintained in all member states, and the expansion of the roles of the
European Commission and EASO in order to support the systematic monitoring of the CEAS and
ensure the full and coherent implementation of the EU Asylum Acquis
Expand opportunities for resettlement and other pathways for admission28
This clause regards the call on states to increase pathways for admission of Syrian refugees.
Therefore pointed out the indication at the high-level meeting of what admission programmes are
being considered, the enhancing of pathways for the mutual benefits of persons in need of
protection and for host societies, the facilitation of family reunion and the facilitation of settlement
to persons in Greece.
Develop protection safeguards for individuals at risk29
The stated clause tackles the action of enhancing search and rescue methods whilst promoting
effective cooperation between nations, the development of a system working to protect separate
and unaccompanied children including the establishment of child protection services, the
development of measures to prevent and respond to sexual and gender based violence,
addressing smuggling and trafficking issues and counter exclusion, racism, xenophobia, and
Islamophobia.
Develop effective European systems for allocating responsibility for asylum-seekers in the
mid-term30
26(Idem)
27(Idem)
28(Idem)
29(Idem)
30(Idem)
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The last clause tackles the need of establishment of European Registration Centers in the main
countries of arrival, the distribution of Asylum-seekers among the Member States in concordance
to their percentage of hosted refugees and capacity of the Member State, the undertaking of
additional measures to support local integration and dissuade unsupported secondary movement
and assist those not in need of protection with a safe return home.
Regarding the EU restricted report “EUNAVFOR MED Op SOPHIA - Six Monthly Report” signed
by various member states, the unwillingness of member states to help implement security
measures and further promote a safe environment for migrants crossing through European
borders is shown. Members of the European Union have reached a covenant in which smugglers
and traffickers are condemned for their irregular activity and business model and therefore are
tackled with violence by the taskforce military team altogether with the Libyan authorities in a 3
phase operation. 31
In concluding remarks, several attempts have been made to solve the issue in the past 15 years
when the conflict first took international recognition. Although various members of the UN and the
EU have worked tirelessly in order to help solve the issue at hand, further and more exhaustive
measures are due to be taken as to stabilize the situation in the Mediterranean Sea. Economic and
Political support are the most demanded for supplies by international organizations so as to help
the situation prosper.
Possible Solutions
A new law done by the UN member states which outlines the cooperation between nations. This
law will declare that EU member countries that receive legal refugees will have the obligation to
offer them asylum; however every country in the world will have to destine 0.5% of their monthly
GDP to help Europe finance their refugees. While European countries will be in charge of offering
shelter, healthcare, and a job to ensure them better life conditions until their problem in their
country is solved, the other countries of the world will need to contribute to the issue by providing
financial help, as stated before, understanding the dimensions of the problem.
The creation of a temporary kind of visa for the circulation among the EU countries will ensure
legal migrants 3 years of shelter in the country the European country they have settle. After the
three year period expires people will have to update the visa, or if it conditions make it possible,
return to their home countries. In order to update the visa, refugees have to solidly prove that
31
“Nd. EUNAVFOR MED - Operation SOPHIA (n.d.): n. pag. Web.”
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conditions in their country did not improve and they still have a life risk if they return. If evidence is
reliable EU countries have the obligation of renewing the visa three more years.
Bibliography
"The Mediterranean Migration Crisis." Human Rights Watch.N.p., 19 June 2015. Web. 30July. 2016.
"Mapping Mediterranean Migration." BBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 July 2016.
"Dublin Regulation." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 31July 2016.
Johnson, Daniel. "The Solution to This Refugee Crisis?A Revised EU Treaty | Daniel Johnson." The
Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 05 Sept. 2015. Web. 03 Aug. 2016.
"Syria's Civil War Explained." - AJE News. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Aug. 2016.
"What's Happening in Syria? - CBBC Newsround." BBC News. BBC, 15 Mar. 2016. Web. 03 Aug.
2016.
"ISIL, ISIS, Islamic State, Daesh: What's The Difference?" International Business Times.N.p., 16
Nov. 2015. Web. 03 Aug. 2016
"Timeline of the European Migrant Crisis." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 08 Aug.
2016.
"2015 in Review: Timeline of Major Incidences and Policy Responses." 2015 in Review: Timeline of
Major Incidences and Policy Responses. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Aug. 2016.
"Refugee Crisis Timeline." Transitory Lives.N.p., 20 June 2016. Web.08 Aug. 2016.
"Timeline Refugee Crisis." Natural Hazards Center ||.N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Aug. 2016.
"More than 2,000 Refugees Rescued in Mediterranean." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media,
24 June 2016. Web.09 Aug. 2016
"Chapter 4.Lebanon and Syria." The Contemporary Middle East: A Documentary History (n.d.): 32870. Web. 09 Aug. 2016
The Independent.Independent Digital News and Media, n.d. Web. 09 Aug. 2016.
The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, n.d. Web. 09 Aug. 2016
"Refugee Crisis Creating 'significant Problems' for Greek Economy: OECD."Reuters. Thomson
Reuters, 10 Mar. 2016. Web.09 Aug. 2016
"Afghanistan's 32-Year Refugee Crisis." The Diplomat.N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Aug. 2016.
"Mediterranean Crisis 2015 at Six Months: Refugee and Migrant Numbers Highest on
Record." UNHCR News.N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Aug. 2016.
<http://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/press/2015/7/5592b9b36/mediterranean-crisis-2015-six-monthsrefugee-migrant-numbers-highest-record.html>.”
“Nd. EUNAVFOR MED - Operation SOPHIA (n.d.): n. pag. Web.”
Research Report Booklet | Page 92
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Appendix or Appendices
I.
"UNHCR Refugees/Migrants Emergency Response - Mediterranean."
II.
The
Independent.Independent
Digital
News
and
Media,
n.d.
Web.http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-video-shows-themoment-boat-carrying-asylum-seekers-capsizes-in-mediterranean-a7049831.html
III.
MSF. "Explainer: Migration Across the Mediterranean." YouTube. YouTube, 20 May 2015.
Web https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yn1b9klhc9o
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Forum:
Security Council
Issue:
The question of non-proliferation and the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea
Student Officer: Agustina Tabachnik & Ignacio Uria
Position:
Deputy President and President of the Security Council
Introduction
Nuclear arms are denominated as the most dangerous weapons in the world, only one makes it
possible to destroy an entire city, as well as killing potentially millions of people, risking the
environment and lives of future generations as nuclear radiation has long-term effects on foetuses
causing deformations and other complications on them. Even though nuclear weapons were used
only at a time in history (during the Second World War -1945 –in the bombings to Hiroshima and
Nagasaki) nowadays there are approximately 26.000 available and almost 2.000 nuclear trials are
being done, which endangers every country in the world.
Since it was founded, the United Nations has always pursued the eradication of these types of
arms. Within the first UN resolution (1946) a Commission to deal with problems involved in the
uncovering of the nuclear energy was created. The purpose of this body was to ensure practical
measures which control the use of the nuclear energy to guarantee only a peaceful use of it, and
also is in charge of suggesting proposals for” the elimination from national armaments of atomic
weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction.”
Until now, a substantial number of multilateral treaties have been created to avoid the proliferation
and nuclear trials, while encouraging a development in nuclear disarmament. “These include
the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the Treaty Banning Nuclear
Weapon Tests In The Atmosphere, In Outer Space And Under Water, also known as the Partial
Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which was
signed in 1996 but has yet to enter into force”.32
However, despite the willingness to tackle the issue, some countries such as the People´s
Democratic Republic of Korea non-proliferation treaty failed as they contain nuclear spectre on
their peninsula claiming that it is for a peaceful use. The United Nations members will have to
decide how to treat Korea, by firstly concluding if their space programme is reliable. As it is seen in
this case, reaching a complete disarmament is merely impossible, so countries will have to
cooperate to find new and viable solutions for this issue.
"Nuclear Weapons – UNODA." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/>.
32
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Definition of Key Terms
Nuclear weapon
“An explosive device whose destructive potential derives from therelease of energy that acco
mpanies the splitting or combining of atomic nuclei.” (Taken from Dictionary.com)
NPT
“The NPT aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to foster
the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of disarmament. The Treaty
establishes a safeguards system under the responsibility of the IAEA, which also plays a
central role under the Treaty in areas of technology transfer for peaceful purposes” (Taken
from International Atomic Energy Agency)
PTBT
“The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) is the abbreviated name of the 1963 Treaty Banning
Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, which
prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those conducted underground”.
(Taken from Wikipedia)
CTBT
“The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty that bans
all nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was
adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996 but has not
entered into force as eight specific states have not yet ratified the treaty”. (Taken from
Wikipedia)
Background Information
After WWII, the Soviet Union supplied the economic and military aid that enabled North Korea to
invade South Korea in 1950. Soviet aid and influence continued at a high level during the Korean
War. The Soviet Union was largely responsible for rebuilding North Korea's economy after the end
of the war in 1953. In addition, the assistance of Chinese troops during the war and their presence
in the country until 1958 gave China influence in North Korea. In 1961, North Korea created mutual
security treaties with the Soviet Union and China, which have not formally ended.
East Germany was an important source of economic aid for North Korea. North Korea began to
play a part in the global radical movement, forging ties with such diverse groups as the Black
Panther Party of the USA, the Workers Party of Ireland, and the African National Congress. As it
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emphasized its independence, North Korea began to promote the doctrine of “self-reliance" as an
alternative to orthodox Marxism-Leninism and as a model for developing countries to follow.
When North-South Korean dialogue started in 1972, North Korea began to receive diplomatic
recognition from countries outside the Communist bloc. North Korea entered the World Health
Organization and, as a result, sent its first permanent observer missions to the United Nations. In
1975, it joined the Non-Aligned Movement.
Following Kim Il-sung's visit to Moscow in 1984, there was an improvement in Soviet-DPRK
relations, resulting in new deliveries of advanced Soviet weaponry to North Korea and increases in
economic aid. During those years, North Korea abducted Japanese and South Koreans. Although
having partly resolved the issue by admitting its role in the abductions, it remains a large issue
between the two countries. In addition, the United States accuses North Korea of producing large
numbers of high-quality counterfeit Federal Reserve Notes.
During the 1980s, North Korea's establishment of new diplomatic relations slowed considerably.
North Korea has been linked to terrorist attacks, which, along with its economic weakness,
compared to South Korea, and the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, are blamed for the DPRK’s
dynamism during the decade. North Korea's bombing in Rangoon, Burma in 1983 and its bombing
of Korean Airlines flight No. 858 in 1987 received heavy criticism from the international community.
Burma, which had relations with both North and South Korea, "de-recognized" the DPRK and
expelled North Korean officials in response to the attempted assassination of South Korean
president Chun Doo-hwan in Rangoon.
South Korea established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1990 and the People's
Republic of China in 1992, putting a serious strain on relations between North Korea and its
traditional allies. Moreover, the fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the disintegration
of the Soviet Union in 1991 almost terminated the communist aid to North Korea, resulting in
decreased relations with Russia. Subsequently South Korea developed the "sunshine policy"
towards North Korea, stressing Korean reunification and thus often going to great lengths to avoid
majorly criticizing the North Korean government. This policy ended in 2009.
In September 1991, North Korea became a member of the UN. In July 2000, it began participating
in the ASEAN Regional Forum. The United Kingdom established diplomatic relations with the
DPRK
on
December
13,
2000, as
well
as Canada in
February
2001, followed
by
Germany and New Zealand on March 1, 2001. Mexico maintains diplomatic relations with North
Korea. Other countries such as France, the United States, and most South American nations do
not have formal diplomatic ties with North Korea and do not intend on doing so.
Since the late 1980s, North Korea's nuclear research programs have become a major topic in
international affairs, with western nations such as the United States, Great Britain and Australia.
As well as nations such as India, Armenia, South Africa, and now China having taken critical
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stances towards the concept of a nuclearized North Korea, with the last three discouraging South
Korea from going nuclear as well.
After allegations from the United States about the continued existence of a military nuclear
program without compliance to the NPT, North Korea declared the existence of uranium
enrichment programs during a private meeting with American military officials. North Korea
withdrew from the NPT on 2003. After insisting on bilateral negotiations with the United States, it
agreed to six-party talks between itself, the United States, South Korea, China, Russia and Japan
in August 2003. The talks continued for two years until an agreement was reached on 19
September 2005. This was placed under severe strain by North Korea’s nuclear test in October
2006. Since then, a very similar agreement was reached on February 2007, specifically
emphasizing the normalization of US-North Korean and Japanese-North Korean diplomatic ties on
the condition that North Korea ceases to operate its Yongbyon nuclear research center.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
1985
North Korea joins the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
1993
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) charges that North Korea is violating the
NPT and demands that inspectors be given access to two nuclear waste storage
sites.
1994
North Korea and U.S. sign an agreement. North Korea pledges to freeze and
eventually dismantle its nuclear weapons program in exchange for international aid
to build two power-producing nuclear reactors.
August 31, 1998
North Korea fires a multistage rocket that flies over Japan and lands in the Pacific
Ocean, proving the North Koreans can strike any part of Japan's territory.
November 17,
The U.S. and North Korea hold the first round of high-level talks in Pyongyang over
North Korea's suspected construction of an underground nuclear facility. The United
States demands inspections.
1998
February 27-March
16, 1999
September 13,
1999
September 17,
During a fourth round of talks, North Korea allows U.S. access to the site in
exchange for U.S. aid in increasing North Korean potato yields. U.S. inspectors find
no evidence of any nuclear activity during a visit to site in May.
North Korea agrees to freeze testing of long-range missiles while negotiations with
the U.S. continue.
President Bill Clinton agrees to ease economic sanctions against North Korea.
1999
July, 2000
North Korea threatens to restart its nuclear program if the U.S. does not compensate
it for the loss of electricity caused by delays in building nuclear power plants.
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June , 2001
North Korea warns it will drop its moratorium against testing missiles if the U.S. does
not pursue normalized relations with North Korea. It also says it will restart its nuclear
program if there is not more progress on two U.S.-sponsored nuclear power plants
being built in North Korea.
January 29, 2002
President George W. Bush labels North Korea, Iran and Iraq an "axis of evil" in his
State of the Union address. "By seeking weapons of mass destruction, these
regimes pose a grave and growing danger," he says.
October 4, 2002
U.S. officials, in closed talks, confront North Korea with evidence that they are
operating a nuclear weapons program in violation of the 1994 nuclear agreement.
Specifically, the U.S. has proof that they are operating a uranium enrichment facility.
North Korea admits that is has been operating the facility in violation of the
agreement. The information is NOT made public.
December 22,
North Korea says it has begun removing IAEA monitoring equipment from nuclear
facilities.
2002
December 31,
North Korea expels IAEA inspectors.
2002
January 10, 2003
North Korea withdraws from the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.
February 5, 2003
North Korea's official news agency says the nation has reactivated its nuclear power
facilities.
April 23, 2003
Declares it has nuclear weapons.
February 24-28,
The U.S., North Korea, South Korea, China, Japan and Russia meet in Beijing,
China for more talks. The summit closes with no major progress but with an
agreement for more talks.
2004
August 2004
North Korea offers to freeze its nuclear program in exchange for aid, easing of
sanctions and being removed from the U.S,' list of state sponsors of terrorism. The
U.S. wants North Korea to disclose all nuclear activities and allow inspections.
February 10, 2005
North Korea drops out of six-party nuclear talks and says it will bolster its nuclear
weapons arsenal. North Korea insists on a bilateral non-aggression pact with the
U.S. before it will consider dismantling its nuclear program. The U.S. insists
Pyongyang must first agree to permanently and verifiably dismantle its nuclear
weapons program before it will grant any incentives, including economic assistance
and diplomatic recognition.
September 19,
North Korea agrees to give up its entire nuclear program, including weapons, a joint
statement from six-party nuclear arms talks in Beijing said.
2005
July 15, 2006
The UN Security Council unanimously passes a resolution demanding that North
Korea suspend its missile program. The North Korean ambassador immediately
rejects the resolution.
October 14, 2006
The UN Security Council approves a resolution imposing sanctions against North
Korea, restricting military and luxury goods trade and requiring an end to nuclear and
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ballistic missile tests.
October 16, 2006
An analysis of air samples collected on October 11, 2006 detects radioactive debris,
confirming North Korea's nuclear test.
February 13, 2007
North Korea agrees to close its main nuclear reactor in exchange for an aid package
worth $400 million.
September 30,
At six-party talks in Beijing, North Korea signs an agreement stating it will begin
disabling its nuclear weapons facilities. North Korea also agrees to include a U.S.
team of technical experts in the disabling activities.
2007
December 31,
North Korea misses a deadline to declare all its nuclear programs.
2008
June 27, 2008
North Korea destroys a water cooling tower at the Yongbyon facility, where officials
now acknowledge they extracted plutonium to build nuclear weapons. The massive
implosion is intended to be a powerful public symbol of a move to end nuclear
activities by the communist nation.
September 24,
At the request of North Korea, the IAEA removes surveillance equipment and seals
from the Yongbyon nuclear facility.
2008
December 8-11,
2008
Another round of six-party talks is held in Beijing, China. The talks break down over
North Korea's refusal to allow international inspectors unfettered access to
suspected nuclear sites.
June 12, 2009
The UN Security Council approves Resolution 1874, condemning North Korea's May
25th nuclear test. The UN also imposes new sanctions, banning the sale of most
arms to or from North Korea.
December 15,
U.S. and North Korean officials meet in Beijing to discuss possible food assistance to
North Korea in exchange for the suspension of North Korea's uranium enrichment
program.
2011
February 29, 2012
The U.S. State Department announces that North Korea has agreed to a moratorium
on long-range missile launches and nuclear activity at Yongbyon, the nation's major
nuclear facility.
April 13, 2012
North Korea's long-range rocket launch is a failure. Shortly after launch, it breaks
apart and falls into the sea.
December 12,
North Korea successfully launches an Unha-3 long-range rocket from the Sohae
Space Center in Cholsan County and puts a "working satellite" into orbit, days after
Pyongyang suggested the launch could be delayed.
2012
January 24, 2013
North Korea's National Defense Commission says it will continue nuclear testing and
long-range rocket launches, all of which are a part of an "upcoming all-out action"
aimed at the United States, "the sworn enemy of the Korean people." Two days prior
to this statement, the United Nations Security Council condemned a recent rocket
launch by North Korea and expanded sanctions.
February 12, 2013
Conducts its third underground nuclear test. This is the first nuclear test carried out
under leader Kim Jong Un.
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March 3, 2014
According to South Korean Defense Ministry, North Korea fires two short-range
missiles off its eastern coast. This is the second launch in less than a week.
October 2, 2014
A senior North Korean envoy says the country is ready to resume the six-party talks
regarding its nuclear program.
May 6, 2015
Park Yong Chol, deputy director of the DPRK Institute for Research into National
Reunification, tells CNN in an exclusive interview that his country has the missile
capability to strike mainland United States and would do so if the U.S. "forced their
hand."
The North Korean state news agency reports that the country has carried out a
successful underwater test of a ballistic missile by launching it from a submarine.
May 20, 2015
North Korea says that it has the ability to miniaturize nuclear weapons, a key step
toward building nuclear missiles.
December 12,
North Korea state media says the country has added the hydrogen bomb to its
arsenal, a development that, if true, would represent a major leap in its nuclear
weapons capabilities.
2015
January 6, 2016
North Korea says it has successfully conducted a hydrogen bomb test.
February 7, 2016
North Korea says it launched a satellite into space, triggering a wave of international
condemnation and prompting strong reaction from an emergency meeting of the U.N.
Security Council. North Korea says the launch is for scientific and "peaceful
purposes," but it is widely viewed by other nations as a front to test a ballistic missile,
especially coming on the heels of North Korea's purported hydrogen bomb test a
month earlier.
March 9, 2016
North Korea announces that it has miniature nuclear warheads that can fit on ballistic
missiles.
April 9, 2016
North Korea tests a new engine for an intercontinental ballistic missile, according to
its state-run news agency.
April 23, 2016
North Korea fires what is believed to be a submarine-launched ballistic missile off the
east coast of the Korean peninsula.
April 28, 2016
North Korea fires two midrange Musudan missiles, but both appear to have failed,
according to a South Korean Defense Ministry official.
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events

Atomic energy: international control,1947(S/RES/20)

Atomic Energy: International Control, 1948 (S/RES/52)

Atomic energy: international control, 1949 (S/RES/74)

Non-proliferation, 2006 (S/RES/1737)

Non-proliferation/Democratic People's Republic of Korea, 2006 (S/RES/1718)

Non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, 2006 (S/RES/1673)
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
Non-proliferation/Democratic People's Republic of Korea, 2013(S/RES/2094)

Non-proliferation/Democratic People's Republic of Korea, 2013 (S/RES/2087)

Non-proliferation/Democratic People's Republic of Korea, 5 March 2014 (S/RES/2141 )

Non-proliferation/Democratic People's Republic of Korea, 24 March 2016 (S/RES/2276)
Major countries and organizations involved
United States of America
The USA has always been present in Korea, starting in 1950 with the Korean War. The USA has
always supported South Korea for being the “capitalist” Korea, while North Korea maintained close
ties with China and the Soviet Union, at the time enemies of the USA. The USA has always taken
action against North Korea when it considered that the DPRK was not following international
treaties, such as the NPT. The USA has imposed sanctions on the DPRK after they considered
that she was building a nuclear programme without conforming to the NPT in 2002. Later also, by
freezing North Korean bank assets in 2006 after the DPRK claimed a successful nuclear
detonation.
South Korea
South Korea plays an obvious role here as it directly shares a border with the DPRK and rivalries
between the countries have always kept the region in somewhat of an alert as North Korea with
militaristic ideas, has posed as a threat to South Korean security and integrity. South Korea has
asked for the help of the USA, which is present in the region and constantly monitors it.
China
China has always been one of North Korea’s main allies and could be key in restoring diplomatic
relations with the DPRK. China has always supported North Korea, as they were strong ideological
allies during the cold war. Furthermore, North Korea has always been anti-japan, which is
appraised by the eastern part of China, which holds resentment against the Japanese for their
invasions of the region. However, recent WikiLeaks cables have shown that the DPRK is viewed
by china as a “spoiled child” and that it presents a threat to international security.
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
The United Nations has been constantly passing resolutions to solve the endless issue. North
Korea has received a countless number of sanctions since the beginning of the conflict;
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nevertheless they still claim they are using the nuclear weapons for their space programme which
disenable these sanctions until someone proves them wrong.
When North Korea withdraws from the NPT, South Korea, North Korea, United States of America,
China, Japan and Russia agreed to start with the “Six-Party talks” which aim to uncover a peaceful
solution to the security concerns that result from North Korean nuclear weapons programme. The
main points discussed among the rounds of talks were: Security guarantee as when President
George Bush label North Korea as part of the “axis of evil” concerns among the countries rise, the
construction of light water reactors as a return for the closure of North Korea nuclear power plant
programme in Yongbyon, to ensure peaceful use of nuclear energy as even though the NPT
allows countries the use of it for civilian purposes they think that North Korea is using it to veil their
nuclear weapons programme, to reinforce diplomatic relations – as part of the agreement for
ending its nuclear weapons programme, North Korea claims for a normalization of diplomatic
relations, to set financial restrictions- as a consequence of their unwillingness to cooperate and
give up on its nuclear weapons programme the US imposed strong sanctions to North Korea, and
to establish a valid and permanent disarmament programme.33
In the last resolution, which was passed the 24 March 2016, clauses steadily remark that the
Democratic Republic of Korea nuclear activity is banned by reaffirming resolutions and
agreements that were establish some years ago. An agreement on the nuclear test completed by
North Korea the 6 January 2016 was done, named as The Non- Proliferation and Disarmament
Initiative (NPDI) Joint Statement which fervently condemns the nuclear trials done by North Korea
by claiming there are a violation of the past United Nations Security Council Resolution. The “The
NPDI also urges North Korea to fully comply with its obligations under UNSCRs and the
commitments under the Joint Statement of the Six-Party Talks, to return to compliance with its
IAEA safeguards agreement and the NPT, to abandon all nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles
programs in a complete, verifiable and irreversible manner, and to cease all nuclear activities
immediately. “34
Despite all this attempts to solve the issue, it is evidently show that countries will still have to
discuss new and harsh methods to stop Korea from their constant trials of nuclear weapons. To
this date, UN resolutions have been mostly unsuccessful despite they have favourably slowed the
33
"Six-party Talks." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 17 Aug. 2016.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-party_talks>
34 "NPDI Joint Statement on the Nuclear Test by North Korea on Jan 6th."Ministry of Foreign Affairs
of Japan. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Aug. 2016. <http://www.mofa.go.jp/dns/ac_d/page4e_000369.html>.
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progress in the areas. As a consequence, the conflict is still concerning nations, so a solution must
be found rapidly.
Possible Solutions
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea should be sanctioned for their missile testing which
was conducted dangerously close to Japan, specifically in the Japan Sea, as it was a clear
violation of international law. Further actions of this type could be considered as an act of war and
it is not in the best interest of the international community to withstand a war, either with the
People’s Democratic Republic of Korea or with any other country for that matter.
All member states must not take any unilateral action against the DPRK for any of their actions as
those actions could result in a full on nuclear war between said countries and subsequently, a
nuclear war that could result in a nuclear winter, just as a cold war confrontation could have done
it.
All member states should be discouraged from taking any measures that could be considered as a
threat by the DPRK, such as, but not limited to:

patrolling the area if said country has no direct borders in the area,

increase military presence in the region,

invade North Korean territory, referring to air, sea, and land.
Negotiations and peace talks must be encouraged by all member states, especially those allies of
the North Korea, to persuade the DPRK into a peaceful abandonment of their pursuit to create
nuclear weapons and WMDs.
Bibliography

CNN. Cable News Network, n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/29/world/asia/north-korea-nuclear-timeline---fast-facts/>.

"REPUBLIC OF KOREA SAYS NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY FAILED TO CONTAIN
NUCLEAR SPECTRE ON KOREAN PENINSULA, AS REVIEW CONFERENCE
CONTINUES DEBATE | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases." UN News Center. UN,
n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2016. <http://www.un.org/press/en/2005/dc2957.doc.htm>.
Research Report Booklet | Page 103
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
"Nuclear Weapons – UNODA." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/>.

"Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 10
Aug. 2016. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty>.

"The Definition of Nuclear Weapon." Dictionary.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://www.dictionary.com/browse/nuclear-weapon>.

"Fact Sheets & Briefs." UN Security Council Resolutions on North Korea. N.p., n.d. Web. 10
Aug. 2016. <https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/UN-Security-Council-Resolutions-onNorth-Korea>.

"Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 10 Aug.
2016. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty>.

"Security Council, SC, UNSC, Security, Peace, Sanctions, Veto, Resolution, President,
United Nations, UN, Peacekeeping, Peacebuilding, Conflict Resolution, Prevention." UN
News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.
<http://www.un.org/en/sc/documents/resolutions/>.
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Forum:
Economic and Social Council
Issue:
Assisting countries in building stronger health systems especially
in the aftermath of a natural or a man-made catastrophe
Student Officer: Isabel Muñoz Lessa
Position:
President of the Economic and Social Council
Introduction
WHO’s Director-General Dr. Margaret Chan once said: “I regard universal health coverage as the
single most powerful concept that public health has to offer. It is inclusive. It unifies services and
delivers them in a comprehensive and integrated way, based on primary health care.” Whether it is
a tsunami in Japan, an earthquake in Haiti or a terrorist attack in France, health care systems are
needed immediately. They are, without a shadow of a doubt, the most important factor in the
aftermath of any type of catastrophe. Fast and efficient medical care could mean the difference
between life and death in many cases, and it is more than essential that all areas of assistance
cooperate and coordinate in order to make everything run smoothly, and to bring peace and
security to the affected community in the middle of the chaos.
Clearly, it is not an easy task. So much so that in the majority of cases, medical assistance faces
difficulties in every step of the way when attending an emergency call of this kind. Further
problems, such as lack of government preparation and prevention systems for these disasters that
lead to bad organization at the moment, and perhaps the not good enough training of the medical
staff also interfere and slow the recovery process.
Since its foundation in 1948 and with some important milestones in the way, the World Health
Organization has collaborated with or is entirely responsible for the major improvements that have
been made in the issue, with the set objective of “developing and implementing multisectoral public
policies for health, integrated gender- and age-sensitive approaches that facilitate community
empowerment together with action for health promotion, self-care and health protection throughout
the life course in cooperation with the relevant national and international partners” (WHO, About
Us), alongside the Red Cross and many other organizations. Nonetheless, there is still a long way
to go and in a world as this one, where tragedy strikes somewhere almost every day, the
importance of the strengthening of health systems in the aftermath of a catastrophe cannot be
stressed enough.
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Definition of Key Terms
Health system
The combination of many resources that hold as main purpose to provide, promote, restore
and maintain health among the population. There are four main types of health systems: the
Beveridge model, in which the government is responsible for all the financing and providing
of healthcare; the Bismarck model, in which everyone contributes to an insurance policy and
health care is provided without discrimination to all those; the National Health Insurance
model, in which everyone contributes to an insurance policy but those insurance companies
are privately run and therefore the fee may vary; and the “out of the pocket” model, in which
citizens pay for the healthcare they receive in the moment, and often poor people get sick
and die because they cannot afford medical care.
Disasters
A sudden, accidental event of great magnitude that causes a great negative impact on life
and property. When a disaster occurs due to natural forces and cannot be prevented, they
are called natural disasters. Examples can be earthquakes, floods, landslides or tsunamis,
among others. When they are due to human irresponsibility or misuse of hazardous
materials, or with any kind of human intention behind, they are called man-made disasters.
These can also be divided in two categories: local disasters, such as plane crashes or any
kind of accident regarding means of transport, as well as the collapsing of a building, or
these type of tragedy that would only damage the population or the land where the disaster
took place; and industrial and technological disasters, which are usually the result of
technology failures or industrial accidents, and of a much larger scale, hence they have
much worse repercussions not only locally but covering bigger areas. Examples of these are
the leakage of air or water pollutants.
Pandemic
Worldwide spread of a new disease.
Background Information
Whenever an area is struck by any type of disaster, there are certain phases to go through in order
to get the population and the area involved back on its feet and recover not only in a material way
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(properties, buildings, natural spaces damaged) but also in a physical and health related way. It is
quite normal that, after a catastrophe, there is a large amount of people not only physically injured
but mentally damaged as well, generally due to all the stress and anxiety that the situation causes.
Furthermore, it is also of great importance to give shelter to all those who have lost their home,
and to be as fast as possible in recovering and, if needed, reconstructing all those affected areas,
as long as it is possible. It is not easy at all for those in care of the assistance to make everything
run smoothly in this whole process. This is due to the fact that a catastrophe, whether it is
manmade or natural, can be of great magnitude, to the point of causing great loss of lives and
property and huge damage to the infrastructure and architecture of any type of area. Therefore,
medical assistance can face difficulties to get to the affected area, to treat patients with the
necessary medical resources, to take patients to a hospital if needed, to try and make everyone
stay calm and not panic, and to do all of the mentioned patiently and ordered, without losing
control of the situation. This is why, in most cases, health care systems in the aftermath of a
disaster are not as efficient as they could be, and always have certain aspects to improve.
Before reading about specific phases, it is relevant to understand that the role of media in the face
of a disaster is also an influential factor after a disaster as well. So much so that if the tragedy
does not strike in our own community, probably everything we know about it is through media, so it
has great power in its hands, as well as great responsibility. They have the mission to portray and
communicate the causes and consequences of the event to the world, as well as the needs of the
victims. People tend to donate everything they want to, and to speculate about what victims need.
This may seem harmless, but it is not, because donations need a place to be kept, and people to
organize and distribute them properly, and as you will read below, and after a disaster these things
are not as easy to find as they sound. This is one of the minor disadvantages about media
coverage after a disaster.
Another huge disadvantage when the disaster is man-made, is the way media portrays it, or the
way it does not. International press can choose to cover or not certain events, and this can rise up
huge scandals, since certain press coverage companies can be accused of racist, xenophobic or
discriminatory in general because of which attacks of tragedies they decide to cover, and how they
do so. This has happened, for example, with the last several disasters in France. Media in general
was accused of covering terrorist attacks in big cities whereas in the Middle East, where tragedy of
this type strikes much more often, no one is there to communicate it to the world. This is why
media in general has to be careful on what and how they portray man-made catastrophes.
Phase one: Emergency
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The minute after the tragedy strikes, the first phase naturally is the emergency phase. The first and immediate - response is medical. The main preoccupation in this moment is for properly
trained personnel to step in, find and rescue all those who have a remote chance of being saved.
Everything is about trying to stabilize the health of those affected with emergency interventions.
Once this first step is finished, it is precise and needed to provide the affected community with
basic goods for surviving the displacement, such as food, clean water and shelter, and if needed,
further medical aid. It is important in these cases to take stock of medical supplies for many
different possible situation, given that there can be many different outcomes regarding health in
the aftermath of a disaster.
Phase two: indirect medical consequences, effects and secondary illnesses
Right after the immediate trauma and the emergency phase is over, it is time to deal with
consequences that do not tend to show in the early aftermath of the accident, such as the mental
health of all those affected. It is evident that a disaster causes a high amount of stress and anxiety,
not only because of the possible loss of loved ones, but also for the loss of properties, and even
jobs. All in all, the whole livelihood of a human being changes, and it is very rare to upfront this
without any kind of psychological consequence. So much so that it is expected for catastrophe
victims to go through a traumatic phase, which sometimes turns into severe mental disorders or
high levels of anxiety. Normally it is addressed as Post Traumatic Stress disorder (PTSD). It is
expected for the health system in care of the affected area to not only start treatment with these
patients but also to stay as long as needed until patients are fully recovered and with the ability to
get back to their normal, pre-tragedy lives.
Phase three: the redemption stage
Follow-up to the initial emergency response
Within the first 24 hours following a disaster, the focus remains on getting access to the
critically ill or injured and making sure they are being properly treated and attended. This
stage usually faces great difficulties because of the damage that medical infrastructure, due
to the catastrophe, suffers as well. This does not only cover, for example, ambulances and
fire trucks, but also more specific medical equipment that can get lost and, most importantly,
medical staff. It is only natural for doctors and all kinds of medical staff to, when called upon
for an emergency response, only answer once they make sure their families and loved ones
are fine and sheltered. Adding up, the damaging of certain disasters to public spaces may
destruct roads and bridges, making much more harder for anyone that could help the injured
to actually access the affected area, and to those that have already been rescued to get to
hospitals and treatment centers.
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Once there is enough volunteers and/or professionals in the scene, the focus turns more
specifically to transport and hospital capacity. As previously mentioned, this type of
infrastructure may lack as well in the face of a disaster, hence the situation may be
complicated for everyone involved, especially for those awaiting severe medical treatment
that can only be provided in a hospital. Hospitals itselves also face a great challenge:
capacity and proper medical coverage for all those injured (that depending on the disaster,
may be quite a large number)
as well as enough staff and medicine, shelter,
accommodation and constant supply of basic needs. Depending on the hospital’s size and
resources, if it will face great trouble, but chances are higher amount of complications are
presented in earlier stages.
Infrastructure issues
There are many infrastructural areas that can be severely affected by a catastrophe and can
prevent all those affected from getting the necessary attention and care needed. The critical
infrastructure of a community includes, for example, shelter, power grids, fuel lines,
communication systems, transportation networks and the supply of potable water. The
interruption of any of these aspects may have terrible consequences in the health of the
community.
Within a 48 hour period after the disaster, when they have already received medical care,
the focus turns to providing the victims with shelter. The rescue stage may still be on its first
steps with some of the affected, but for all those already categorized as survivors, the
recovery and reconstruction of a proper safe haven has to begin. In the face of any disaster could be a terrorist attack as well as a tornado or a tsunami - the loss of shelter is very
common, not only due to absolute destruction of property, but also to damaged structures or
houses that become uninhabitable. Displaced or homeless victims are abundant after a
catastrophe, and so the hunt for temporary housing or a whole new home is set off. The type
or longevity of the shelter provided depends on each situation.
The damage of power grids and fuel lines may have many severe far reaching
consequences in the health of a community, as well as the supply of potable water. Without
proper power grids, families are unable to protect themselves from the extreme cold of a
winter storm, for example, and they are left absolutely vulnerable. As time goes on, without
power, families do not have the ability to cool or heat their homes, and to properly prepare or
maintain food, bringing huge health issues to the table. And in the case that they are
provided with suitable water, they wouldn’t have the resources to use it for cooking, or
boiling it properly. If we add up the interruption of communication systems, the situation
becomes much more severe, since there is no possibility of emergency calls and asking for
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help. Infrastructural damage may go so far that, in a case like this one, if a family is lucky
enough for its communication systems to work properly, transportation networks may be
affected and so a call would not be enough. If all these problems are taken to, for example, a
community living in an island, it would lead to complete isolation and therefore, probably
many deaths; and if not deaths, many psychological problems to be faced later on.
Phase four: recovery
The recovery phase is basically about, one step at a time, getting everything back to normal. In a
way it englobes all the other phases, but it is specially taken into action after the other phases
have been taken care of. It is very broad due to everything a disaster can really change about a
community.
Health and the spreading of diseases
The main health concern in the aftermath of a disaster and the displacement of so many, is
the establishment of hygiene protocols within camps, the prevention or control of the
outbreak of diseases, and the invention or re establishment of hygienic routines. For
example, it is very important that each one of the victims residing on a camp is daily checked
for viruses or bacteria of any kind and in case one of these is detected, to isolate the
affected until the problem is has been dealt with. By this, viruses are prevented from
spreading among the camp and affect victims that are already vulnerable physically and
emotionally. Furthermore, certain bathing and cleaning routines should be established in
every camp in order to maintain the hygiene standards of a healthy environment as well as
the order within victims residing there, avoiding disputes and possible (absolutely normal
and maybe even expected) coexistence problems.
The resumption of health systems and usual medical aid could be accomplished by the
establishment of temporary clinics or small medical installations where needed, especially
near the area where refugee camps and temporary shelters are, since all those affected by
the disaster are highly likely to need constant medical attention. The resumption of the
health systems that the community counted with before the disaster should try to get back to
normal work as soon as possible, as well as any type of disease monitoring.
It is not the outbreak of a new pandemic that local health systems should be especially
monitoring, but the spread of endemic and common diseases. Because of the displacement
and the new (though hopefully temporary) way of living of the affected is a perfect cradle for
diseases to be spread, mainly because of the personal hygiene habits that normally get lost
due to the lack of running clean water. Sometimes, certain sanitary education is needed to
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ensure that victims make properly use of the installations that they count with and that they
do not waste or contaminate potable water, and also education on the maintenance of food
with the available resources.
Deceased
Another important issue to tackle in the aftermath of any kind of catastrophe is the dealing
with corpses. Even though the removing, identification and processing of dead bodies should
be done in the first 24 hours after the tragedy, it is part of the recovery stage, since it not
only covers the collection and classification of bodies but also the decision of cremating or
burying them, and the notifications to the next a kin of all the deceased. It is a very important
part of the community’s venture to get back on its feet and to start rebuilding the lives of all.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
World Health Organization
The WHO’s emergency response system mainly focuses on pandemics and epidemics, so their
involvement in the issue at hand is, for example, whenever a disease outbreaks and vaccines are
immediately needed, or general medical staff is lacking. It has proven to be incredibly effective,
focusing not only in the aftermath of the disaster itself but constantly working with governments on
campaigns and policies for prevention and preparedness in the case of an emergency. They are
also working on maintaining a global platform to support outbreak responses worldwide and in
order to be able to always be there whenever and wherever tragedy strikes. It counts with a
number of subteams and sub organizations especially dedicated to emergency responses, and as
a whole it is one of the most effective and helpful organizations in the world, always willing to
cooperate and assist, no matter time or place of the tragedy.
Oxfam International
It is an international organization whose aim is to fight poverty worldwide, in more than 90
countries in the moment. They help poor people claim their basic human rights, as well as
encouraging the empowerment of women, the protection of natural resources and helping
economically the development of countries in need.
They have an emergency response system to countries that have faced a catastrophe, because
they understand that in the aftermath of a disaster, the poor are the most affected. In any given
time, they are responding to 30 emergency situations all around the world. They also work with
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global and local policy makers to try to change what needs to be changed to improve the lives of
the affected.
They have worked in the crisis’ in Syria, South Sudan, Gaza, and Ethiopia, among others, and
responded to disasters such as the earthquakes in Ecuador and in Haiti. In the immediate
aftermath they provide victims with basic essential savings, and in the long term they help and
support people to start rebuilding their lives in a more holistic way. This is how they connect to the
issue at hand: when tragedy strikes, they are always there, helping and assisting those who are
often forgotten and unseen by everyone else.
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies is the largest humanitarian
organization in the world. It comprises 190 member Red Cross and Red Crescent National
Societies, a secretariat in Geneva and more than 60 delegations to support activities around the
world.
Their network of National Societies is essential because it helps the IFRC reaching more and more
communities and establish centers where is needed in face of a disaster. The Secretariat in
Geneva is what coordinates and organizes assistance for emergencies all around the world, and
the field delegations help and encourage the cooperation of the IFRC with regional organizations
to get everything running smoothly. The IFRC, together with National Societies and the
International Committee of the Red Cross, make up the International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Movement, and one of the main aims of the organization as a whole is disaster response and
recovery.
National Societies in the aftermath of a disaster usually work with volunteers from the affected
community itself, and this is one of the best aspects of the assistance. They are the first to respond
and they know best how to help, serve and comfort the affected community because they are part
of it.
Timeline of Events
See appendix I: Timeline of essential medicines and health systems milestones
United Nations involvement
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The United Nations has a number of organizations whose aim - or at least one if its purposes - is
to respond to emergency situations in the aftermath of disasters. They all have different purposes
and attend different aspects in order to make the recovery of the affected as fast and as complete
as possible. Some of them are the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International
Organization for Migration (IOM), The Office of United Nations High Commissioner for Human
Rights (OHCHR), The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), The United Nations
Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), and of course, The World Health Organization (WHO).
They are specialized agencies, which means they co work with and are funded by the United
Nations, but may or may not be originally created by the United Nations itself.
Furthermore, there have been some resolutions/drafts involving the strengthening of health
systems.

Global health and foreign policy, 6 December 2012 (A/67/L.36)

Primary health care, including health system strengthening, 26 January 2009 (EB124. R8)

Strengthening national health emergency and disaster management capacities and resilience
of health systems, 24 may 2011, (WHA64.10)
Possible Solutions
In order to find a possible solution to this issue, the most important factor to take into consideration
is to understand and respect what victims need, depending on the phase of the disaster they are
in. If they are in need of medical assistance (what is highly likely), it is important that everyone in
the area makes the most of the resources around them and does everything they can to help
medical aid getting to those in need as soon as possible. The first step for the doctors to attend
victims is to rescue them and take them outside of the affected area. For this to happen tidily and
fast, people that know how to do so - probably fire-fighters or rescuers - should act immediately,
and try to stop anyone who doesn’t know how to properly proceed. This is where many other
things come into the picture as well - proper training for emergencies of medical staff should be
always a main issue for health systems. If this is not being tackled as it should, it will be evident
and may cause great impact in the moment of the rescue.
Furthermore, it can be tempting for anyone with a loved one hurt or with a hero complex to want to
get in the heart of the conflict and risk their own lives to save others, what is not necessarily wrong,
but in the face of a catastrophe, the more living, conscious and unharmed people there is, the
better. Also, chances are the fire-fighter knows better about how to rescue a victim than the
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victim’s brother or sister, and worse consequences can be avoided if professionals step in (in case
they are properly trained, of course).
In a certain way, the same goes for medical assistance. Once victims are outside the affected area
and ready to receive the care they need, doctors are the ones who should take care of it. They can
either be volunteers or part of the health system responding. It is of great importance as well that
this is done in the most tidy and calm way as possible, without losing control or focus.
In the further aftermath, there always should be someone taking care of and supervising shelters,
not only in terms of hygiene and medical aid, but also making sure that everyone is well located
and has a proper place to sleep. This is important for the human integrity as well as for the
psychological and physical health of the victims. Nonetheless, although they should be as
comfortable as possible in their temporary housing, they should also try to slowly recover and get
back to their normal - pre-disaster - lives. It is not easy to move on after a tragedy, especially if the
loss of loved ones is involved, but shelters are supposed to be temporary and victims cannot stay
forever tied up to their losses, therefore after a while there has to be certain improvement in their
lives. This should be monitored, and victims should count with all the help they need in order to get
back on their feet. This englobes medical aid as well as the reconstruction of their houses (or the
search for new ones) and the search for new jobs if needed. Victims should also have
psychological support throughout all phases of the catastrophe. All of these factors, although not
directly related to the medical area, are essential help for the health systems to work tidily and
smoothly on all phases and with all victims.
Other important fact to strengthen health systems involving emergency assistance is the creation
(and if it exists, the improvement) of a system, in every area all around the world, that is
specifically dedicated to emergency responses. Is is understandable that certain less economically
developed countries can resist to these kind of solutions/preventions because of lack of funding
and may see it as unnecessary, but it is fundamental to understand that no area is free from a
disaster, and when disasters strike, they do not discriminate. Natural disasters escape from human
power and cannot be prevented, hence is is impossible to be free from such a thing, so
governments should never hesitate to provide funds for such a thing. Manmade disasters,
although can be more selective with the area they affect, still do not discriminate on who
specifically they harm. As human beings, nobody is completely safe from a catastrophe, and this is
why every area should count on an emergency team. Wise Men say “better safe than sorry”, and
this is the best example.
Bibliography
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"About." World Health Organization. World Health Organization, n.d. Web. 12 July 2016.
"What Is a Health System?" What Is a Health System? (n.d.): n. pag.World Bank. World Bank,
24 Apr. 2007. Web. 12 July 2016.
"Natural and Man-Made Disaster and Their Impact on Environment." Biology Discussion. Biology
Discussion, 31 Jan. 2015. Web. 12 July 2016.
Beard, Katherine. "Long-term Health Problems After Natural Disasters Strike."US News.
U.S.News & World Report, 6 Jan. 2014. Web. 12 July 2016.
"How We Help in times of Crisis." Oxfam International. Oxfam International, n.d. Web. 18 July
2016.
"Our Vision and Mission." IFRC. IFRC, n.d. Web. 19 July 2016.
"Organisations Involved in Disaster Management." World Confederation for Physical Therapy.
WCPT, 1 Mar. 2016. Web. 19 July 2016.
Garabedian, Laura, Dennis Ross-Degnan, Maryam Bigdeli, Richard Laing, and Anita K. Wagner.
Timeline of Essential Medicines and Health Systems Milestones (n.d.): n. pag. World Health
Organization. World Health Organization, 2014. Web. 19 July 2016.
March, Gerard. "Natural Disasters and the Impacts on Health." Natural Disasters and the
Impacts on Health Report.doc (n.d.): n. pag. EIRD. EIRD, 2002. Web. 12 July 2016
"About Us." WHO. WHO, n.d. Web. 07 Aug. 2016.
Appendix or Appendices
I.
Timeline of essential medicines and health systems milestones
II.
Natural Disasters and the Impacts on Health
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Forum:
Economic and Social Council
Issue:
Developing measures to decrease global dependency on fossil
fuels
Student Officer: Isabel Muñoz Lessa
Position:
President of the Economic and Social Council
Introduction
Our world is not infinite. It has a deadline, and this deadline comes when resources run out; all of
them. The main problem lately has been that humans act as if this deadline was not real - as if
resources were infinite, and this causes great damage to the environment and takes toll on many
lives, what makes this deadline more and more close in time.
The heavy exploitation of fossil fuels is making severe wounds on our earth, and leaving scars that
will not heal, making this world a worse world each day. A place in which we would not want to
bring our children into. Certain environments are hazardous to the point of making breathing
dangerous and unhealthy for all living things, and this is not acceptable. But nowadays many
countries have become so reliant on these fuels that there may not be a way back, or at least not a
simple one.
Humans have become unbelievably unaware of the damage they are causing and how this has a
direct repercussion on themselves, leading them to pollute and waste resources without control,
and with no limits. In some areas of the world, the earth has manifested its weakness in forms of
natural disasters or environments that have become uninhabitable, but to wait until this point of no
return is to, little by little, destroy our lives and the lives of future communities. If humans plan to
live on this planet much longer, this situation will have to stop. Major countries will have to find
another solution that can replace fossil fuels and become more aware of the harm they are
causing, because like Pope Francis said, “God always forgives, we men forgive sometimes, but
nature never forgives. If you give her a slap, she will give you one.”.
We should take care of our common home. At the end of the day, it is ours, and we should take
care of it just as we take care of our belongings. If not, in the near future, it will not be useful
anymore.
Definition of Key Terms
Renewable and nonrenewable resources
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Renewable resources are those that when used, are restored by the environment over a
short period of time. Usually, by the time this resource is used up completely, it will have
regenerated already. Non-renewable are the opposite: those resources that are limited, and
cannot be replenished once they are used up.
Fossil fuels
Fossil energy sources are non-renewable resources that were formed before prehistoric
time, and with time they ended up buried by layers of rock. Depending on the organic matter
present, how long they were buried and the temperature and pressure they were under,
among other conditions, different types of fossil fuels formed. Nowadays, many industries
drill or mine to get to these fossil fuels and use it for different purposes.
Greenhouse effect
The process by which radiation from a planet’s atmosphere heats the planet’s surface to a
much higher temperature. The amount greenhouse gases (radioactively active gases) that
the atmosphere emits, depend on how much of these gases the atmosphere contains.
Earth’s greenhouse effect has turned critical, causing what we know as global warming.
Global warming
It is a term used to describe the rising of the average temperature of the Earth, mainly the
from 1970’s until today, which has been severe. This can have a terrible impact on the
planet: ocean warming, sea levels rising, expansion of deserts and changing of the whole
meteorological system. Also, extreme weather disasters are increasingly expected.
Background Information
There are many types of fossil fuels, and many ways in which their exploitation can damage the
environment. They are all finite, and somehow should be replaced by other sources for the earth
not to run out of energy once it runs out of these fuels.
Oil
Oil is formed underground by the decomposition of organisms such as plankton and algae. It is the
world’s most important fuel and the key for transportation systems everywhere. Oil refining
produces transport fuels such as gasoline and diesel. By-products from oil refining are also
valuable, and produce plastics and chemicals, among many other things.
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Crude oil is refined into petroleum products, which are used for many different purposes. When
petroleum products are burnt to produce energy, they can be used to propel a car, to heat a house
or to generate electric power.
Because of the world’s heavy reliance on it for transportation, it is very hard to reduce oil
consumption, but it causes major environmental problems. It produces the biggest emission of
greenhouse gas; the 42% of all the greenhouse gas emitted in the United States. Oil can be
pumped out of the underground like all the other fossil fuels, but it can also be extracted from other
types of dirty fuels such as tar sands or shale. When turning to these, extracting methods turn to
more emission of greenhouse gases and destruction of the environment, so as the situation is
now, there is no safe and pollution-free way of extracting oil, and not a good prospect on the world
decreasing its consumption of t.
Oil consumption around the world in 2009 by The Guardian UK
Dirty fuels
The term “dirty fuels” is used for fuels that derive from liquid coal, tar sands and oil shale. They can
all be turned into gasoline, diesel and many other energy sources that cause a lot of particle
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pollution, carbon emission (greenhouse gas) and ecosystem destruction since they are produced
to their consumption.
Coal
Coal has always been used, mainly burnt, for producing electricity and/or heat. It is
the largest source of energy for electricity, so much so that today, almost half of the world’s
energy comes from coal. However, it is also one of the main sources of carbon dioxide
releases. It is extracted from the ground by mining, and every step of its exploitation is
directly linked to the damaging of the environment in many different ways, including
greenhouse effect and global warming.
In 2010, the world’s consumption of coal was of about 7.2 billion tonnes. It is estimated to
increase and by 2020, be in about 9.05 tonnes, which can be tragic for the Earth’s wellbeing.
The use of coal has severe adverse impact on health and deaths. Breathing in coal dust
causes what is known as “black lung”, coal worker’s pneumoconiosis, which causes around
1500 deaths a year. Also, coal is hazardous and toxic to human beings and other lives for its
properties. It contains radioactive elements and those living near coal plants are constantly
exposed to radiation.
Furthermore, it also has great negative impact on environment. Coal mining can pollute
water systems, as well as affecting ground water level and acidity. One of the earliest and
most well known examples of coal impact on the water cycle is acid rain. Coal mines that are
not used anymore can also cause trouble, since subsidence can occur in crop lands or
infrastructure. Coal can also cause incredibly long lasting fires, for example what they call
the “Burning Mountain” in Germany, a coal seam fire that has been burning since 1668.
Tar sands
Tar sands (sometimes referred to as oil sands) are a combination of clay, sand, water and
bitumen, and can be processed to extract oil-rich bitumen which is later refined into oil. Tar
sands are mined and processed to generate oil similar to the one that is pumped out from
underground, but the process of extracting oil from tar sands is much more complex than
that. The extraction of tar sands is obtained by mining or, in certain cases, in-bitu production.
Both of these methods require a large amount of water and energy for heating and pumping,
and of course, have a great negative impact on the environment. Not only they contribute to
greenhouse emissions and global warming, but also cause great damage to the land where
they mine, the wildlife and air and the water quality there. It also has a great economic
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impact wherever the process takes place, since a lot of equipment, workers and
infrastructure is needed for such a procedure.
Oil shale
Oil shale is a sedimentary rock that contains bituminous materials, and when heated it
releases petroleum-like liquids. It can be mined and processed to generate oil as well.
However, the extraction of oil shale is much more complex than the mere extract of oil. It can
be mined by underground or surface mining, but the process it undergoes later to extract oil
from it is much more expensive and hazardous. As for the environmental impact, it is the
same as the extraction of tar sands, but much more expensive. There is not as much
production of oil shale as there is of tar sands, but there is a common thought that
conventional oil should be replaced by oil shale, even though it is quite expensive not only to
produce but to buy as well.
Natural gas
Natural gas is, without a doubt, the cleanest of all the fossil fuels. It is extracted from deep beneath
the earth’s surface as well, and can be used as a fuel or to make chemicals and other materials.
However, it can still be damaging to the environment. Nowadays, in order to find where to drill for
natural gas, geologists use seismic surveys, which send echoes from a vibration source from the
surface of the earth to collect information about the rocks beneath. Sometimes, when these
vibrations are not enough, they tend to use small amounts of dynamite. After a promising site is
located, wells are drilled and natural gas emerges from the wells up to the surface.
It is true: it is by far less harmful to the environment that coal and oil, and easier to store and to
transport, and it is also much safer and cheaper than the rest of fossil fuels. However, is has many
downsides as well. It is highly toxic and flammable; gas leaks are tremendously dangerous and
cause many deaths by explosions or just by its inhalation. When burned, it does release dioxides
that damage the environment and contribute to global warming and climate change as well as the
other fuels, and it has quite a complex processing. When compared to the rest of the fossil fuels, it
looks as if natural gas is the solution and replacement for all the trouble, but unfortunately it is also
non renewable and finite, and it cannot be replacement for other fuels just as it cannot be exploited
as much as them.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United States of America
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In order to meet its growing energy needs, the United States has become completely reliant upon
fossil fuels. In fact, 81% of the country’s energy comes from these. They use coil to meet half of
the country’s energy needs and their transportation system is based on petroleum oil, which
makes them responsible for more than 20% of the global warming pollution. These
environmentally violent procedures do not only damage our earth but also threatens the US’
prosperity on economy and security. There has been many attempts to solve the issue and
numerous organizations with alternative projects to eliminate or reduce the exploitation of fossil
fuels in such an immense way, but facing facts, it would take quite a lot of time to change the
actual situation. Each day, the damage increases and environment gets more and more weak.
President Obama really committed to the cause, and stated: “It is going to have to be a solution
that leaves a lot of fossil fuel assets in the ground. We are not going to get rid of fossil fuel
overnight but we are not going to solve climate change on the basis of all the fossil fuels that are in
the ground are going to have to come out. That’s pretty obvious.” This is a huge step for the United
States’ fight against the use of fuels and climate change.
China
China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world. This does not only affect China
itself, but is a threat and a worry globally. Air pollution within the country has gotten so bad that
every year about 750,000 people die only due to it. Furthermore, coal burning in China is on such
a large scale that it is not only the number one producer of carbon dioxide released into air, but
also is responsible for a whole quarter of the world’s carbon dioxide output. According to a recent
study published by the New York Times, "even if American emissions were to suddenly disappear
tomorrow, world emissions would be back at the same level within four years as a result of China’s
growth alone."
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China’s coal power by Climate Central
The country, as well as the rest of the world, is quite worried about the situation and is trying to
decrease coal consumption and production. In the past few years many coal-fired power plants
have been shut down and supposedly many more will close in the near future, especially in
Beijing, where the situation was and still is considerably worse than in the rest of the country. In
2015, China invested over 370 billion dollars in energy saving and carbon emission reduction
projects. Of course it is not easy at all to make a significant change when talking about such an
enormous problem, but China is taking baby steps towards a better future.
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)
The NRDC works, within the United States and globally, to safeguard the environment as a whole people, plants, animals and natural systems. It was founded by a group of lawyers in 1970 and
nowadays counts with many specialists from different scientific and legal areas all around the
world to protect the earth. They have more than two million active members and try to “ensure the
rights of all people to the air, the water and the wild”. They battle every single damage that the
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environment suffers and have proven to be quite effective, so much so that the Wall Street Journal
called it “the most effective lobbying and litigating group on environmental issues”.
They are quite committed to the cause of clean energy and the battle against fossil and dirty fuels.
They got the Unites States government to adopt its first policies on coal pollution from plants, and
continue to promote policies that fight against fossil fuels in small communities. They also provide
different alternative plans to replace what they call “dirty energy”.
Greenpeace
Because of its large work worldwide and its influence on all environment related matters,
Greenpeace is probably the most well-known organization when talking about earth safeguarding.
It has been around since 1970 and promotes a better future for every living thing on the planet.
The organization has quite a long list of successes and victories on many issues and have been
great help on the issue of fossil fuels. Around the world, they campaign to close down coal plants,
they tend to reveal the true costs of these productions and to expose myths about false solutions.
They also campaign to stop the investment from environmentally destructive companies on these
projects. They are making the path for a cleaner, brighter future without the violence that our
planet is undergoing today.
StopFundingFossils
StopFundingFossils is an organization that fights against all the investment that G20 countries put
into the exploitation of fossil fuels. Its founding is built upon “empty promises” from governments,
and the organization states that since 2009 many treaties have been signed by these countries to
decrease or eliminate their funding on fossils but every year, it actually increases, and they invest
four times on fossil fuels what they invest in clean energy. The organization is working globally and
especially through social media to conscientize people and find out what their own governments
are doing on the matter, and try to make a change. In appendix III, you will find a video with
further explanation on the organization’s focus.
Timeline of Events
See appendix I: EPA. "Legislative and Regulatory Timeline for Fossil Fuel Combustion Wastes." EPA.
Environmental Protection Agency, 24 Mar. 2016. Web. 24 July 2016. Legislative and Regulatory
Timeline for Fossil Fuel Combustion Wastes.
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events
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
United Nations Paris Climate Agreement, 22nd April 2016 : last April, most of the Member
States of the United Nations signed an agreement on climate, promising to start taking better
care of the environment and to face climate change as the huge problem it is. It was a huge
milestone in history: for the first time, many countries agreed to cooperate and work together
for the same cause, our common home.

Carbon
Sequestration
-
Avoiding
CO2
emissions
from
fossil
fuels.
ECOSOC.
(ENERGY/GE.1/2002/8) : this resolution passed in 2002 and treated the emissions of carbon
dioxide due to fossil fuels exploitation, mainly coal. It did not have the impact that was
expected and CO2 emissions did not decrease, but it was a little step towards getting these
kind of issues to be debated.

Report of the Group of Experts on Cleaner Electricity Production from Fossil Fuels. ECOSOC.
Eleventh session Geneva, 30 October 2015. : This is a report written in Geneva in 2015 by a
group of experts on clean electricity. They tried to create awareness among the ECOSOC
Member States about the situation of fossil fuels and proposed different solutions to the issue.
To which extent it really made a change, it is hard to say, but we know that earlier this year the
Paris Climate Agreement took place, so it may have been just the kick they needed.
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
Even though there has been many attempts to tackle this issue and it has been debated many
times, finding a solution is quite harder than it seems due to the fact that the world’s dependency
on fossil fuels nowadays is almost irreversible.
However, this year history has been made. The United Nations Paris Climate Agreement is the
first step towards the world working for a better future. All the countries that signed agreed to
reduce contamination and try to raise awareness on the issue back home, and it is not seen very
often this many countries agreeing to work for the greater good. To be more specific, countries
agreed to: reduce emissions, to get together every five years to set more goals on the matter and
to be transparent about the issue, reporting every high or low, to help each other (especially
developing countries) in the adaptation to climate change, to minimize and raise awareness about
the loss and damage that climate change can cause, and those who have already been working to
fight climate change, to continue doing so.
In terms of legislation, the United Kingdom has been a pioneer on the matter, with what is known
as the Government’s Climate Change Bill. UK’s government agreed to reduce a 60% its
CO2 emissions by 2050, which is a significant change. Said agreement also includes a
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committee that will particularly take care of the matter and advise the government on how to
better achieve these goals. If all countries in the world agreed to do such a thing, it would
definitely make a huge change and it would have an incredibly positive impact on our Earth.
Even though for some countries it would be impossible due to economic issues, those
countries who are able to do so, should follow the United Kingdom’s example.
Previous to the Paris Climate Agreement, a not very effective attempt of the same agreement has
been held by the United Nations called the Kyoto Protocol. It was adopted in Japan in 1997 and
entered into force in 2005, and committed its parties to set emission reduction targets.
Unfortunately, only around 37 countries signed it, and it did not have much of a positive impact
anywhere but Japan. However, it was a first attempt, and could have helped to raise awareness. It
definitely is the main predecessor of the Paris Agreement.
Possible Solutions
Renewable energy
Bioenergy (Biofuels and biomass)
Biomass can be used to produce renewable electricity, thermal energy, and transportation
fuels that are called biofuels. It refers to crops, residues and other biological materials from
which energy can be obtained, hence they can replace fossil fuels. Living biomass inhales
carbon as it grows and then releases carbon when it releases energy, therefore it does not
contribute to greenhouse effects. The energy stored in biomass can be released to produce
electricity and heat, while biofuels can produce many combustibles for transportation that
would lay off the constant demand of petroleum. It would make a great positive impact on
the environment by reducing the use of fossil fuels, and the most important thing to know is
that, at least in not so big countries, the constant use of bioenergy is viable. So, ¿what is
missing? The sad answer is: awareness. To make a change, the first step is to care, and to
be informed, and sadly not a lot of people know about these solutions.
Hydrogen fuel cells
They are cells that use hydrogen as fuel to go through an electrochemical process and turn
into (or produce) electricity. They only need water and heat to be processed into energy.
It is abundant in biomass and in water as well as in different fossils, and the greenhouse
gases that the production releases depend on how the hydrogen is extracted from them.
Nowadays, most hydrogen is extracted from natural gas, emitting carbon dioxide as a
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byproduct, but of course less than any fossil fuel. Electricity systems with fuel cells can be
located on site, and owners can operate independently from a power grid. The heat
produced by fuel cells can be used to heat spaces and water as well as for industrial
purposes, which makes it the most practical alternative probably. The biggest downside
though, is the price, which is high above the price of gasoline and makes it unviable for
many countries and communities that can’t afford it.
Hydropower
There are many technologies that use water to produce electricity, but the most used and
well known is hydropower. Basically, it is generated by the movement of flowing water, which
propels a turbine that runs a generator, which produces energy. It is renewable because it
just takes the water cycle to make and it never ends, and it is a clean and safe alternative to
other fossil fuels. The only costs are for building the infrastructure needed - usually dams.
This technology is already used worldwide and all major running water areas in the world
already have dams built and are producing energy. However, there is not much awareness
about the fact that dams and hydropower technologies can also be installed in small rivers
and in lakes as well as in the ocean. This is why, even though hydropower is an actual thing,
it is not as exploited as it could be and the earth is missing out on this great resource, and
turning to dirty fossil fuels instead.
Wind power
Wind can be transformed into electricity by using a wind turbine. It is the most renewable
source of energy; wind is infinite. It is a growing industry and nowadays eolic parks are built
almost everywhere, because wind turbines come in many different sizes and therefore
produce the amount of energy according to the size of the area. It is a very clean source and
one of the best alternatives; even though the infrastructure is a little expensive to build, once
it is settled the costs are minimum and energy is plenty, and it barely contaminates.
Geothermal
Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from below the earth’s surface. It is renewable
and does not emit greenhouse gases at all. Once the geothermal system is built, costs are
very low, since fuel is free. It can be used to heat and cool buildings or neighbourhoods, or
produce electricity.
Because underground temperatures are constant and almost the same everywhere,
geothermal energy can be used worldwide. The major promoter and example of this
resource is Iceland, who has 90% of its housing relying on geothermal systems. The
downside to the matter are the geothermal power plants, which to produce energy in a much
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larger scale, turn to drilling and end up damaging areas and investing a large amount of
money on these procedures. Within the United States, geothermal energy is the third most
used renewable source of energy, below hydropower and biomass.
Solar energy
Solar energy systems use sun’s rays to produce electricity or thermal energy. There are
many ways in which this can be done. Solar water heaters, for example, are systems that
heat water for an entire building, or for a swimming pool, among others. Within the solar
energy systems this is the most common one for its cost effectiveness and its simple
installation. It usually needs the backup of a natural gas system for cloudy days, but it has
proven to be much more cheap than other heating systems that include fuels.
Other systems to produce solar energy are photovoltaic cells, known as “solar panels”,
which can be installed on rooftops and “absorb” solar energy, and CSP or concentrated solar
power, for bigger power plants. These systems both are expensive to install but very
effective once they are running.
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Friedl, Sarah. "Renewable & Non-Renewable Resources: Definition & Differences." Study.
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"Coal." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 21 July 2016.
EIA. "Natural Gas - Energy Explained, Your Guide To Understanding Energy - Energy
Information Administration." Natural Gas - Energy Explained, Your Guide To Understanding
Energy - Energy Information Administration. EIA, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 21 July 2016.
"Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Gas Energy - Conserve Energy Future."
ConserveEnergyFuture. CEF, 19 Dec. 2013. Web. 22 July 2016.
"Tar Sands Basics." Tar Sands Basics. EIS, n.d. Web. 22 July 2016.
"About Oil Shale." About Oil Shale. EIS, n.d. Web. 22 July 2016.
Larson, Eric. "China’s Growing Coal Use Is World’s Growing Problem."Climate Central.
Climate Central, 27 Jan. 2014. Web. 22 July 2016.
"Coal in China." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 23 July 2016.
Goldenberg, Suzanne. "Obama's Climate Change Envoy: Fossil Fuels Will Have to Stay in
the Ground." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 24 Nov. 2014. Web. 24 July 2016.
"Energy." NRDC. NRDC, n.d. Web. 23 July 2016.
"Greenpeace Victories and Successes." Greenpeace Victories and Successes.
Greenpeace, n.d. Web. 23 July 2016.
"Renewable Energy." Environmental and Energy Study Institute. EESI, n.d. Web. 23 July 2016.
Fenn, Kelly. "What Is Being Done to Stop Climate Change?" What Is Being Done to Stop
Climate Change? Prevent Climate Change, 4 June 2016. Web. 08 Aug. 2016.
Ritholtz, Barry. "Oil Consumption Around the World - The Big Picture." The Big Picture Oil
Consumption Around the World Comments. The Big Picture, 11 June 2010. Web. 08 Aug. 2016.
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"Paris Agreement." - European Commission. European Commission, 22 July 2016. Web. 08
Aug. 2016.
"Kyoto Protocol." Kyoto Protocol. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, n.d. Web. 08 Aug. 2016.
Appendix or Appendices
I.
EPA. "Legislative and Regulatory Timeline for Fossil Fuel Combustion Wastes."
EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 24 Mar. 2016. Web. 24 July 2016. Legislative and
Regulatory Timeline for Fossil Fuel Combustion Wastes. *
II.
"Coal in the Energy Supply of China." (2000): n. pag. Interational Energy Agency.
CIAB, 2000. Web. 23 July 2016. Report on China’s use of coal.
III.
"Fossil Fuel Subsidies: G20 Spends Billions to Push Us Closer to Climate
Disaster." YouTube. Oil Change International, 11 Nov. 2015. Web. 23 July 2016.
StopFundingFuels organization’s explanatory video.
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Forum:
Economic and Social Council
Issue:
Clean, safe, and convenient public transport as a resident’s right
Student Officer: Arthur Silveira
Position:
Deputy President of the Economic and Social Council
Introduction
Public transportation is a vital aspect of the life of many of the world’s citizens. Ideally, they are
used to provide safe, reliable, and convenient transportation from one place to the other. By
providing efficient public transportation to citizens that can not afford any form of private
transportation, governments are contributing to the well-being and comfort of their citizens. The
ever-increasing necessity for more reliable public transportation, especially in underdeveloped and
densely-populated countries, has been an issue that governments and international organizations
are not able to overlook. For a city or region to function properly and serve its citizens, it must have
an accessible and convenient public transport system.
Taking into consideration that a wide number of the world’s population are not able to afford any
form of private transportation, a reliable public transportations system is necessary for the
economic and social advancement of many of the world’s areas. Lack of efficient and reliable
public transportation can be indirectly linked to some of the problems affecting underdeveloped
regions of the world. If a region does not have a reliable public transportation system, it will have
many difficulties whenever trying to advance socially or economically. Therefore, if it takes several
hours for a regular worker to move from his residence to his place of employment, the productivity
of the region becomes limited. The importance of reliable and affordable public transport is everincreasing in today’s world. Tending to live in areas where they are geographically marginalized,
the poor are regularly subject to high costs for transportation and long daily journeys. Improving
the conditions of a region’s public transportation system has the possibility of positively impacting
the poor in that region, and making them more able to contribute to economic growth.
A resident’s right to public transportation means that a resident should be able to move freely
between neighborhoods and cities of his country. An inefficient public transportation system
severely and negatively impacts this right. The lack of reliable public transportation systems means
that a citizen has his/her rights of mobility limited by the inability of their government to provide
reliable transportation. Despite most developed countries being able to provide clean, safe, and
convenient public transportation for their citizens, underdeveloped or developing countries still
suffer of some of the setbacks caused by unreliable and inefficient public transportation. In order
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for these countries to achieve safe, clean, and convenient public transportation as a resident’s
right, international entities and developed countries must act in coherence to aid their lessdeveloped counterparts.
Definition of Key Terms
Sustainable Public Transportation
Sustainable Public Transportation are means of transportations which run on an alternative
energy, and that do not impact the environment as much as oil-based means of
transportation. In the search for a response to decrease dependency on oil, some
governments have been shifting towards the use of more sustainable means of public
transportation. The Brazilian city of Curitiba, for example, is a beacon of sustainable
transportation in Latin America. The winner of the 2010 Global Sustainable City awards has
become a model of reliable, safe, and convenient public transportation for all its citizens.
85% of Curitiba’s population uses its public transportation system, which was designed to
contain urban sprawl and to be a reliable and attractive alternative to cars.
BRT (Bus Rapid Transit)
BRT is a bus-based mass-transit system, which is normally implemented to curb and control
rapid urbanisation. BRT is a reduced-cost, high-capacity, and high-efficiency bus
system.When present, it operates within its own lanes, and possesses an off-board payment
system, in order to prevent delays when boarding. BRT has proven to be one of the most
reliable transport systems in existence, since it provides cheap maintenance and simplicity
for its users. Cities with successful implementations of the BRT system include, Bogotá,
Colombia, Jakarta, Indonesia, and Curitiba, Brazil.
Freedom of Mobility
The right to travel from one place to another, freedom of mobility, or the right to
transportation is a human rights concept regarding the right of individuals to travel within
the confines of a country, and to be able to leave the country and return to it. The ability of
moving from place to place is greatly dependent on the quality of public transportations
systems of that region. For example, if a country provides unreliable public transport
systems, its residents become unable to move from place to place, therefore, limiting their
freedom of mobility.
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Millennium Development Goals
The Millennium Development Goals, or MDGs, were eight objectives set by the United
Nations in September of 2000 that meant to achieve significant marks and goals in the
areas of education, equality, and others. Clean, safe, and convenient public transportation
fits within Goal 8 of the Millennium Development Goals. Goal 8 outlines that, for global
development to be reached, there must be coherence in the actions of UN member-states in
order to aid underdeveloped or developing countries. The 2015 MDGs Status Report
outlines that one of the main issues surrounding Goal 8 is that millions of people still live in
poverty and without any access to any services, including a reliable public transportation
system.
Railway/Metro System
Railway/Metro systems are methods of public transport that are based in an underground or
surface train platform, where citizens are taken from one place to another relatively quickly.
Metros and railways have proven to be a very reliable form of public transport, but both are
very costly to their implementers, which leads to increase in price. Surface trains, on the
other hand, can serve as an alternative to underground transport systems, and are usually
implemented in cities which are located at a rather low sea-level (e.g. Amsterdam,
Netherlands) or in cities with a hotter climate (e.g. Teresina, Brazil). Usually present in
larger urban centers, railway systems are usually not implemented in less densely
populated areas, therefore, proves to be inappropriate for many rural areas in the world.
International Public Transport Systems
International public transport system refers to a public transport system that transport
people from one country’s territory to the sovereignty of another country. International public
transport systems have certain aspects of the trip that domestic trips do not have. Border
controls or passport checks, stricter security, and increased prices are all things that might
differ international public transport from domestic public transport.
Background Information
A strong public transportation system is a necessity if a country or a region wishes to achieve
improvements in socioeconomic areas. As a significant part of the world’s population deem private
transportation as an impossibility, it is the responsibility of the ruling government to provide its
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citizens with reliable transportation infrastructure. Individual governments have repeatedly
attempted and failed to provide citizens of their countries with clean, safe, and convenient public
transport as their right. Accessibility is, sometimes, overlooked whenever entities are planning their
pubic transport systems. The necessities of people with disabilities must be fully integrated into
every public transport system, otherwise, the right of mobility of the residents with disabilities is
being limited. Individual governments, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries, find
themselves lacking with the resources and funds to provide an efficient, affordable, and reliable
mean of public transportation.
The importance of affordability, convenience, accessibility, and safety in public transport
systems
Even if a public transportation system provides all the comfort a resident could possibly ask for, it
must be affordable. The regular, working-class citizen must be able to utilize the transportation
system without having to sacrifice much of his/her income. If the mean of transportation is not
affordable, the resident will have his/her right to mobility limited whenever attempting to move from
place to place. The cost of these means of transportation, especially in countries with low GDP per
capita, are one of the main concerns surrounding this issue. The mean of transportation must also
be provided at a high frequency, in order to serve each citizen whenever the resident wishes to
move from place to place.
Aside from being affordable, it is also in the best interest of the government and the population that
the public transportation service provided be convenient. Ideally, in order for the fullest level of
convenience to be achieved, a country must have a wide variety of transportations means
available. These means can include metros, buses, trains, ferries, etc. Each region or city has its
own necessities that must be achieved in order for its residents to have a convenient method of
public transportation. In public transportation, convenience is not always clearly defined or
measured in designing public systems or whenever monitoring their operating performance.
Accessibility to public transportation systems is also one of the main elements composing this
issue. Being consistently overlooked in some public transport systems, accessibility and
convenience are two of the main factors composing this issue. When the resident’s transport
system is inaccessible or inconvenient, he/she might be compelled to purchase a private mean of
transportation. Despite some residents being able to afford to own a private mean of
transportation, the majority of those affected must still resort to an inconvenient and/or
inaccessible public transport system. All residents, regardless of physical disabilities or
impediments, must have full accessibility to their region’s or city’s public transportation system. If a
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resident is not able to acquire an accessible mean of transportation with convenience, his/her right
to movement is being limited by their region’s lack of infrastructure.
Safety and cleanliness within a public transportation network are paramount. To use a public
system network, the resident must be sure that the means of transportation are able to provide
safe transportation from place to place. Conductors or drivers within the public transport system
must have good training, otherwise, that public transport system will always be a safety risk for the
residents who use it. Safety for women in public transport systems is also a concerning issue. It is
not uncommon for cases of sexual harassment in public transport systems to be reported. Safety
in public transport is a broad topic, as it ranges from traffic accidents to violent crime. Countries
with reliable and efficient public transport systems have consistently relied in placing security
personnel in various means of transportation. Good and reliable means of transportation are also
recommended in order to provide a safer public transport system to the residents of that region or
city.
The resident’s right to mobility
Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human rights asserts that all people should be able to
move within the confines of their country freely, and to leave such country and return to it
whenever the citizen pleases. A precarious or underdeveloped public transport system negatively
affects that. It limits the resident’s right in ways that he is not able to exercise the full capability of
his inherent human rights. When a resident is alienated from his daily live because he can not rely
on a efficient mean of public transportation, he is only able to contribute a portion of his full
potential to the further development of his region or city.
In developed countries, public transport systems tend to be more reliable and efficient when
compared to those of other parts of the world. Alongside being mostly efficient and convenient,
they provide a wide variety of means of transportation the resident utilize. It could be said that
countries which offer good and reliable public transport systems also offer a better quality of
freedom of mobility to its residents.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
UITP (International Association of Public Transport)
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The International Association of Public Transport, or UITP, is a non-profit advocacy organization
for public transport development, sustainability, and efficiency. Founded in 1886, the Belgiumbased organization has been an advocate for the improvement and development of public
transportation in a global scale. They have been responsible issuing recognized positions for
members of the public-transportation sector and for the collection and analysis of data regarding
public transportations systems worldwide. The institution has worked in coherence with various
other international institutions and organizations, such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and
various others. Aside from advocating for reliable and sustainable public transportation, the UITP
has provided support for numerous development projects to implement cutting-edge technology in
some of the world’s biggest public transportations systems.
ITC (Inland Transport Committee)
The Inland Transport Committee is the highest UN-affiliated body regarding transportation. Active
mostly in Europe, this committee is responsible for passing most of the United Nation’s transportaffiliated resolutions for that region. Its policies are aimed at achieving a higher level of
transportations for the citizens of Europe. It advocates for the improvement and expansion of
public transportation in Europe. By being a UN entity, the ITC can expect good levels of funding
and support from the United Nations and some of its member-states, making it a very active entity
in the area of public and private transportation. It has been responsible for some of the major legal
advancements in the area of public transportation in the region which it operates.
Japan
Many countries and entities see Japan’s public transport system as being convenient, efficient,
and clean, therefore, being ideal in almost every way. As a very developed country, it is expected
of Japan to possess the latest technological advances in the area of public transport. Despite
being situated in a rather mountainous region, Japan is able to offer high-quality of public transport
to its residents. Despite being almost ideal, transportation in Japan is also known as being very
expensive when compared to other systems internationally.
Sub Saharan Africa
Being lacking in monetary funds and resources, countries within the region of Sub Saharan Africa
possess very primitive and underdeveloped public transport systems. The population of this area is
very lacking in basic services and some of the countries present in the region are lacking in
monetary resources. Implementation of public transport in this region will be very difficult without
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international aid. The implementation of reliable and efficient public transport system in this region
will probably largely be fruit of international cooperation and aid.
Colombia (Bogotá)
Colombia’s three major cities, Bogotá, Cali, and Medellin are references in the area of public
transport systems within Latin America. The standards in place for Colombia’s urban areas can be
relatable to those in place for major European cities. After implementing the BRT (Bus Rapid
Transport), Bogotá managed to contain its urban sprawl and to provide quality and efficient public
transportation for its citizens. Nowadays, Bogotá’s public transport system is able to efficiently
service its population of 8 million people, without a metro system. This could only be possible with
high governmental investment in public transportation and with high levels of organization within
the public transport system’s administration.
United States of America
The United States receives credit for being one of the world’s largest economies and for being
involved in many international aid projects throughout the world. Despite its leading position in the
economical and political world, the situation of the public transport system of some American cities
can be considered deplorable for a developed country. Due to inefficient and inconvenient public
transport, millions of Americans still rely on cars and private means of transportation. Despite
being able to provide decent transportation within its main urban areas, quality public
transportation is still inaccessible by Americans who live considerably far away from any urban
center. The United States’ reliance on private means of transportation has greatly increased the
country’s fossil fuel dependency and leads to Americans spending much more money on
transportation.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
July, 1860
Omnibuses start providing transportation in France and Britain.
January 10, 1863
The London Underground opens, and is the first functioning subway system.
August 17, 1895
UITP is founded and begins to advocate for improvement in public transport.
December 10, 1947
The freedom of mobility is recognized as an inherent human right.
2016
32 million people board on public transportation per day.
United Nations involvement: Relevant resolutions, treaties and events
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
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 13 December 2006 (A/RES/61/106)
o
Its aim was to promote, protect and ensure the rights of people with
disabilities,
giving special attention to their rights within public transportation.
o
It
encourages
member-states
to
provide
accessible
conditions
to
public
transportation for all types of disabled people.

o
Promotes equal rights for disabled people in public transportation.
o
Regrets and deplores discrimination towards people with disabilities.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948 (A/RES/217)
o
Promotes and established the inherent right for freedom of mobility.
o
Protects the citizen’s right to movement and mobility, while encouraging countries to
provide the necessary infrastructure for its population to be able to exercise their
right to freedom of mobility.
Possible Solutions
Despite the fact that many governments have been taunted with the idea of providing reliable and
efficient public transportation systems to the people of their regions or countries. This is a
challenging issue, but there are still some ways the Economic and Social Committee can
effectively tackle the issue.
Allocating resources and technical expertise to areas with primitive public transportation
systems and accounting for such resources
The allocation of resources to entities that do not have many funds to advance their public
transportation systems is one of the ways to tackle this issue. If a member-state can not allocate
the necessary funds to pay for the development of their public transport infrastructure, the United
Nations must provide the member-state with necessary aid. Also, the committee should be able to
account for the monetary resources it allocates to other countries. Underdeveloped or developing
countries tend to have a somewhat tenuous central governing body. It is in the responsibility of the
United Nations to account for the resources it allocates to countries which are in need. It is also
important to keep in mind that efficient public transport systems have the potential to contribute to
poverty reduction through delivering better livelihood outcomes through their impact on time and
access. The investment on infrastructure, both urban and rural, has the potential to provide the
region with good long-term outcomes.
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Underdeveloped or developing parts of the world, such as several countries in Southeast Asia and
Sub Saharan Africa, tend to have a somewhat primitive public transport system. The resident does
not feel safe or comfortable whenever using the public transportation system. This means that the
resident, whose right of mobility is being somewhat limited in these situations, can not rely on the
public transport systems that were created in order to serve the resident.
International cooperation and accountability
In order for the United Nations to maintain full accountability and knowledge of the situation
surrounding public transport system worldwide, all member-states should be willing to
cooperate in providing up-to-date data and statistics. The information gathered with
international cooperation and accountability could be used to further assess the status of the
situation in the future. If there is not cooperation between member-states and other entities,
it will prove to be very difficult for the United Nations to intervene and aid in improving the
situation of countries whose public transport system is in need of help.
Giving special attention to isolated or sparsely populated areas and areas with rough
terrain
It is common knowledge that, throughout the world, many regions have terrain which can be rather
difficult to access. This must be taken into consideration whenever attempting to formulate a
solution to this issue, since some regions need more attention than others. Regions where terrain
is difficult to navigate deserve special attention whenever compared to regions situated in urban
areas, where the infrastructure is already somewhat pre-existent. Throughout the world, there are
regions where the population is heavily dispersed. This might prove to be a challenge whenever
attempting to tackle the issue, therefore, must be given special attention. For example, the
mountainous country of Nepal experiences many problems in the area of public transport, since
pockets of their population are very dispersed and the terrain does not favor most kinds of public
transportation. Tribhuvan Highway, which links the Nepalese capital city of Kathmandu with India,
has experienced severe shortcomings in the areas of safety and convenience. These
shortcomings have had a negative impact in Nepal’s transportation network and in the right to
mobility of its citizens. Nepal Transport Services, which used to provide daily bus routes between
Nepal and India, had its existence cut short by bad materials supplied by the Nepalese
government and by the poor conditions of Nepalese highway systems. The situation of Nepal is
one of the many that can be presented to prove that specific areas in unique conditions must
receive special attention by this entity.
Providing adequate training to workers in public transport systems
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Public transport system workers must be adequately trained in order to serve the residents of the
area thoroughly and efficiently. Providing adequate training to drivers, conductors, security and
maintenance personnel is a major factor to keep in mind whenever attempting to improve some of
the world’s public transport systems. Studies show that, especially in underdeveloped or
developing countries, public transport means are targeted by criminals as easy targets for violent
and nonviolent crime. Assault, robbery, vandalism, and graffiti are some of the main types of
crimes committed against public transport systems, public transport system workers, and residents
which use it. Ideally, public transport systems should provide security for its passengers. In order
to do so, necessary training is needed for workers and security personnel. Some experts advocate
for more screening and security checks, which would be similar to those used in airports, before
boarding public transport, meanwhile others argue that this would unnecessarily increase the cost
for public transport. In order for the resident to enjoy the fullest of his/her rights, they must be
comfortable in using public transport systems, without fearing for their safety or for the safety of
their loved ones.
Aside from security measures, public transport system personnel must receive adequate training
and somewhat rigorous screening processes should be applied towards those who wish to work in
public transportation. Workers should receive technical training in order to increase their expertise
in whatever area of transport they are employed. In order for it to be efficient and reliable, public
transport systems must also have a well-trained maintenance staff, which should be ready to deal
with whatever issues arise, in order to provide more convenience towards the users of public
transport. This staff should also be responsible for the cleanliness within the public transport, since
a public transport system is not convenient or safe if it dwells in filth. Clean public transport is one
the main aspects of a reliable and efficient method of public transportation.
Providing public transport systems with updated technology
Public transportation, just as any other type of public service, eventually becomes outdated. As
they become outdated, public transport systems should be improved in order to keep up with the
latest technologies. Currently, as public transport systems become more technological, their
efficiency and reliability greatly rises. This might not be the preoccupation when thinking about
providing public transport to countries without a reliable public transport system, but must not be
ignored when considering the future applications and effects it can have in public transport
systems.
Relying more on sustainable means of transportation
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In order to tackle this issue and to provide more convenient and clean transportation to its
residents, a country must be open to alternative methods of transportation. The use of
renewable energy in public transport systems has proven to be a reliable alternative to oilbased means of transportation. Solar and eolic energy, for example, have proven to be
reliable and sustainable ways of powering a public transport system. Aside from lowering
CO2 emissions, the use of sustainable energy to power transportation also has a very
positive impact on the quality of air of regions. Especially in urban regions, smog and
pollution can cause pulmonary disease and have a very negative impact on the health and
well-being of the city’s residents. Sustainable means of transportation might not be an
immediate necessity for many countries without reliable public transport systems, since it is
considered very costly, but it should definitely be considered for the future.
Bibliography
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Nations, n.d.
Print.http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%
201).pdf
“Organisation." UITP. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 July 2016. http://www.uitp.org/organisation
"Inland Transport Committee." Inland Transport Committee. UNECE, n.d.
Web.http://www.unece.org/ru/transport/areas-of-work/inland-transport-committee/kvt-glavnajastranica.html
Booth, David, Elizabeth Lovell, and Lucia Hammer. Poverty and Transport. Rep. N.p.: n.p.,
2000. Print. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/3554.pdf
Newton, Andrew D. (2014) Crime on Public Transport. In: Encyclopedia of Criminology and
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Japanese Road Bureau. Japanese Ministry of Infrastructure, n.d. Web.
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/road_e/index_e.html
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Appendix or Appendices
I.
http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c05/e6-40-02-02.pdf
II.
http://www.civitas.eu/content/improving-public-transport-infrastructure
III.
https://www3.epa.gov/otaq/stateresources/policy/transp/tcms/improved_transit.pdf
IV.
https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/3554.pdf
V.
http://www.tadamun.info/2013/12/17/right-to-public-transportation-and-urban-mobility-inthe-egyptian-constitution/?lang=en#.V5VkaFfqbK5
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