HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE CROSSROADS
An a p p r a i s a l of t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
Damaris B a i r s t o w
A r e c e n t b i b l i o g r a p h y of h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y i n A u s t r a l i a (Wesson
1983) l i s t s 358 books and p a p e r s . Of t h e s e , a hundred o r more a r e d e v o t e d
t o t e c h n i q u e s and g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e and 207 a r e s i t e r e p o r t s . N i n e t e e n
only a r e a l l e g e d l y concerned w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s b u t f u r t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n
w h i t t l e s down even t h i s s m a l l number: f o u r t u r n o u t t o b e r e v i e w s of t h e
work of o t h e r s , two a r e on e d u c a t i o n , a n o t h e r i s a b o u t l o c a l h i s t o r y , two
more a r e r e p o r t s of seminars and e i g h t c o u l d e q u a l l y b e r e g a r d e d a s desc r i p t i v e . Two only remain: ' H i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y i n A u s t r a l i a ' ( F r a n k e l
1972) and ' C o l o n i a l archaeology i n A u s t r a l i a ' ( J a c k 1980). These, however,
a r e b u t overviews of t h e s t a t e of t h e d i s c i p l i n e a t t h e t i m e t h e y w e r e
w r i t t e n , w i t h l i t t l e a t t e m p t a t f o r m u l a t i n g any t h e o r e t i c a l framework. I n
f a i r n e s s , F r a n k e l ' s paper i s over a decade o l d and i t would seem t h a t J a c k ,
by e q u a t i n g archaeology w i t h l o c a l h i s t o r y , i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e d i s c i p l i n e
of h i s t o r y w i l l s u f f i c e . The ad hoc approach h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y h a s
s o f a r demonstrated i s probably c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of and n e c e s s a r y f o r a n y new
d i s c i p l i n e which must f i r s t assemble some f a c t s and e s t a b l i s h some t e c h n i q u e s .
It i s t o o narrow an approach i f h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y i s t o become a
v i g o r o u s d i s c i p l i n e f u l l y c o g n i s a n t of developments i n t h e w i d e r f i e l d s of
t h e h u m a n i t i e s and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s .
The need f o r a f i r m t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y i n
A u s t r a l i a i s w e l l r e c o g n i s e d b o t h by academics and p r a c t i t i o n e r s . T h a t
most commonly advocated i s t h e a d o p t i o n of t h e American h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e
method, a method which h a s long been s t a n d a r d among a r c h a e o l o g i s t s s p e c i a l i s i n g i n p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e s . I t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o h i s t o r i c s i t e s , however, i s
q u e s t i o n a b l e . America's answer t o t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s e v o l v e d i n America t o
meet America's needs. It must b e s e e n i n t h e l i g h t of t h a t e v o l u t i o n .
I n America, archaeology was developed i n s c h o o l s of a n t h r o p o l o g y , i n
p a r t i c u l a r , i n t h o s e s c h o o l s involved i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of I n d i a n s i t e s
w i t h no r e c o r d e d h i s t o r y .
Excavation of such s i t e s y i e l d e d m a t e r i a l
e v i d e n c e which supplemented t h a t o b t a i n e d from s u r v i v i n g s o c i e t i e s . The
t h e o r e t i c a l framework was t o be provided by a n t h r o p o l o g y .
To q u o t e t h e
o f t - q u o t e d s t a t e m e n t of Willey and P h i l l i p s (1958:l-2):
American a r c h a e o l o g y i s a n t h r o p o l o g y o r i t i s n o t h i n g . The
American a r c h a e o l o g i s t , u n l e s s h e t h i n k s h e c a n d i s p e n s e
with theory a l t o g e t h e r , i s t h e r e f o r e obliged t o t a k e a stand
on some of t h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n s of g e n e r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
theory.
The e q u a t i o n of excavated s i t e s w i t h s u r v i v i n g s o c i e t i e s was inadequate
when a p p l i e d t o t h e p a s t c i v i l i s a t i o n of c e n t r a l America and inadequate a l s o
f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of American I n d i a n c u l t u r e s of t h e remoter p a s t .
T r a d i t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s , i t was f e l t , y i e l d e d
o n l y s t e r i l e i n f o r m a t i o n . The aim of anthropology was t o i n t e r p r e t t h e
m a t e r i a l e v i d e n c e i n terms of i t s 'meaning m a n i f e s t ' , i t s ' c u l t u r e i d e a '
( T a y l o r 1948:IV), a concept t h a t was t o be r e f i n e d i n t h e 1960s t o mean
t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c u l t u r e h i s t o r y and 'life-ways' and t h e ' d e l i n e a t i o n
of t h e c u l t u r e p r o c e s s ' ( B i n f o r d 1968:17).
To a c h i e v e t h i s , Taylor had
c a l l e d f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m a t e r i a l evidence by means of hypotheses
t h a t could b e t e s t e d . T h i s theme, t o o , was t o b e developed and r e f i n e d by
t h e 'New A r c h a e o l o g i s t s ' of t h e s i x t i e s .
The work of t h e 'New' s c h o o l came t o f r u i t i o n w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of
New Perspectives i n ArchaeoZogy (Binford and Binf ord 1968). I n i t , t h e
major spokesman of t h e group, Lewis Binford, advocated a s h i f t from i n d u c t i v e
t o d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g : 'The y a r d s t i c k of measurement i s t h e degree t o which
can b e confirmed o r r e f u t e d through h y p o t h e s i s t e s t i n g '
propositions
( B i n f o r d 1968:17). The 'methodological n a i v e t e ' of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l approach
was s a i d t o l a c k s c i e n t i f i c p r e c i s i o n . It was t o be r e p l a c e d by a 'hypothet i c o - d e d u c t i v e method' whereby hypotheses could be t e s t e d a g a i n s t independent
d a t a b o t h , i f n e c e s s a r y , drawn from t h e same m a t e r i a l evidence. Within f o u r
y e a r s , B i n f o r d had f u r t h e r developed h i s ' s c i e n t i f i c ' approach. The r u l e s
f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence were t o be only such 'laws
t h a t a r e v a l i d a t e d i n t h e epistemology of s c i e n c e ' (Binford 1972:121).
The 'New A r c h a e o l o g i s t s ' have had a profound i n f l u e n c e on modern
American a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . The terminology h a s changed over t h e y e a r s .
'Hypothesis t e s t i n g ' h a s evolved i n t o 'problem o r i e n t e d ' archaeology b u t
t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e i n meaning. The ' h y p o t h e s i s ' o r
'problem' i s f i r s t t o b e formulated and then taken i n t o t h e f i e l d f o r t e s t i n g .
S c h i f f e r and Gumerman, i n v a r i o u s ways and w i t h d i f f e r e n t emphases, advance
t h i s concept i n t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o each s e c t i o n of t h e i r r e c e n t publicat i o n , Conservation ArchaeoZogy (1977). Only by s c i e n t i f i c methods, i t i s
m a i n t a i n e d , can we approach t h e broad spectrum, u n i v e r s a l laws o r a n objective reality.
Thus i t can be seen t h a t t h e American hypothetico-deductive approach
t o archaeology a r o s e a s a means of i n t e r p r e t i n g s i t e s which had no documented
I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , a p p r o p r i a t e a s a means of r e c o n s t r u c t i n g p a s t
history.
A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e s . It may n o t b e e q u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of h i s t o r i c s i t e s .
A t t h e same time a s t h e Americans were developing t h e hypotheticod e d u c t i v e method, t h e y were reducing t h e scope embraced by t h e term 'archaeology'.
I n t h e words of one of t h e 'New A r c h a e o l o g i s t s ' :
...
a r c h a e o l o g y a s such i s simply a technique ( e s s e n t i a l l y digging
h o l e s i n t h e ground o r s t o o p i n g over t o p i c k up o b j e c t s ) which
can b e employed i n t h e s e r v i c e of anthropology, h i s t o r y o r
amusement (Spaulding 1968:38)
or:
U n l e s s i t i s a f i e l d man who knows o n l y how t o d i g , t h e r e
i s no such t h i n g a s a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t a p a r t from h i s members h i p i n some o t h e r f i e l d of s c h o l a r l y o r s c i e n t i f i c endeavour
( G r i f f i n 1978:ZO).
Twenty y e a r s ago, t h e eminent B r i t i s h i n d u s t r i a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t , Kenneth
Hudson, wrote:
During t h e p a s t t h i r t y y e a r s t h e word archaeology h a s
been q u i e t l y t a k e n over and narrowed i n meaning by t h e
most a c t i v e and s p e c t a c u l a r s e c t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i s t s ,
w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t nowadays some of
the excavators
them a p p e a r t o b e g e t t i n g v e r y c l o s e t o t h e p o s i t i o n of
c l a i m i n g p a t e n t r i g h t s on i t (Hudson l 9 6 3 :12)
...
.
Among t h e d e s c e n d e n t s of t h e 'New' a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , t h e e q u a t i o n of a r c h a e o I n 1977, S t a n l e y South p u b l i s h e d a book
logy w i t h e x c a v a t i o n i s complete.
e n t i t l e d Method and 7'lzeory i n HistoricaZ ArchaeoZogy. The book is d e v o t e d
e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e method and t h e o r y of e x c a v a t i n g h i s t o r i c s i t e s . Thus
t h e h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e method must b e s e e n a s a method f o r t h e recons t r u c t i o n from excavated d a t a of t h e c u l t u r e and ' l i f e - w a y s ' of undocumented
s i t e s . To t h i s must be added t h e s p e c i f i c r e j e c t i o n by t h e 'New' a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and t h e i r d e s c e n d e n t s of h i s t o r y which, t h e y a l l e g e , i s u n s c i e n t i f i c :
H i s t o r y and s c i e n c e can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e d e g r e e of
e x p l i c i t n e s s of t h e c o v e r i n g laws ( o r e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s )
The e x p l a n a t o r y g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
which make e x p l a n a t i o n p o s s i b l e
of h i s t o r y a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y matters of common knowledge
and t h e y a r e q u i t e p r o p e r l y i m p l i c i t r a t h e r t h a n e x p l i c i t i n t h e
historical narrative
S c i e n c e , on t h e o t h e r hand, h a s as i t s
avowed g o a l t h e p r o d u c t i o n of e x p l i c i t , f o r m a l l a w s t o p r o v i d e
a b a s i s f o r t h e d e d u c t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s and
events
History has a p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g q u a l i t y
science, a
g e n e r a l i z i n g one (Spaulding l968 :35)
...
...
...
...
.
...
H i s t o r y t h u s p r o v i d e s , a c c o r d i n g t o S p a u l d i n g (1968:35) ' t h e mere r e c i t a t i o n
According t o B i n f o r d , h i s t o r y i s a n
of a l i s t of s u c c e s s i v e e v e n t s ' .
i n d u c t i v e s t u d y concerned o n l y w i t h p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s :
S p e c i f i c ' h i s t o r i c a l ' e x p l a n a t i o n s , i f t h e y c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d ,
simply e x p l i c a t e mechanisms of c u l t u r e p r o c e s s . They add n o t h i n g
t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s e s of c u l t u r a l change and
e v o l u t i o n ( B i n f o r d 1972:22).
The u n c r i t i c a l a c c e p t a n c e of a d o c t r i n e which was n o t o n l y b o r n o u t of
p r e h i s t o r y b u t a l s o s p e c i f i c a l l y r e j e c t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework of
h i s t o r y seems a n a l a r m i n g p r o s p e c t f o r h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y . Those who
have advocated t h e a d o p t i o n of t h e h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e method f o r
A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y , however, h a v e r e j e c t e d t h i s p a r t of t h e
American d o c t r i n e . Although t o B i n f o r d (1968:17):
What d e t e r m i n e s t h e soundness of a h y p o t h e s i s i s n o t t h e
way i t i s a r r i v e d a t ( i t may have been s u g g e s t e d by a dream
o r a h a l l u c i n a t i o n ) , b u t t h e way i t s t a n d s up when t e s t e d
( B i n f o r d 1968:17).
A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s (Birmingham and J e a n s 1983; Connah
1983) m a i n t a i n t h a t h y p o t h e s e s f o r h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y must b e drawn
from h i s t o r y .
R e c e n t l y Birmingham and J e a n s (1983) proposed a model f o r h i s t o r i c a l
archaeology based on Wyss's SLFiss Fumily Robinson.
Wyss's c a s t a w a y s a r r i v e d
i n t h e i r South Sea i s l a n d complete w i t h a l l t h e b a s i c t o o l s thought n e c e s s a r y
t o found a colony, t o o l s which they c o n v e n i e n t l y found i n t h e wrecked s h i p .
They e s t a b l i s h e d a m a k e s h i f t camp a t t h e l a n d i n g p l a c e from which t h e y
r e c o n n o i t r e d t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s . A f t e r a s h o r t t i m e t h e r e was a s h i f t
i n l a n d t o a s i t e w i t h b e t t e r r e s o u r c e s , b u t t h e camp a t t h e l a n d i n g p l a c e
was r e t a i n e d a s a p o r t . The f i r s t i n d u s t r i e s were t h e b u i l d i n g of s h e l t e r s
and t h e husbandry of s t o c k brought t o t h e c o l o n y . A g r i c u l t u r e f o l l o w e d ,
t h e n i n d u s t r y based on t h e p r o d u c t s of a g r i c u l t u r e .
P a r a l l e l s were drawn
between t h i s and t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s of A u s t r a l i a n c o l o n i s a t i o n . The a u t h o r s
t h e n argue:
t h e need f o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t t o p l a c e h i m s e l f
o r h e r s e l f w i t h i n t h e ongoing h i s t o r i c a l e n t e r p r i s e d e a l i n g
w i t h A u s t r a l i a and t h e c o l o n i s e d world. E x i s t i n g s t u d i e s
must b e reworked i n t h e l i g h t of a g e n e r a l h i s t o r i c a l model,
w h i l e new s t u d i e s must be g i v e n o p e r a t i o n a l programmes
d e s i g n e d t o e x p l i c i t l y i l l u m i n a t e hypotheses d e r i v e d from
t h e g e n e r a l model (Birmingham and J e a n s 1983:5).
They c o n c l u d e t h a t :
Agreement on t h e g e n e r a l form of t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s of
c o l o n i s a t i o n and development i s one of t h e f i r s t p r i o r i t i e s
i n A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r i c a l archaeology (Birmingham and J e a n s
l 9 8 3 :14)
.
Agreement, i t i s s u g g e s t e d , i s n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e
a p p r o a c h b u t agreement h a s n o t y e t been reached by h i s t o r i a n s .
Birmingham and J e a n s e s t a b l i s h e d one h i s t o r i c a l overview from which
h y p o t h e s e s can b e drawn f o r t e s t i n g a g a i n s t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . I t i s an
overview f i r m l y b a s e d i n Rostow's Stages of E'conornic Growth (1971). Rostow
m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e r e were f i v e s t a g e s of economic development. F i r s t was
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l , b a s i c a l l y a g r a r i a n s o c i e t y which came t o develop b e t t e r
means of p r o d u c t i o n e n a b l i n g i t t o s e e k e x p o r t markets ( t h e ' t a k e - o f f '
s t a g e ) . T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e d g r e a t e r c a p i t a l investment which l e d t o t h e
'modern' i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y which, a f t e r ' s u s t a i n e d i f f l u c t u a t i n g p r o g r e s s ' ,
became i n c r e a s i n g l y g e a r e d t o h i g h mass-production of consumer goods. T h i s
market h a v i n g been s a t i s f i e d , s o c i e t y t u r n e d t o what i n r e c e n t p o l i t i c a l
j a r g o n h a s been termed ' t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e ' .
T h i s t h e o r y , however, h a s
come u n d e r i n c r e a s i n g a t t a c k , e s p e c i a l l y i n s o f a r a s i t i s a p p l i c a b l e t o
European c o l o n i e s i n t h e s o u t h e r n hemisphere.
Donald Denoon's Settler CapitaZism (1983) i s a head-on c h a l l e n g e t o
Rostow. Denoon a r g u e s t h a t f o r Rostow's s t a g e s of growth c e r t a i n p r e r e q u i s i t e s were n e c e s s a r y , most e s p e c i a l l y c a p i t a l , which was r e q u i r e d f o r
t h e ' t a k e - o f f ' s t a g e . The w e s t e r n n a t i o n s of t h e n o r t h e r n hemisphere had
g e n e r a t e d s u f f i c i e n t c a p i t a l i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y t o permit them t o e n t e r
t h e n e x t s t a g e . A t t h a t t i m e , t h e emerging n a t i o n s of t h e s o u t h e r n hemis p h e r e had l i t t l e c a p i t a l of t h e i r own. I n s t e a d , t h e y became h e a v i l y
r e l i a n t on B r i t i s h c a p i t a l and t h e r e f o r e had t o g e a r e x p o r t p r o d u c t i o n t o
B r i t a i n ' s n e e d s . A t t e m p t s were made i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s t o move i n t o t h e
i n d u s t r i a l s t a g e . Denoon p o i n t s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o New Z e a l a n d ' s manufacturing
i n d u s t r i e s of t h e 1880s, where such a t t e m p t s were doomed t o f a i l u r e because
B r i t a i n was a b l e t o produce and e x p o r t t h e same goods more c h e a p l y . Local
i n d u s t r i e s c o u l d a c h i e v e s u c c e s s o n l y when they produced goods t h a t were
e i t h e r t o o heavy, t o o f r a g i l e o r t o o p e r i s h a b l e t o be shipped a c r o s s t h e
w o r l d and w i t h s w i f t e r s h i p s and cheaper f r e i g h t even t h i s scope f o r
p r o d u c t i o n d i m i n i s h e d . By 1914, Denoon a r g u e s , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d i n g
c i r c l e had c l o s e d . The U n i t e d S t a t e s g o t i n j u s t i n time. No o t h e r n a t i o n
need hope t o f o l l o w (Denoon 1 9 8 3 ) . Many A u s t r a l i a n examples can be found
t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . I n V i c t o r i a and New South Wales, p o t t e r i e s
were founded t o produce t h e b u l k i e r i t e m s b u t c o l l a p s e d when i t became
c h e a p e r t o i m p o r t even t h e s e goods i n t h e o t h e r w i s e empty wool and wheat
s h i p s . Woollen m i l l s were e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e i r c o l l a p s e can b e s e e n p a r t l y
a s a r e s u l t of l o c a l c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s b u t p r i m a r i l y they c o u l d n o t
compete w i t h t h e B r i t i s h t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . South A u s t r a l i a developed
a g r i c u l t u r a l machinery. The i n d u s t r y was t o be swamped by t h e B r i t i s h and
American i n d u s t r i a l g i a n t s . Birmingham and J e a n s (1983:8-11) i l l u s t r a t e
t h e i r model by p o i n t i n g t o t h e growth of A u s t r a l i a n i n d u s t r i e s b u t t h e y do
n o t t r a c e t h e demise of t h o s e i n d u s t r i e s o r , a t l e a s t , of such i n d u s t r i e s
a s were n o t b o l s t e r e d by t a r i f f p r o t e c t i o n .
Other models f o r t h e g e n e r a l form of c o l o n i s a t i o n and development can
be proposed, each based i n accepted o r a c c e p t a b l e h i s t o r i c a l t h e o r y .
Indeed,
Birmingham and J e a n s , i n p a s s i n g , mentioned t h e work of F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n
Turner and Louis H a r t z .
Though Turner f i r s t propounded h i s ' f r o n t i e r ' t h e o r y i n 1892, i t was
t o reach i t s u l t i m a t e form i n !The Frontier i n American History (1920).
To
him, t h e American way of l i f e was forged on t h e f r o n t i e r and ' t h e most
s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g about t h e American f r o n t i e r i s , t h a t i t l i e s a t t h e h i t h e r
edge of f r e e l a n d ' (Turner 1920:3). T u r n e r ' s t h e o r y was t a k e n up and
adapted i n A u s t r a l i a by Russel Ward (1958) who argued t h a t t h e f r o n t i e r
was t h a t of t h e s q u a t t e r s i n t h e f i r s t h a l f of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . By 1850,
t h e A u s t r a l i a n e t h o s had emerged, forged n o t by t h e s q u a t t e r s b u t by t h e i r
men, i n t h e main ex-convicts and n a t i v e b o r n , f o r g e d i n t h e i s o l a t i o n and
h a r d s h i p s of t h e bush. These were t h e men who developed t h e s k i l l s t o cope
with t h e A u s t r a l i a n environment. Late-corners, i n c l u d i n g t h e mass i n f l o w
which followed t h e d i s c o v e r y of g o l d , were f o r c e d t o adopt t h e s e s k i l l s i n
o r d e r t o s u r v i v e and adopted with them t h e e t h o s of t h e bush. Hypotheses
based on Ward's f r o n t i e r could n o t be d e s c r i b e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e
Swiss Family Robinson approach s i n c e Birmingham and J e a n s e x p l o r e d t h e
p r o c e s s of a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e f r o n t i e r a t some l e n g t h (1983:6-9).
However,
Ward's ' f r o n t i e r s m e n ' moved back t o t h e c i t i e s and h y p o t h e s e s could w e l l
be drawn from such a t h e o r y .
The second overview of h i s t o r y touched upon by Birmingham and J e a n s
was t h e 'fragment' t h e o r y of Louis Hartz (1964). H a r t z argued t h a t new
world s o c i e t i e s began w i t h fragments s t r u c k o f f from Europe, fragments which
took w i t h them t h e i d e o l o g i e s of d i s c o n t e n t of t h e i r t i m e , t r a n s p l a n t e d them
i n t h e new world where they became f r o z e n , e v e n t u a l l y t o emerge a s t h e
n a t i o n a l e t h o s . Thus L a t i n America was t h e product of f e u d a l i s m , t h e
United S t a t e s of bourgoise whiggery and A u s t r a l i a , 'charged w i t h t h e t u r m o i l
of t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n ' , was t h e p r o d u c t of 1 9 t h c e n t u r y r a d i c a l i s m :
t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s p i r i t which came o u t of t h e e a r l y c o n v i c t e s t a b l i s h m e n t and
subsequent waves of r a d i c a l m i g r a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i z e d A u s t r a l i a n development'
(Hartz 1964:41-42).
T h i s theory was developed by Rosecrance i n h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o H a r t z ' s book. I n c o n t r a s t t o Ward, Rosecrance s e e s t h e A u s t r a l i a n
e t h o s a s ' n o t f u l l y formed u n t i l a f t e r t h e g o l d r u s h e s of t h e e i g h t e e n fifties'.
E a r l i e r immigrants, bonded and f r e e , were mainly B r i t a i n ' s poor.
They c a r r i e d w i t h them a c e r t a i n l a s s i t u d e , a tendency t o r e l y on a u t h o r i t y
r a t h e r t h a n t o w r e s t power f o r themselves:
'...
...
Only w i t h t h e gold r u s h e s a f t e r 1851 d i d a more a m b i t i o u s
t y p e seek h i s f o r t u n e i n A u s t r a l i a , and t h e n a t a t i m e when
p o l i t i c a l and economic reform was c o u r s i n g t h e g l o b e ( H a r t z
1964 :282)
.
To Hartz and Rosecrance, i t was o n l y w i t h t h e welding t o g e t h e r of t h e s e
two groups t h a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n e t h o s emerged.
More r e c e n t l y and w i t h i n A u s t r a l i a , Connell and I r v i n g (1980) have p u t
forward a view of A u s t r a l i a n h i s t o r y based on t h e dynamics of c l a s s s t r u g g l e
f o r power. S o c i a l and economic c l a s s e s a r e s e e n by them n o t a s t h e s i m p l e
working, middle and upper c l a s s e s of Europe b u t a s f l u i d , e v e r changing
I f , a s h a s been a l l e g e d ,
groups (Connell and I r v i n g 1980:9-10, 21).
archaeology i s t h e a r t of s i f t i n g o l d garbage h e a p s , h y p o t h e s e s c o u l d w e l l
b e drawn f o r t h e p a t t e r n i n g of d i s c a r d e d a r t e f a c t s based on s o c i a l m o b i l i t y .
While t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s emphasise t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a h i s t o r i c a l
framework, t h e model proposed by Birmingham and J e a n s i s i n no way l i m i t e d
t o h i s t o r y . It embraces a l s o t h e realms of h i s t o r i c a l geography and
environmental behaviourism. Hypotheses could e q u a l l y b e drawn from t h e s e
d i s c i p l i n e s f o r t e s t i n g a g a i n s t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence.
Once i t i s a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e r e is more t h a n one t h e o r y from which t o
draw g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s e s , t h e n a number of c o n f l i c t i n g hypotheses must a l s o
b e a d m i t t e d . Once t h e y a r e a d m i t t e d t h e n d e d u c t i o n simpliciter i s no
l o n g e r a p p r o p r i a t e . The h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t must f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t e
h i s s i t e and c o l l e c t h i s d a t a . That i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s i n no way l i m i t e d t o
e x c a v a t i o n n o r i s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a o n l y such m a t e r i a l a s i s r e t r i e v e d a s
a r e s u l t of e x c a v a t i o n .
I n m e Techniques of Industrial ArchaeoZogy ( P a n n e l l
1974) t h e a u t h o r , i n t o t a l c o n t r a s t t o South, devoted n o t one word t o t h e
t e c h n i q u e s of e x c a v a t i o n .
I n B r i t a i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t i s seen
a s ' a c o r r e l a t o r of e v i d e n c e , s y n t h e s i s i n g d a t a from documents, maps and
f i e l d remains t o g a i n a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e ' (Cossons 1975:21). H i s t o r i c a l
a r c h a e o l o g y i n A u s t r a l i a c a n b e s i m i l a r l y d e f i n e d . It i s n o t l i m i t e d t o
h i s t o r y i n i t s t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e , b u t r a t h e r by t h e l i m i t s of men's p a s t
e n d e a v o u r s . Wherever men have l i v e d o r worked o r p l a y e d , they have l e f t
t h e i r mark on t h e l a n d s c a p e , marks which a r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i n c e of
t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t . To i n t e r p r e t t h o s e marks, t h e h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t
h a s one g r e a t a d v a n t a g e o v e r t h e p r e h i s t o r i a n , namely, t h e documentary r e c o r d .
I n America, h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have tended t o c o n c e n t r a t e on
1 7 t h c e n t u r y s i t e s . These l a c k t h e documentation a v a i l a b l e t o s i t e s of
l a t e r s e t t l e m e n t . It i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n , p e r h a p s , t h a t America h a s had t o
a d o p t t h e methods of p r e h i s t o r y t o i n t e r p r e t h i s t o r i c s i t e s . A u s t r a l i a ,
on t h e o t h e r hand, i s r i c h i n documentary evidence. Government correspondence
between A u s t r a l i a and London h a s been p r e s e r v e d a s h a s correspondence between
government o f f i c i a l s i n Sydney and p r i v a t e s e t t l e r s . The c o l o n i s a t i o n of
A u s t r a l i a c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e B r i t i s h e d u c a t i o n reforms of t h e l a t e 18the a r l y 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e l i t e r a c y r a t e among A u s t r a l i a ' s
e a r l y s e t t l e r s was h i g h ( S c h u l t z 1970:281).
However, j u s t a s h i s t o r i a n s a r e
c o n t e n t n e i t h e r w i t h ' t h e mere r e c i t a t i o n of a l i s t of s u c c e s s i v e e v e n t s '
n o r w i t h i m p l i c i t g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s , a s B i n f o r d and h i s c o l l e a g u e s have a l l e g e d ,
h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s must n o t r e s t c o n t e n t w i t h t h e mere p r o d u c t i o n of
a series of s i t e r e p o r t s , however w e l l documented. L i k e h i s t o r i a n s , t h e y
It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s
must s e e k g e n e r a l t h e o r i e s .
i n A u s t r a l i a have produced s u f f i c i e n t d a t a on which t o b a s e g e n e r a l s t a t e ments.
I f n o t , t h e y must a d o p t t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r i e s of o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s .
What i s c l e a r , however, i s t h a t i f t h e h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t i s t o make
a u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h u m a n i t i e s o r s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i t i s by v i r t u e
of h i s t r a i n i n g i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r , h i s c a p a c i t y t o r e a s o n from
t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t o g e n e r a l t h e o r y , i n o t h e r words, by r e a s o n of h i s t r a i n i n g
i n inductive reasoning.
Having i n v e s t i g a t e d h i s s i t e , t h e h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t must
d e t e r m i n e , by induction, which, i f a n y , of t h e a v a i l a b l e hypotheses i s
a p p o s i t e , which s h o u l d b e m o d i f i e d , which r e j e c t e d . Any new h y p o t h e s i s
which may t h u s emerge c a n b e t e s t e d by d e d u c t i o n b u t d e d u c t i o n a l o n e w i l l
n o t p e r m i t t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of new a r c h a e o l o g i c a l hypotheses:
From my e a r l y y o u t h I have had t h e s t r o n g e s t d e s i r e t o undert o group a l l f a c t s under some g e n e r a l
stand o r explain
l a w s . . . I have s t e a d i l y endeavoured t o keep my mind f r e e , s o
a s t o g i v e up any h y p o t h e s i s , however much beloved (and I
c a n n o t r e s i s t forming one on e v e r y s u b j e c t ) , a s soon a s f a c t s
a r e shown t o b e opposed t o i t , . . [ w i t h one s t a t e d e x c e p t i o n ] I
c a n n o t remember a s i n g l e f i r s t - f o r m e d h y p o t h e s i s which had n o t
a f t e r a time t o b e g i v e n up o r g r e a t l y modified. T h i s h a s
n a t u r a l l y l e d me t o d i s t r u s t g r e a t l y d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g i n
t h e mixed s c i e n c e s ( R a l l i n g l978 :169).
...,
These words were w r i t t e n by C h a r l e s Darwin a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n b o t h of The
It i s n o t d e d u c t i o n a l o n e b u t
Origin of Species and The Bscent of Man.
t h e c o n s t a n t d i a l o g u e between d e d u c t i o n and i n d u c t i o n , r e a s o n i n g from t h e
g e n e r a l t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r and back a g a i n , t e s t i n g and r e t e s t i n g , t h a t i s
t h e b a s i s of t r u e s c h o l a r s h i p .
H i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g y i s a new and dynamic d i s c i p l i n e which s h o u l d
n o t y e t be c o n f i n e d w i t h i n s t r i c t b o u n d a r i e s o r d e f i n i t i o n s n o r s h o u l d
t h e r e b e imposed upon i t any r i g i d t h e o r e t i c a l framework. It i s i n a
situation
s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n t h e f i e l d of p r e h i s t o r y d u r i n g t h e 1920s
and 1930s, when modern t e c h n i q u e s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w e r e
b e i n g s y s t e m a t i c a l l y evolved f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e by p e o p l e
who grew up w i t h t h e s u b j e c t (Walker 1967:25).
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