Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
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Ichnofossils and their significance in the Cambrian successions of the Parahio
Valley in the Spiti Basin, Tethys Himalaya, India
S.K. Parcha ⇑, Shivani Pandey
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, General Mahadeo Singh Road, Dehradun 248 001, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 9 February 2010
Received in revised form 12 January 2011
Accepted 22 April 2011
Available online 29 June 2011
Keywords:
Spiti
Lower Cambrian
Ichnofossils
Debsakhad Member
a b s t r a c t
The Spiti Basin exposes well preserved Cambrian successions in the Tethys Himalaya. The present ichnofossil assemblage is reported from the Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation. The ichnofossils
includes the ichnogenera Bergaueria, Chondrites, Cruziana, Didymaulichnus, Dimorphichnus, Diplichnites,
Helminthorhaphe, Merostomichnites, ?Monocraterion, Monomorphichnus, Nereites, Palaeopascichnus, Palaeophycus, Phycodes, Planolites, Rusophycus, Skolithos, Scolicia, Treptichnus, etc. along with annelid worm, burrow and scratch marks. These ichnogenera can be assigned to cubichnial, repichnial, pascichnial to
fodinichnial behaviors. The ichnofossils reported from this section provide evidence regarding the developmental patterns during the early phase of life. In absence of trilobites, the present assemblage of ichnofossils is very significant in assigning the age of the Debsakhad Member. The abundance of ichnofossils
in sandstone, siltstone and in shale beds indicate that the ichnocenosis is dominated by a high behavioral
diversity ranging from the suspension to deposit feeders. Three lithofacies were observed in this section,
they show a vertical disposition, which further reflects general upward coarsening trend. Ichnofossils are
mostly produced by arthropods along with crustacean, polychaetes and polyphyletic vermiforms. Due to
the paucity of body fossil, as well as microbiota in the lowermost beds of the Debsakhad Member, the
Precambrian–Cambrian boundary could not be demarcated. However, the presence of Treptichnus and
Phycodes can be considered as a horizon marker for the beginning of Lower Cambrian in this section.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Tethys Himalaya contains an extensive record of sediments
ranging from Precambrian to Eocene. The Spiti Basin, a part of the
Tethys Himalayan sedimentary sequence, is southwestern extension of the greater Tibetan Basin. It displays the largest marine
and richly fossiliferous sedimentary succession. The Cambrian
strata in the Spiti Basin are exposed in Pin Valley, Parahio Valley
and in the Kunzum La – Takche sections. The present work deals
with the Kunzum La Formation in the Parahio Valley. The formation is subdivided into two members namely Debsakhad and Parahio (Kumar et al., 1984). The Lower Cambrian succession of the
Kunzum La Formation contains a variety of ichnofossils preserved
in, siltstone, shale, sandstone and quartzite occurring at various
startigraphic levels. In absence of body fossils, ichnofossils are useful for establishing the biostratigraphy and deciphering the paleoecology of the area.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 135 2525115; fax: +91 135 2625212.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (Suraj Kumar
Parcha).
1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.04.028
Variety of ichnofossils has been recorded from the late Precambrian and early Paleozoic succession from Kashmir, Zanskar,
Kinnaur, Kumaun region and from the Cambrian succession of
the Lesser Himalaya. The presence of ichnofossils in the Lower
Cambrian succession has a stratigraphic significance for demarcation of Precambrian–Cambrian boundary. The earlier record of ichnofossils from the Parahio Valley section is inadequate. The present
ichnological study, therefore, is of a considerable stratigraphic
importance for tracing out the biogenic record in the pre trilobitic-bearing Cambrian strata of the Spiti Basin.
The Lower Cambrian succession of the Parahio Valley reveals a
diverse group of ichnofossils. In the present study, 19 ichnogenera,
an annelid worm and scratch marks are reported. The presence of
ichnofauna reported from this section reflects the evolution of
invertebrates. Besides this, a change in abundance and diversity
of ichnofossils is observed throughout the succession. The diversity
of the ichnofauna increases as we go higher in the section (Table 2).
The location, lithological setup and distribution of ichnofauna reported from the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Kunzum
La Formation are illustrated in the Figs. 1 and 2. The present work
is aimed to elucidate the ichnology and paleoecology of the Lower
Cambrian of the Debsakhad Member exposed in Parahio Valley of
the Spiti Basin.
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Fig. 1. Geological Map of the Spiti Basin of Himachal Pradesh.
2. Stratigraphy and geological setting
The Spiti Basin lies in the Lahaul – Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh, northern India. The study area lies in the Parahio Valley,
which is the subsidiary valley of the Pin Valley. This section is exposed near the confluence of the Khemangar and Debsakhad River.
In this section the base of the Kunzum La Formation and its contact
with the underlying Batal Formation is not exposed. In absence of
body fossils, it does not allow any biostratigraphic detail of the
boundary between these two units.
The first geological work in the Spiti Basin was carried out by
Stoliczkai (1865); he designated the Cambrian sequence as ‘‘Bhabeh Series’’. The Cambrian rocks of the Spiti region conformably
overlie the Precambrian rocks of the Vaikrita System. The sequence
between the Crystalline at the base and the Muth Quartzite above
were designated by Griesbach (1891) as Haimanta System. Hayden
(1904) carried out the geological studies of the Spiti region and
collected fauna from different levels. Later on Srikantia (1981)
adopted the term Haimanta Group, which comprises of Batal,
Kunzum La and Thango formations. The subsequent work on the
geology of this region was carried out by Ranga Rao et al. (1982).
They stated that the Haimanta Group cannot be subdivided on
the regional basis, because the lithological units are not laterally
continuous. Myrow et al. (2006) used the Parahio Formation instead of Kunzum La Formation. However, Bhargava (2008a,b) and
in personal communication stated that the name Kunzum La Formation should retain, whose mapability has been proved from Spiti
to Kinnaur in east and in Lahul–Zanskar in west. So in the present
paper Kunzum La Formation is used and the classification proposed by Srikantia (1981) is adopted.
The Spiti Basin contains the fossiliferous Cambrian successions,
exposed in the Parahio Valley, Pin Valley, Kunzum La – Chandra Tal
and in the Takche sections. Presence of fossiliferous rocks in the
Cambrian successions of the Spiti region was first reported by
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Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic column showing the distribution of Ichnofossils in the Parahio section.
Hayden (1904), whose collection was identified by Reed (1910).
The ichnofossils in Spiti Basin were earlier recorded by Bhargava
et al. (1982), Bhargava and Srikantia (1985), Bhargava and Bassi
(1988), Sudan et al. (2000), Parcha (1996, 1998a,b, 1999) and later
on by Parcha et al. (2005). The Lower Cambrian succession of the
Spiti Basin displays diverse assemblages of ichnofossils, occurring
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Fig. 3. Ichnofossils from the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Kunzum La Formation. A, B, J and K. Skolithos isp. C. Merostomichnites isp. D and I. Nereites isp. E and F.
Bergaueria isp. G, H and L. Dimorphichnus isp. M. Palaeopascichnus isp.
in various horizons within siltstones, sandstones and shale. So far
there is no documentation of body fossils, except for a single occurrence of the Lower Cambrian trilobite Redlichia from a float. Thus
the ichnofossils play an important role for understanding the
paleobiology of this part of the Spiti Basin. Sudan and Sharma
(2001) reported ichnofossils from the Kunzum La section and
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Fig. 4. Ichnofossils from the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Kunzum La Formation. A and I. Phycodes isp. B, F, Ga, H and J. Planolites isp. C. Scolicia isp. A. D.
Diplichnites isp. A. E and Gb. Treptichnus isp. K. Scratch marks. L. Diplichnites isp. C. M. Diplichnites isp. B.
divided the ichnofossil bearing horizons into two levels TF1 and
TF2. In the present studies these horizons are not distinguished; instead it was found that simple forms of ichnofossils occur at the
base of Kunzum La Formation and as we go higher in the succession the complexity of ichnofossils increases, following the evolutionary trend Table. 2.
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Fig. 5. Ichnofossils from the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Kunzum La Formation. A, C, H and J. Monomorphichnus isp. A. B, E and Ka. Palaeophycus isp. A. D.
Didymaulichnus isp. F. Monomorphichnus isp. C. G. Monomorphichnus isp. B. I. Helminthorhaphe isp. Kb. Cruziana isp. L. Palaeophycus isp. B.
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Fig. 6. Ichnofossils from the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Kunzum La Formation. A. Rusophycus isp. A. B. Chondrites isp. C and D. Rusophycus isp. B. E. Burrow B. F.
Rusophycus isp. C. G. ?Monocraterion isp. H. ?Annelid worm. I. Burrow A. Diameter of coin = 24 mm.
3. Mode of preservation
The ichnofossils collected from the parahio section shows
a variety of the ichnogenera as Bergaueria, Chondrites, Cruziana,
Didymaulichnus, Dimorphichnus, Diplichnites, Helminthorhaphe,
Merostomichnites, ?Monocraterion, Monomorphichnus, Nereites,
Palaeopascichnus, Palaeophycus, Phycodes, Planolites, Rusophycus,
Skolithos, Scolicia, Treptichnus and trilobite scratch marks, etc. The
ichnogenera so far reported from this region belong mostly to
the traces of arthropods and other invertebrates. It is observed that
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the preservation of ichnofossils is mostly controlled by the characteristics of sedimentary matrix.
Absence of trilobite body fossil in association with the ichnofossils has been observed in all the Himalayan successions, which
seems to be a worldwide phenomenon. However, the trilobites
predominantly occur in the beds overlying the beds bearing ichnofossils. The present ichnofossil assemblage contains resting and
grazing traces together with tracks and trails on the bedding
planes. They represent different behavior and biological functions
such as feeding, dwelling and locomotion (Seilacher, 1953,
1964a,b).
4. Systematic ichnology
Repository: nineteen ichnogenera along with annelid worm,
scratch marks and burrows are described. The binominal system
with alphabetical order has been followed to describe the ichnofossils. All the material is housed in the Repository section of the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Museum, Dehradun, India
under reference from WIHG/A/1590 to 1599 and WIHG/A/1900
to 1912.
Ichnogenus: Bergaueria Prantl, 1945
Type Ichnospecies: Bergaueria perata Prantl, 1945
Bergaueria isp. (Fig. 3E and F)
Repository Ref: In situ specimens and some field
observations.
Material: Specimens are preserved in sandstone, one as
hyporelief and the other as epirelief.
Description: Specimens are circular to sub-circular in outline,
4–10 mm in diameter and 3–4 mm deep. Fine and strong
transverse constrictions are present on the surface. The
specimen possesses slightly elevated protuberance. The
uppermost part is unornamented; slightly elevated and the
lower end of the specimen are gently rounded.
Remarks: The ichnogenera Bergaueria is regarded as the
dwelling structure. The studied specimen shows some
resemblance with B. perata Prantl (1945) particularly in the
outer features, but differs from it in absence of shallow
circular apical depression, which is prominent in the later.
Due to the paucity of good material at present the
ichnogeneric determination is possible only. The
ichnospecies of Bergaueria have been widely reported from
the Cambrian and Ordovician strata (Häntzschel, 1975) but
is particularly common in the Lower Cambrian (McKee,
1945; Seilacher, 1956; Aria and McGugan, 1968; Schmitz,
1971; Young, 1972; Alpert, 1973; Arboleya, 1973; Crimes
et al., 1977; Crimes and Anderson, 1985; Gámez Vintaned
et al., 2006).
Locality: This ichnotaxa is relatively rare and has been
recorded from the middle part of the Debsakhad Member,
in the Parahio section of the Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Chondrites Sternberg, 1833
Type Ichnospecies: Fuciodes antiquus Brongniart, 1828
Chondrites isp. (Fig. 6B)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1591
Material: The specimen is preserved in sandstone.
Description: The specimen represents a regularly branched,
unornamented radial pattern of burrows. On the bedding
planes it shows a dendritic pattern. Burrows neither cross
each other nor anastomies. The branching may reach up to
the second order. The specimen shows network of
branches. The maximum length of the burrow 36 mm
and width is 3 mm which remains constant throughout
the length. The burrow fill material is same as the host
rock.
Remarks: The specimen can be ascribed to ichnogenus
Chondrites on the basis of ramifying tunnel structure. These
burrows can be treated as feeding structure belongs to
fodinichnia (Seilacher, 1955; Osgood, 1970). The present
specimen shows some resemblance with the ichnogenus
Chondrites described by Macdonald (1982) from Bay
Formation, South Georgia, in the dendritic pattern, but due
to the absence of third order branching it differs from it.
Savrda and Bottjer (1989) stated that the Chondrites
represent bioturbation produced by small organisms,
located at shallow depth below the sediment–water
interface. Seilacher (1990) stated that the trace maker of
Chondrites may be able to live under anaerobic conditions
as chemosymbiotic organism. According to Abbassi (2007)
Chondrites can also live under dysaerobic and reducing
conditions or even anaerobic environments. The present
specimen differs with the ichnogenus Chondrites described
from Rajasthan by Kumar and Pandey (2010) in the nature
of dendritc pattern.
Locality: This ichnotaxa is recorded from the lower horizon of
Debsakhad Member in the Parahio section of the Kunzum
La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Cruziana d́Orbigny, 1842
Type ichnospecies: Cruziana rugosa d́Orbigny, 1842
Cruziana isp. (Fig. 5Kb)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Several specimens are preserved on a block of
siltstone on the bedding plane as hyporelief.
Description: Bilobate straight to slightly curved furrows;
lobes separated by a relatively shallow well defined median
furrow. The specimens are 6–10 mm long and most of them
are 1–3 mm wide. Some of them display, faint, transverse,
thin v-markings. Surface of the lobes is smooth.
Remarks: Cruziana has been attributed as a crawling trace
produced by trilobite activity, particularly in the Early
Paleozoic (Osgood, 1970). Cruziana is mostly represented by
a bilobate and elongated ridges covered by transverse or
herringbone-shaped ridges. (Häntzschel, 1975; Pickerill
et al., 1984; Fillion and Pickerill, 1990) stated that these are
the crawling traces and may be marginated by lateral outer
zones with or without ridges. This ichnogenus has been
reported from a diverse range of paleoenvironment,
ranging from characteristic shallow water marine to
freshwater settings (Bromley and Asgaard, 1979; Seilacher,
1985; Crimes, 1987). The present specimen differs from the
ichnogenera Cruziana isp. described by Seilacher (1970).
The present form differs from Cruziana isp. described by
Parcha (1998b) from the Lower Cambrian of Zanskar in the
nature of claw markings. It equally differs with the Cruziana
isp. described by Kumar and Pandey (2010) from Rajasthan.
Due to the paucity of the material the present specimen
could not be grouped to any known ichnospecies of the
Cruziana.
Locality: The specimen occurs in the middle part of the
Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation.
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
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Ichnogenus: Didymaulichnus Young, 1972
Type Ichnospecies: Fraena lyelli Rouault, 1850
Didymaulichnus isp. (Fig. 5D)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Specimen is preserved as hyporelief in siltstone.
Description: Series of bilobed raised furrows, arranged in a
straight to winding series. Each segment is 5–10 mm long
and 2–2.8 mm wide. Median furrow deep separates the
unornamented lobes. The two lobes are roughly parallel to
each other.
area, Czech Republic. The ichnogenus Dimorphichnus is
known from the Lower Cambrian succession of Wales
(Crimes, 1970), Lesser Himalaya (Tiwari and Parcha,
2006), Zanskar (Parcha and Singh, 2010) and from
Rajasthan (Kumar and Pandey, 2008, 2010). The present
specimen differs from all known ichnospecies of
Dimorphichnus.
Locality: This ichnogenera occurs sporadically in the
Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation, Spiti
Basin.
Remarks: Didymaulichnus is regarded as a feeding structure.
This ichnofossil possesses distinctive features in common
with Didymaulichnus tirasensis Palij (1974). The illustrated
material does not show any imbrications and overlapping
of curved segments hence cannot be assigned to
D. tirasensis. It differs with Didymaulichnus lyelli (Rouault,
1850) in absence of minor longitudinal undulations. The
described ichnogenera also differs with the Didymaulichnus
cf. tirasensis (Jensen and Mens, 2001) from the Lower
Cambrian of Baltica, in the manner of narrow and deep
lobes.
Locality: The specimen occurs in the middle part of the
Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation in the
Parahio Valley, Spiti Basin.
Ichnogenus: Diplichnites Dawson, 1873
Type Ichnospecies: Diplichnite aenigma Dawson, 1873
Diplichnites isp. A (Fig. 4D)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1598
Material: The specimen is preserved as hyporelief in
sandstone.
Description: Minute imprints composed of parallel rows of
similar elongate to sub circular tracks. The individual
imprint length varies from 2 to 3 mm. Distance between
the two imprints is 1–3 mm and width is 0.8–1.2 mm; the
two lines are 7–15 mm apart. The maximum length of the
track is 70 mm. The paired imprints occur in a row to some
distance and shift slightly towards the other side. Tracks
are arranged differently depending on the direction of
movement. These imprints suggest crawling activity of the
arthropod on the soft sediments.
Ichnogenus: Dimorphichnus Seilacher, 1955
Type Ichnospecies: Dimorphichnus obliquus Seilacher, 1955
Dimorphichnus isp. (Fig. 3G, H and L)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1590, 1902 and 1912
Material: Three specimens are preserved as convex
hyporelief, one specimen preserved in sandstone and the
others are in siltstone.
Description: Asymmetrical trackways with two different
types of impressions, long straight to slightly sigmoidal,
short and comma shaped. Both the types of trackways are
arranged in a series. The number of claw impressions in
each set varies from 5 to 7. The width of individual claw
marking varies from 1 to 3 mm and length from 2 to 8 mm.
Distance between the two individual ridges in one row
varies from 1.3 to 5 mm, and the distance between two
parallel ridges varies from 7 to 40 mm. Total length of the
specimens varies from 35 to 60 mm. One row of trackways
is moderately bent, slightly curved at one side of the
preserved section, passing to straight on the opposite side.
Shifting of some markings suggest change in the movement
of the animal on the substrate.
Remarks: The specimens described herein resemble with
Dimorphichnus in the nature of the curved and sub parallel
ridges. Ichnogenus Dimorphichnus is regarded as a grazing
activity (Seilacher, 1955, 1985, 1990; Crimes, 1970; Fillion
and Pickerill, 1990), resulting from trilobite movement by
oscillatory currents (Osgood, 1970). The distinction
between the Dimorphichnus and Monomorphichnus is
complicated (Crimes, 1970). Though, various workers have
given their opinion time to time regarding the status of
these ichnogenera. The present specimens differ with the
specimens described from the Pedroche Formation of the
Spain in the manner of tightly blunt appearance of claw
markings (Gámez Vintaned et al., 2006) and also with the
species described by Mikuláš (2000) from the Barrandian
Remarks: Diplichnites is regarded as a crawling trace,
mainly produced by trilobites. It has been recorded most
commonly in the Cambrian rocks (Seilacher, 1955;
Dzulynski and Zak, 1960; Radwanski and Roniewicz,
1963; Martinsson, 1965; Hecker and Zharkov, 1966;
Crimes, 1970; Osgood, 1970; Häntzschel, 1975; Briggs
et al., 1979, 1984; Mikuláš, 2000 and Mángano et al.,
2005). The illustrated specimen differs with the
ichnospecies described by Alpert (1976) from the Lower
Cambrian rocks of White Innoy Mountains of California.
Diplichnites is reported from the Upper Cambrian
succession of northwestern Argentina by Mángano et al.
(2005). In the East European platform Diplichnites first
appears in the Lower Atdabanian (Urbanek and Rozanov,
1983; Crimes, 1987). The present specimens differ with
the Diplichnites ichnospecies reported from the Tal
Formation of Lesser Himalaya by Tiwari and Parcha
(2006) and from Zanskar Himalaya by Parcha (1998b)
and Parcha and Singh (2010). The present specimens
differ with the Diplichnites ichnospecies described by
Kumar and Pandey (2010) in the pattern of track, which
consist of two parallel equally spaced rows of unequal
fine ridges.
Diplichnites isp. B (Fig. 4M)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1901
Material: Single specimen preserved as hypichinial casts in
the sandstone.
Description: Two parallel series of trackways, impression of
track are well preserved and a series consisting of several
tracks. The parallel series are separated by a distance of 9–
16 mm. Individual track length varies from 2 to 4 mm and
the width is 1 to 2.2 mm. In one series the distance between
the two claw markings is 1.5–2.2 mm.
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Remarks: The traces are less sigmoidal as compared to
Diplichnites isp. A. Moreover, the pattern and nature of the
claw markings also vary. It indicates the continuous
movement of the organism. Due to the paucity of the
material the present specimen was not grouped with any
known ichnospecies of the Diplichnites.
Diplichnites isp. C (Fig. 4L)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1595
Material: Single specimen preserved as convex hyporelief in
sandstone.
Description: Paired dissimilar and unequal rib shaped
markings. Individual marking is about 3–5 mm long and
0.9–1.2 mm wide. The inner side of the depressions is
broader, gradually taper towards outer side. The distance
between the two markings is about 1–4 mm. The paired
markings show the lateral displacement.
Remarks: The specimen apparently show resembles with the
ichnogenera Diplichnites in the nature and pattern of
markings. The illustrated specimen differs from all the
above described forms, in presence of unequal size and in
the nature of markings.
Locality: The described forms of Diplichnites were reported
from the different horizons in the Debsakhad Member of
the Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Helminthorhaphe Seilacher, 1977
Type ichnospecies: Helminthorhaphe japonica Tanaka, 1970
Helminthorhaphe isp. (Fig. 5I)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Poorly preserved specimen present in siltstone,
photographed in the field.
Description: Tightly and regularly spaced parallel, convex
meandering burrow system. The burrow width ranges from
3 to 5 mm. Each meander is separated by adjacent
meanders by 0.5–2 mm. Individual meander is even
occasionally curved, coiled and is 4 mm high from the base.
Remarks: The illustrated specimen shows close resemblance
with the ichnogenus Helminthorhaphe in the nature and
pattern of meandering burrow system and is regarded as a
grazing trace. The variability of this ichnogenus has been
clearly stated by Uchman (1995). The present specimen
resembles with the ichnogenus Helminthoida in the absence
of starter spiral, but differs with it in the pattern of tightly
coiled, narrower lateral backfill zones (Seilacher, 2007).
Locality: The specimen occurs in the upper part of the
Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation, in the
Parahio section.
Ichnogenus Merostomichnites Packard, 1900b
Type ichnospecies: Merostomichnites beecheri Häntzschel,
1962
Merostomichnites isp (Fig. 3C)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Specimen preserved as epirelief in sandstone.
Description: Spindle or bow shaped row arranged obliquely.
Individual impression varies in length from 12 to 15 mm
and in width from 3 to 5 mm. The trace is preserved as
epirelief.
Remarks: The specimen differs from ichnogenus Diplichnites
Dawson (1873) and equally with Dimorphichnus Seilacher
(1955) due to lack of median grove. The difference between
the two ichnogenera were well described along with
complete discussion on the use of Merostomichnites was
given by Keighley and Pickerill (1998). The specimen
equally differs with the Merostomichnites isp. described by
Tiwari and Parcha (2006) in the pattern of parallel spindle
shaped row. Due to the close resemblance with the
ichnogenus Merostomichnites, which is a resting trace, the
present specimen has been grouped under this ichnogenus.
Locality: Single specimen was reported from the middle part
of the Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation in
the Parahio Valley.
Ichnogenus Monocraterion Torell, 1870
Type Ichnospecies: Monocraterion tentaculatum Hall, 1847
?Monocraterion isp. (Fig. 6G)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Single specimen preserved in fine grained
sandstone bed.
Description: A circular structure maximum 8 mm in
diameter, cylindrical burrow funnel shaped at top. The
diameter of the center of circle is 3 mm and is nearly 4 mm
in depth. The center of burrow is deep and unornamented.
Remarks: The specimen though show close resemblance with
the ichnogenus Monocraterion, but there is no prominent
funnel, which is characteristic of the Monocraterion
(Häntzschel, 1975). While studying the Lower Cambrian
Pipe rocks of Scotland, Hallam and Sweet (1966) suggested
that Monocraterion result for upward movement of an
animal in its burrow. A considerable debate has taken place
since then regarding its origin e.g. (Boyd, 1966; Goodwin
and Anderson, 1974). The described forms differ from the
Monocraterion described by Gámez Vintaned et al. (2006) in
the nature of conical structure. The present specimen was
grouped under the ichnogenus Monocraterion due to its
close similarity with its characteristic features, but differs
from all the known ichnospecies of this ichnogenus.
Locality: The specimen occurs in the middle part of the
Debsakhad Member of Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Monomorphichnus Crimes, 1970
Type Ichnospecies: Monomorphichnus bilineatus Crimes, 1970
Monomorphichnus isp. A (Fig. 5A, C, H and J)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1593, 1594, 1906 and 1908
Material: The specimens are preserved as positive relief in the
sandstone; various other specimens are examined in the
field.
Description: Series of parallel straight to slightly curved
ridges commonly impressed and regularly arranged. All
specimens are preserved in a positive hyporelief. The ridges
are forming sets, individual ridges varying in length from 2
to 32 mm and are 2 to 4 mm apart. The maximum number
of ridges occurring on a set is 6–22. The maximum distance
between the two sets of ridges is 2.8–7 mm.
Remarks: Monomorphichnus is defined by sets of elongate
narrow ridges, which could have been made by sidewaysswimming of arthropods. Monomorphichnus is regarded as
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
swimming grazing traces (Crimes et al., 1977). Crimes
(1987) stated that some traces of Monomorphichnus may
have been produced by other arthpods. Seilacher (1985,
1990), regarded this ichnogenus synonymous to
Dimorphichnus. Fillion and Pickerill (1990) provided a
detailed discussion on the morphological characters of
Dimorphichnus relating it to Monomorphichnus. Jensen
(1997) stated that both ichnogenera may represent different
behaviors of a same producer. The present specimens
though resembles with the Monomorphichnus lineatus
(Crimes et al., 1977) but lack in the sets of fine ridges,
besides this the ridges in the present specimens are long.
The specimen differs from Monomorphichnus bilinearis
Crimes (1970) and equally with Monomorphichnus
multilineatus Alpert (1976) in the pattern, shape and size of
scratch marks. The specimen differs from the
Monomorphichnus monolinearis (Shah and Sudan, 1983)
from the Lower Cambrian succession of the Kashmir
Himalaya in the nature and pattern of ridges. The specimen
equally differs with the species Monomorphichnus sp.
describe by Parcha (1998b) and Parcha and Singh (2010)
from the Zanskar area of Ladakh Himalaya, in the manner of
isolated ridges which repeated laterally and in shape of
ridges.
Locality: The specimens are preserved at different
levels of Debsakhad and Parahio member of Kunzum La
Formation.
Monomorphichnus isp. B (Fig. 5G)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: The specimen is preserved as positive relief in a
block of sandstone.
Description: Series of slightly curved ridges commonly
impressed but regularly arranged. The ridges are not
forming sets, ridges varying in length from 5 to 10 mm and
are 5 to 8 mm apart.
Remarks: The present specimen resembles with the M.
lineatus described by Crimes et al. (1977) but the ridges in
the present specimens are long as compared to the
specimen described above. The specimen differs with the
M. monolinearis described from the Lower Cambrian
succession of the Kashmir Himalaya by Shah and Sudan
(1983) and also with the Monomorphichnus isp. from
Rajasthan by Kumar and Pandey (2010), in the nature and
pattern of ridges.
Locality: The specimen occurs in the middle part of
Debsakhad Member of Kunzum La Formation
Monomorphichnus isp. C (Fig. 5F)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1900
Material: The specimen is preserved as hyporelief in a block
of sandstone.
Description: Straight to slightly curved regular ridges. The
length of the individual ridge varies from 22 to 34 mm and
the width varies from 3 to 5 mm. The two ridges are 10–
15 mm apart from each other.
Remarks: The illustrated specimen differs from the known
species of Monomorphichnus and equally differs with the
1107
above described species of the Monomorphichnus in the
pattern of ridges. In the present specimen no sets of ridges
were observed.
Locality: The specimen is preserved in the lower part of
Debsakhad Member of Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus Nereites Macleay, 1839
Type ichnospecies: Nereites cambriensis Macleay, 1839
Nereites isp. (Fig. 3D and I)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1903 and an In situ specimen
Material: Specimens are preserved as hyporelief in shale and
sandstone.
Description: Simple, irregularly meandering, horizontally
oriented trail; consisting of two rows of sand infilled
numerous irregular pellets typically on bedding plane. The
width of the burrow is 2–5 mm and the total length is 35–
63 mm. The pellets are arranged in pairs, commonly
parallel to the direction of the trail. The length of individual
pellets is 2–6 mm. Pellets either isolate or adjacent but
never overlap.
Remarks: Nereites is a feeding structure which, probably
produced by worm like organism such as polychaetes.
Chamberlain (1971) described the mode of formation of
Nereites burrow. The described specimen differs from
Nereites irregularis (Schafhautl, 1851) in absence of densely
packed regular meanders, which are lacking in the present
specimen. Uchman (1995) gave a detailed description
about the preservational variation of Nereites. Aceñolaza
and Aceñolaza (2006) described Nereites from the
Puncoviscana Formation of northwesternArgentina and
suggested that Nereites were the internal meandering trail
which was interpreted as body fossil of an annelid worm.
Locality: The specimens were reported from the upper part of
Debsakhad Member and lower part of Parahio Member of
the Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus Palaeopascichnus Palij, 1976
Type Ichnospecies: Palaeopascichnus delicatus Palij, 1976
Palaeopascichnus isp. (Fig. 3M)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: The specimen is preserved as full relief in quartzite.
Description: Closely positioned wide bars, bars are elongate
and arranged in winding rows. The width of the segments
varies from 3 to 6 mm and the length of segments varies
from 8 to 13 mm. The two segments are aparted from each
other from 7 to 22 mm. The total length of the specimen is
70 mm.
Remarks: The ichnogenus Palaeopascichnus is a feeding
structure and has a wide distribution including Russia
(Fedonkin, 1981), the Ukraine (Palij, 1976), South Australia
(Glaessner, 1969; Jenkins, 1995), Poland (Pacześna, 1986),
and Newfoundland (Narbonne et al., 1987; Gehling et al.,
2000). The illustrated specimen shows close similarity in
the nature and pattern of the grooves with the specimen
described by Jensen (2003).
Locality: The specimen occurs in upper part of the Debsakhad
Member of the Kunzum La Formation in the Parahio
section.
1108
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
Ichnogenus Palaeophycus Hall, 1847
Type ichnospecies: Palaeophycus tubularis Hall, 1847
Palaeophycus isp. A (Fig. 5B, E and Ka)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1904 and In situ specimen
Material: The material comprises of three specimens
preserved as full relief in siltstone.
Description: Straight to gently curved bulbous burrow with
distinct regularly spaced over imposed faint constrictions.
Surface is covered with short ridges. The maximum
observed length is 12–55 mm. The width of the burrow is
2–8 mm. Infilling material of the burrow is same as that of
the host rock.
Remarks: The specimen shows close resemblance to
Palaeophycus in the outer morphological characters.
Palaeophycus is regarded as a dwelling structure. The
present specimen differs with the Palaeophycus cf.
alternatus Pemberton and Frey (1982) and Gámez Vintaned
et al. (2006) in the nature of constrictions. The specimens
equally differ with Palaeophycus sulcatus Miller and Dyer
(1878) and Mikuláš (2000) in the nature and pattern of the
burrow. The presence of transverse constrictions and the
bulbous morphology avert identifying this ichnofossil with
any known ichnospecies of the Palaeophycus. Pemberton
and Frey (1982) and Keighley and Pickerill (1995) have
given the detail discussion about the taxonomy of
Palaeophycus. The differentiation of Palaeophycus from the
morphologically similar ichnotaxa Planolites Nicholson
(1873) was discussed in detailed by Osgood (1970),
Pemberton and Frey (1982), Fillion (1989), Fillion and
Pickerill (1990), Keighley and Pickerill (1995). It has now
been generally accepted that the presence of lining in the
Palaeophycus and an absence in the Planolites is the
significant distinction between the two (Fürisch, 1974).
Locality: The presently described specimens were reported
from the lower and upper parts of the Debsakhad Member
of the Kunzum La Formation
Palaeophycus isp. B (Fig. 5L)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Specimen is preserved in sandstone as positive
hyporelief.
Description: Horizontally to slightly curved burrow, with
branches not crossing each other. The length of the
individual burrow is 26–53 mm and width varies from 3 to
6 mm. The length of burrow system is 85 mm. The infilling
of the burrow is darker and the grains are finer than the
surrounding host rock.
Remarks: The specimen differs with the Palaeophycus isp A. in
absence of closely spaced bundled burrow and in the
pattern of branching.
Locality: The specimen was collected from the middle part of
the Debsakhad Member of Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Phycodes Richter, 1850
Type ichnospecies: Phycodes circinatum Richter, 1853
Phycodes isp. (Fig. 4A and I)
Repository Ref: In situ specimens
Material: Two specimens preserved as full relief in fine
grained sandstone.
Description: Obliquely oriented slightly curved burrows
depicting branch like manifestation. The branches do not
cross each other. The maximum length of an individual
burrow is 25–35 mm and width is 3–5 mm. The burrow
system varies in length from 43 to 56 mm. The burrows are
filled with the matrix of the host rock.
Remarks: The specimen though shows some comparison
with the Phycodes palmatum reported from the Salt Range
of Pakistan by Seilacher (1955) and with the specimen
described Shah and Sudan (1983) from Kashmir and that
with the specimen illustrated from Zanskar by Parcha
(1998b) but the illustrated specimen differs with them in
the absence of closely bundled burrow. Phycodes is
interpreted as a feeding burrow made by frequent search
by an animal into the sediment.
Locality: The specimens were collected from the lower part of
the Debsakhad Member of Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Planolites Nicholson, 1873
Type ichnospecies: Planolites vulgaris Nicholson and Hinde,
1875 = (Palaeophycus beverleyensis) Billings, 1862
Planolites isp. (Fig. 4B, F, Ga, H and J)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1596, 1904, 1907, and In situ
specimens
Material: Five specimens are preserved as hyporelief three in
sandstone and two in siltstone.
Description: Straight to slightly curved burrow, simple
subcylindrical ornamented with closely to widely spaced
straie. Length of the individual burrow ranges from 12 to
30 mm and the width from 3 to 11 mm; mostly the
burrows are unbranched and horizontal in structure. The
burrows are filled with the same material as that of host
rock. In some specimens burrows are darker than the
surrounding matrix.
Remarks: The ichnogenus Planolites is the most abundant
ichnofossil in the Lower Cambrian of the Spiti Himalaya.
Planolites is a feeding structure and is believed to have been
formed by a worm like organism. Alpert (1975) have given
a detailed analysis of the Planolites. The specimen differs
with the Planolites balandus; Planolites serpenes Webby
(1970) and with the Planolites reticularis Alpert (1975) in
the diagnostic characters. The specimen somewhat
resembles with Planolites corrugates Walcott (1889) in its
outer features, but differs with it in the length and width
ratio. The present form also differs with the Planolites
describe by Parcha and Singh (2010) from Cambrian of
Zanskar Valley. However, the specimen differs with all the
known ichnospecies of the Planolites.
Locality: The specimens are preserved at different levels in
the Debsakhad Member of Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Rusophycus Hall, 1852
Type ichnospecies: Fucoides biloba Vanuxem, 1842
Rusophycus isp. A (Fig. 6A)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1592
Material: The material comprises of one block of sandstone.
Description: Small, bilobate lobes; lobes are commonly
parallel to sub parallel resembling coffee bean shape with
faint claw markings gradually tapering from one end to
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
another. The lobes are 5–10 mm long and 3–5 mm wide. In
the middle the lobes are 2.1–3.3 mm apart. Surface of the
lobes are smooth.
Remarks: The lobate shape of this trace resembles closely to
Rusophycus. It represents a resting excavation of trilobite
origin (Seilacher, 1953, 1955; Crimes, 1970 and Young,
1972). Crimes (1970) opined that there could be no simple
segregation into small and large forms, which can be an
indication of growth in a population of same trilobite
species. The presently described specimen resembles to
some extent with Rusophycus cerecedensis Crimes et al.
(1977) but differ with it in the pattern of claw markings.
The illustrated specimen differs from the known
ichnospecies of this ichnogenus from the Tethyan
Himalayan region by Shah and Sudan (1983) from Kashmir
and from Zanskar by Parcha (1998b).
Rusophycus isp. B (Fig. 6C and D)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1597
Material: The specimens are preserved as hyporelief in
siltstone.
Description: Elongate, coffee bean shaped bilobate structures,
with a central area depressed. Lobes are well organized in
both side of depression and covered with scratch marks.
The set of scratch marks, which are present are wider
toward one end, narrowing back toward the other and
makes a v-marking. The length of single scratch mark varies
from 0.8 to 1.5 mm and the maximum length of the trace is
34 mm and the lobes are 10 to 14 mm in width.
Remarks: It is believed that these traces might have been
produced while the trilobites were digging straight down
into the muddy bottom. Due to this they might have left a
set of scratch marks, which were wider toward one end,
narrowing back toward the other and make markings. The
present specimens shows close resemblance with the
ichnogenus Rusophycus, but differs from all the known
species reported from the Tethyan Himalayan regions in
the shape and pattern of markings.
Rusophycus isp. C (Fig. 6F)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Single block preserved as hyporelief in fine grained
sandstone, contains various species of Rusophycus
Description: Weakly bilobate, short coffee been like structure
with a central furrow. Lobes are symmetrical, scratch marks
poorly preserved. The lobes are closely spaced at one end
and faintly making v-shape at the other end. The maximum
length of each lobe is 8 mm and the maximum width of
each lobe is 6 mm.
Remarks: The specimen differs in the nature and pattern of
markings and equally in the length and width ratio with the
Rusophycus isp. A. In the present described specimen the
central ridges as well as markings are faint compare to
other ichnospecies of this ichnogenus.
Locality: The described forms of Rusophycus were reported
from the middle part of Debsakhad Member of the
Kunazum La Formation.
1109
Ichnogenus: Scolicia de Quatrefages, 1849
Type Ichnospecies: Scolicia prisca de Quatrefages, 1849
Scolica isp. (Fig. 4C)
Repository Ref: In situ specimens
Material: Specimens are preserved as hyporelief in sandstone.
Description: Traces consist of meandering, looping, ridge
exhibiting irregular circular habit with crossing pattern.
The width of the burrow system ranges from 2 to 4 mm.
The two lobes are separated from each other by 16 to
18 mm wide medium furrow. Ridges are always elevated
above the bedding plane.
Remarks: The present described Scolicia differs with the
_
ichnogenera Taphrhelminthopsis (Ksia˛zkiewicz,
1977) in the
pattern of coiling meanders. The Scolicia may be identified
as the crawling trails of echinoids.
Locality: The specimen occurs in the upper part of the
Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation in the
Parahio section.
Ichnogenus: Skolithos Haldemann, 1840
Type Ichnospecies: Skolithos linearis Haldemann, 1840
Skolithos isp. (Fig. 3A, B, J and K)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1909 and other In situ specimen
Material: Four specimens are preserved as full relief three in
sandstone and one in shale.
Description: Smooth unbranched single, vertical to oblique,
cylindrical burrows, walls unornamented. The diameter of
the burrow ranges from 0.2 to 8 mm the diameter may vary
slightly along the depth of the burrow, the inner circle of
burrow is narrow and ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 mm. The
burrows are widely spaced and have rounded outline.
Remarks: It is considered to be a dwelling burrow made by
feeding vermiform organisms. In the present material no
vertical section are available. The described specimens
though show some similarity with S. linearis Haldemann
(1840), but differ in some diagnostic characters. Alpert
(1975) in his review of the ichnogenus Skolithos is identified
as straight nature, vertical dispertion and distinct to
indistinct burrow wall. It differs from ichnogenus
Monocraterion Torell (1870); due to lack of prominent
funnel shaped structure at the top of burrow. The present
specimen differs from the Skolithos ichnogenera described
by Parcha and Singh (2010) from Zanskar in morphological
characters.
Locality: The specimens are preserved at different levels in
the Debsakhad Member and in the lower horizon of the
Parahio Member of Kunzum La Formation.
Ichnogenus: Treptichnus Miller, 1889
Type Ichnospecies: Treptichnus bifurcus Miller, 1889 emended
Schlirf, 2000
Treptichnus isp. (Fig. 4E and Gb)
Repository Ref: In situ specimens
Material: The material is preserved as hyporelief in two huge
blocks of sandstone.
Description: Slightly curved regularly alternating set of
burrows. One set is connected with other at their lower
parts. The individual burrows are from 21 to 46 mm in
length and 5 to 8 mm in width. Burrows raise 2–6 mm
(continued on next page)
1110
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
with the Treptichnus isp. described from Zanskar by Parcha
and Singh (2010). Treptichnus have been reported from the
various successions at the base of the Lower
Cambrian.
Locality: The present specimen occurs in the lower most part
of the Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation in
the Parahio Valley.
above the surface of rock sample. No internal structure or
wall lining are visible.
Remarks: The material from Spiti locality has been compared
to Treptichnus aequalternus (Schlirf, 2000) due to the
regularity of the projections on either side of the main
trace. Treptichnus has been interpreted as a feeding
structure (Schlirf, 2000). Vannier et al. (2010) suggested
that Treptichnus were produced by priapulid worms
because the recent priapulid worms used the same
locomotory mechanisms. The present form differs with the
ichnogenera Treptichnus described by Jensen et al. (2000)
from the Proterozoic of Nama Group, Namibia in the
pattern of three lobed surface. The specimen equally differs
? Annelid Worm (Fig. 6H)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: Single specimen preserved in quartzite was
photographed in the field.
Description: The ichnofossil have anterior part, which is like a
horseshoe shape with smooth, curved anterior margins and
Table 1
Presence of various ichnofossils reported in the Lower Cambrian successions of Indian Subcontinent.
Ichnogenera
Astropolithon
Aulichnites
Bergaueria
Bifungites
Chondrites
Cochlichnus
Crossochorda
Cruziana
Cylindrichnus
Didymaulichnus
Dimorphichnus
Diplichnites
Gordia
Gyrochorte
Halopoa
Helminthorhaphe
Helminthopsis
Isopodichnus
Kupwaria
Laevicyclus
Lennea
Lockeia
Margaritchnus
Merostomichnites
Monocraterion
Monomorphichnus
Neonereites
Nereites
Palaeophycus
Palaeopascichnus
Plagiogmus
Psammichnites
Phycodes
Planolites
Protichnites
Rhizocorallium
Rosselia
Rusophycus
Scolicia
Scoyenia
Skolithos
Taphrhelminthopsis
Tasmanadia
Teichichnus
Treptichnus
Zoophycos
Scratch marks
Worms and
Burrows
Salt range,
Pakistan
(Seilacher,
1955)
+
+
+
+
Lesser Himalaya (Banerjee
and Narain, 1976; Singh
and Rai, 1983; Bhargava,
1984; Tiwari and Parcha,
2006)
Marwar
Supergroup
Kumar and
Pandey,
2008, 2010)
Garhwal-Kumaun
Basin (Tandon and
Bhatia, 1978;
Sudan and
Sharma, 2000)
Kashmir Basin
(Shah and
Sudan, 1983
and Raina
et al., 1983)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Zanskar Basin
(Hughes and
Droser, 1992;
Parcha, 1998b;
Parcha and Singh,
2010)
Spiti Basin (Bhargava
et al., 1982; Sudan and
Sharma, 2001; Parcha
et al., 2005 and present
work)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
have pointed posterolateral projection. On the anterior side
a medial groove is present. Axial line is distinctly visible in
the body. Series of broken segments were observed. The
maximum width of the anterior side is 21 mm, whereas the
posterior side width is 23 mm, and width of appendages is
7 mm. The total length of the specimen is 120 mm.
Remarks: Due to the general structure and the segmented
body the present specimen is placed in the Annelida. In
1111
absence of traces of segmentation the present specime
cannot be included in family Sprigginidae (Glaessner,
1958). The trunk of Spriggina flounderis (Glaessner, 1958)
consisting of a very gently tapering series of segments,
numbering up to 40, but due to poor preservation no clear
segments were observed. Hence, it has been grouped with
annelid worm in an open nomenclature. At present little
information is available to understand the mode of life of
this fossil and its relation to other annelids. It may also help
to solve the problem of the origin of arthropod and its
Table 2
Distribution and behavioral pattern of ichnofossils in the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Kunzum La Formation.
1112
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
relation to other arthropod ichnofossil, which indicates a
pelagic adaptation.
Locality: The specimen is preserved in the upper part of
Debsakhad Member of the Kunzum La Formation.
Scratch marks (?) (Fig. 4K)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1599
Material: The specimen is preserved in sandstone
Description: The ridges are sigmoidal with a maximum width
ranging from 3 to 5 mm and length 12 to 22 mm. Scratch
marks are grazing traces might have been produced by
trilobites and can be assigned as the isolated fragments of
Monomorphichnus.
Locality: Preserved in the lower part of Parahio Member of the
Kunzum La Formation.
Burrow A (Fig. 6I)
Repository Ref: In situ specimen
Material: The specimen is preserved in sandstone.
Description: Straight, simple, sub-cylindrical, unornamented
with sharp outer margins. The length of the burrow is
33 mm and the width is 8 mm. The surface of the burrow is
flat on the top and the edges are slightly curved. Burrows
are considered as a feeding structure. Due to the paucity of
the material the present specimen is grouped under open
nomenclature.
Burrow B (Fig. 6E)
Repository Ref: WIHG/A/1597
Material: The specimen is preserved in siltstone along with
Rusophycus specimen
Description: Specimen shows sub-circular structure and has
variation in width. The minimum width is 8 mm and the
maximum is 14 mm. The length of the burrow is 40 mm;
the surface of the burrow is smooth along with faint ridges.
On the rare side of this burrow some irregular striations
have been observed, which are six in number. The specimen
differs from Astropolichnus (Crimes and Anderson, 1985)
with equal size of radial ridges separated by narrow
grooves.
Locality: The described burrows were reported from the
different levels of Debsakhad and Parahio Member of the
Kunzum La Formation.
Table 3
Stratigraphic range of ichnogenera occurring in the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Kunzum La Formation.
S.K. Parcha, S. Pandey / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1097–1116
5. Stratigraphic significance
The diverse assemblage of ichnofossils is present in the Parahio
section of the Spiti Valley. The Ichnofossils found in many successions spanning the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary, appear to be
very useful for the global correlation of this section. The ichnofossil
assemblage recovered from the Debsakhad and Parahio members
of the Kunzum La Formation, is of much stratigraphic importance,
due to the relationship of the morphospecies with the genetic body
forms; and their rare association with body fossils. This discrete
stratigraphic distribution of ichnofossil and body fossil will is
important for deciphering the Neoproterozoic-Cambrian transition
in absence of body fossils in this region.
The ichnofossils collected from the Cambrian successions of the
Spiti Basin are important in deciphering the age of pre-trilobite
bearing beds. The distribution pattern shows that there is no record
of body fossils from the basal part of Kunzum La Formation in the
Parahio Valley, except a float of Redlichia from the Pin section by
(Hayden, 1904 and Parcha, 1992). The ichnofossil assemblage present in the Lower Cambrian succession of the Spiti Basin occurs below the Pagetia bearing horizon (Parcha, 1999). The ichnofauna
reported from this section shows that the simple forms evolve at
the base of Debsakhad Member; whereas, complex forms starts
appearing from its middle part and continues up to the base of Parahio Member. The distribution pattern indicates up-section increase
in taxonomic and morphological diversity (Table 2). The proliferation of ichnofauna could be due to the extensive evolutionary
changes, which have been reported from the well known section
of Newfoundland by (Narbonne et al., 1987). The present assemblage of ichnofossil can be correlated with other contemporaneous
horizons of Tethyan as well as Lesser Himalayan regions (Table 1).
The ichnofossil assemblage indicates that the ichnocenosis is
dominated by a high behavioral diversity ranging from suspension
to deposit feeders. It reflects fodinichnia, pascichnia, repichnia,
domichnia and cubichnia behavior pattern. Majority of the ichnofauna from the Lower Cambrian succession of Parahio section appears
to be produced by trilobite or arthropods; whereas some of them
might have been the trails of crustacean, priapulid worm, polychaetes and polyphyletic vermiforms. It is also observed that only few
forms like Nereites, Skolithos, Monomorphichnus extend even in the
Parahio Member (Middle Cambrian); whereas, some are confined
to the Debsakhad Member (Lower Cambrian) (Table 3).
The distribution of ichnofossils in the Lower Cambrian succession reflects the paleoecological conditions including the availability of oxygen and nutrient influx Parcha et al. (2005). Three
ichnofacies (namely Cruziana, Skolithos and Nereites ichnofacies)
described from the Lower Cambrian succession of Parahio Valley
(Parcha et al., 2005) indicating behavioral diversity from suspension to deposit feeders, reveal anaerobic to aerobic trend in up section. The presence of Chondrite, Treptichnus, and Phycodes at the
basal part of the Lower Cambrian indicates shallow to deep water
environment with anaerobic condition. Moreover, the appearance
of Chondrites indicates that the anaerobic environment of the ocean
water impinges on slope, and upper bathyal zone not flushed by
oxygen-rich current (Bromely and Ekdale, 1984). On other hand,
the complex worms like Rusophycus, Cruziana, Monomorphichnus
and Nereites indicate shelf to slope environment. The appearance
of Skolithos in upper part of the Lower Cambrian and early part
of the Middle Cambrian reflects well oxygenated high energy conditions. The environmental changes from an anaerobic to aerobic
condition in the Debsakhad Member was distinctly marked by a
faunal change from endobenthic, soft-bodied, deposit feeders to
epibenthic grazers.
The stratigraphic significance of Rusophycus and Cruziana is
very well discussed by Seilacher (1970) and by Crimes (1970,
1113
1975). The occurrence of Rusophycus indicates Lower Cambrian
age (Bergström, 1990). The stratigraphic significance of the Cruziana group of ichnofossil indicates different kind of trilobite
burrowing and grazing trails has been widely discussed by various researchers (Crimes, 1970, 1975; Bergström, 1970; Alpert,
1977; Crimes et al., 1977; Bromley and Asgaard, 1979; Fortey
and Seilacher, 1997; Jensen, 1997; Pollard, 1985; Seilacher,
1953, 1997, 2007). The Phycodes is known as a characteristic
trace fossil of Lower Cambrian, and indicates deposition in intertidal transitional environment (Alpert, 1976; Kumar et al., 1977).
The presence of Skolithos is considered as indicative of high energy depositional environment in which the organism occur,
while Planolites does not have such significance due to its presence in the rocks of various facies. The ichnogenus Didymaulichnus have been reported from the Late Venidian to Early
Cambrian (Palij et al., 1983; Fritz and Crimes, 1985; Fedonkin,
1988; Narbonne and Myrow, 1988); while the Diplichnites indicating the low energy environment, is widely known from the
Cambrian (Crimes et al., 1977; Bromley and Asgaard, 1979).
The bilateral tracks and trails with characteristic scratch marks
observed in the Parahio Valley ichnofossil assemblage are well
reported from above the basal Cambrian in Newfoundland
(Narbonne et al., 1987).
The Precambrian–Cambrian boundary in the Debsakhad Member of Kunzum La Formation could not be demarcated due to the
paucity of body fossil, as well as microbiota in the lowermost beds.
However, the presence of Treptichnus and Phycodes can be considered as a horizon marker for the beginning of Lower Cambrian. The
possibility of relating the stratigraphic distribution of ichnofossils
to significant body fossils will increase the objectivity of the correlation based on ichnofossils. In order to understand this problem,
we need to access the relation between the ichnofossil and the
organisms which are responsible for producing them, which, however, is yet to be established. Simultaneously, the total ranges and
the stratigraphic distribution of the various morphotaxa need to be
established in various facies as well as in different geographical
provinces. Most of the ichnofossil do not occur in association with
body fossils, but usually occur below the trilobite bearing horizons
in Lower Cambrian. In Spiti Basin, the horizons that are rich in ichnofossils are devoid of body fossils; or the horizons where body
fossils are common, the ichnofossils are quite rare. The presence
of ichnofossils below the body fossil horizons of early Cambrian
is noticeable in Zanskar, Kashmir, Kumaun and Garhwal as well
as in the Spiti basin. The assemblage of ichnofossils reported from
the Debsakhad and Parahio members of the Parahio section, has a
significant stratigraphic importance as they provide evidence
regarding the developmental patterns during the early phase of life
on earth. These ichnofossils suggest that the availability of nutrients significantly increased their abundance as well as spatial distribution during Cambrian.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Director, Wadia Institute of
Himalayan Geology for their encouragement and for providing
the necessary facilities. The authors are thankful to the anonymous
reviewers for their insightful reviews. This work was carried out
under the Project SR/S4/ES-62/2003 funded by the Department of
Science and Technology, Government of India.
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