1
Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Girls: Media and Sociocultural
Influences on Body Image and Attitudes
Toward Sexuality
by
Tara Holm
A Research Paper
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the
Master of Science Degree
10
School Counseling
Approved: 2 Semester Credits
The Graduate School
University of Wisconsin-Stout
May, 2010
6
Chapter I: Introduction
The life of a teenager has changed dramatically in the past decade. Young people are
constantly bombarded with messages and images from mass media and sociocultural factors
which may influence the way they feel about their bodies and sexuality. Adolescent girls in
particular are subjected to unrealistic ideas of how they should look, behave, and feel. With so
much focus on a sexual body image, the media teaches girls how to dress and gain the ideal, thin
body. Many researchers (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; Dittmar, Halliwell, & Ive, 2006; Clark
& Tiggemann, 2006) have identified the age young girls start to evaluate their body silhouette
and begin to yearn for the media's idealized figure. The authors reported that this initial
evaluation and body dissatisfaction starts as early as the ages of five and six years old. Dittmar,
Halliwell, and Ive (2006) explained that media images with figures such as the Barbie doll are
some of the first images that young girls are subjected to viewing at a young age. "These
ultrathin images not only lowered young girls' body esteem but also decreased their satisfaction
with their actual body size, making them desire a thinner body. This detrimental effect was
evident already for girls from age 5 Y2 to age 6 Y2 ... " (p. 290).
While sociocultural influences will be discussed, the focus of this literature review was
on the role that media play in Western cultures' ideals and messages to young girls. Of course
the power of the media's messages depend on the girls' parents, community, school, peers, and
many other factors. However, it is important to realize how wide-spread the influence of the
media reach, especially in the lives of pre-adolescents and adolescents, considering" ... during a
single year [children] on average spend more time watching television than in any other activity
besides sleeping" (Levine & Smolak, cited in Clark & Tiggemann, 2006, p. 629). Children and
teenagers have movies, television, magazines, internet, video games, and many other forms of
7
media available to them at all times. As stated by Johnston, Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, and Seguin
Mika (2006), "The media act as a contextual influence. Media do not act in a vacuum; they are a
pali of an interconnected system that includes neighborhood, school, peers, and family but play
major roles in creating social norms and modeling attitudes and behaviors" (p. 53). While there
are countless other factors which affect children and adolescents, the media are often tlu'eaded
into each of those environmental aspects, especially those involving idealized body images and
sexuality.
With the prevalence of eating disorders and girls with body dissatisfaction, it is imp0l1ant
to consider the roots of these cultural issues. The pressure from the media can have a damaging
effect on a girl's self-esteem and self-w0l1h (Clark & Tiggemann, 2006), which may become
internalized in young girls and stay with them into adulthood (Dittmar, Halliwell, & Ive, 2006).
However, McCabe and Ricciardelli (2003) found that a prominent predictor of a girl having an
eating disorder is whether the girl's mother has unhealthy eating habits or the mother encourages
her daughter to diet and lose weight. Again, it would be interesting to know how the mother
formed her own idealized thinking relating to her daughter's body. Perhaps the media's
influence is woven somewhere within her idealized body image and feelings of body
dissatisfaction towards herself or her daughter.
Many researchers understand the impact that peers have on adolescents. A teenager's
friends tend to be more important, when making decisions, than any other person. At school, a
young girl begins to compare herself not only with those she seen in the media but mostly to the
girls around her. Girls stm1 to pay attention to which girls receive attention from the males at
school. At the junior high and high school levels, "fitting-in" with the crowd seems as imp0l1ant,
if not more important, to some teenagers than school work. While boys deal with these pressures
8
too, girls have a lot more physical trends to keep up with. They feel pressure to have their
awkward, adolescent bodies look like that of a woman in her twenties. They also begin to
purchase and wear make-up and fashionable clothing. When girls begin high school they often
look up to their older sisters or the older girls in school. Rather than coping with the pressures of
being a young girl, pressures, whether direct or indirect, are being placed on them daily from the
peers around them.
The messages sent through media are something that parents need to be extremely aware
of while recognizing how they may be modeling the same ideals. Dittmar, Halliwell, and lve
(2006) explored how Barbie dolls influenced very young girls to internalize a thinness ideal
which affects their body image and dissatisfaction. The authors found that girls aged five to
seven years old were negatively affected by the exposure to Barbie's images. While the girls'
body image deteriorated after viewing images of Barbie, their body images were not negati vely
affected when exposed to neutral images and to the Emme doll, a full-figured toy doll. This
shows how parents may be influencing their daughters without even realizing what messages
they are sending her about body image. While some may argue that Barbie's influence may
diminish once the girl grows older, the girls have already internalized the thinness ideal and may
not be directly affected by the presence of toys like Barbie because they no longer need the
material message to make them believe that thin is beautiful (Dittmar, Halliwell, & lve, 2006).
Nevertheless, body image issues are not the only messages which greatly affect young
girls tlu'ough the media and sociocultural factors. An issue which is often interconnected to body
image ideals is the sexualized body image as well as sexual activity. An adolescent girl only
needs to look through a fashion magazine or watch a music video on MTV to feel the pressure of
looking sexual at a younger age. Although women have more rights and libeliies, females are
9
still objectified and sexualized in nearly every media avenue . The link between the product and
sexuality may be non-existent, yet a barely-clothed female will still be the object of the
advertisement.
Musical lyrics are excellent examples of men singing about how they would like women
to look and what they would like women to do for them sexually. While most of these fonns of
entertainment may be targeted toward an adult audience, the impact on teenagers is very evident.
Johnston, Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, and Seguin Mika (2006) found that sexual behaviors shown on
television do influence teenagers ' beliefs and attitudes towards sexuality. However, there are
major problems with this theory because most television shows and movies do not promote safe
sexual behaviors, and they often neglect to show negative consequences from sexual activity.
With media promoting sexual body images and sexual activity, and rarely discussing the
negative side effects, uninformed teenagers are often at high risk. Because adolescents may not
have the cognitive ability or experience to differentiate accurate media messages, they are
particularly vulnerable to believing and following trends set by the media (Johnston, Polacek,
Rojas, Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006). As pre-adolescents and adolescents are still figuring out
who they are, they often leam through modeling others. "Social learning theory predicts that
teens who see characters having casual sex without experiencing negative consequences will be
more likely to adopt the behaviors portrayed" (Collins et aI., cited in Johnston, Polacek, Rojas,
Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006, p. 54).
Girls are constantly bombarded with negative messages about their bodies and sexuality
in the media. If these messages are internalized and believed by the girls, they may face
struggles with their self-wolih and body satisfaction throughout their lives. Of course these
messages and issues influence boys as well by creating ideal women in their minds. However,
10
young girls are often impacted by many male opinions, perceptions and labels portrayed in the
media and the reality is that many young males believe these messages. As women become
more prominent on college campuses and in the workforce it is important that they teach young
girls not to doubt themselves and their wOlih otherwise the progress made in the past century
would begin to decline. Unless girls learn to be healthy young women who respect their bodies
and their sexuality, the influence from media and sociocultural pressures continues to reinforce
the message that they are not good enough the way they are, and that appearance is the core of
their value.
Research in this field may raise awareness for adolescents, educators, and parents about
the influence of some media and sociocultural messages. Acknowledging the negative impact of
media may prove helpful to inform children and teenagers to consider the source. It is pertinent
for parents and educators to evaluate the messages they may be sending to young girls about
body image and sexuality. Knowing how to interpret and discuss the messages so that girls can
learn to have a healthy dialogue about these concerns is important to raising the next generation
of young women.
Statement of the Problem
Pre-adolescent and adolescent girls face daily pressures and messages about body images
and sexuality. Many of these messages were first introduced to girls at a very early age when
they first start playing with Barbie dolls as children. As these messages become internalized, the
body dissatisfaction and thinness ideal become a way of life. Sexualized media messages may
pressure young females into dressing more provocatively and becoming sexually active at earlier
ages, perhaps even causing them to doubt their own self-worth. It is important that parents and
educators take an active role in not only realizing the messages that young girls are watching, but
11
in helping girls to also interpret media messages and finding proactive ways of handling negative
pressures.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to examine how the media and other sociocultural factors
influence adolescent girls' body image and decisions about sexual activity. The research will be
summarized by a literature review processed during the 2009-2010 academic school year.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study include:
1. In what ways do media and sociocultural factors influence adolescent girls' attitudes
towards body image and sexuality?
2. How do the media and sociocultural factors interconnect with one another to affect
the experiences of many adolescent girls?
3. In what ways can parents and educators help delineate negative messages from media
and sociocultural influences?
Definition of Terms
The following terms are being defined for clarity, for easier readability, and
understanding of this research paper.
Adolescence. Adolescence is the time of youth development when a child has started
going through puberty but has not fully matured physically, cognitively, and emotionally. In
terms of this paper, an adolescent is defined here as between the ages of thirteen and eighteen,
and a pre-adolescent is between the ages of ten and thirteen. Adolescent is equivalent with the
term teenager.
12
Appearance Schemm;. Appearance schemas "refer to cognitive generalizations about the
"importance, meaning and effects of appearance in one's life" (Cash & Labarge, cited in
Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2002, p. 692)
Self-Objectification. A person self-objectifies by placing high significance on the
importance of her appearance. She is more concerned with her appearance from a third person
perspective rather than her own perspective.
Sexualization. According to the American Psychological Association (2007),
sexualization occurs when a person is subjected to one of the following:
"A person's value comes only from his or her sexual appeal or behavior, to the exclusion
of other characteristics; a person is held to a standard that that equates physical
attractiveness (narrowly defined) with being sexy; a person is sexually objectified-that is,
made into a thing for others' sexual use, rather than seen as a person with the capacity for
independent action and decision making; Sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon a
person. (APA, 2007, p. 1)
Sociocultural. Sociocultural factors are influences within a person's environment. These
factors may include, but are not limited to, family, peers, school, neighborhood, and cultural or
religious norms.
Assumptions of the Study
It is assumed that most young girls are subjected to negative media and sociocultural
messages related to body image and sexuality. Most of these girls, at one time or another doubt
their self-worth and have a sense of body dissatisfaction. It is also assumed that many adolescent
girls have internalized many of the messages which affect their views and beliefs about
themselves and other women.
13
It is also assumed that many adolescent girls feel a discrepancy within themselves about
how they want to feel, appear, and behave compared with how the media messages say they
should feel, appear, and behave. Because of the internalization of the negative messages, it is
assumed that some young females may have eating disorders or extensive exercising habits or
participate in premature sexual activity.
Finally, it is also assumed that many parents and educators are not aware of the messages
which are being sent to young girls and are also not confident about the preventative and
responsive measures that should be taken.
Limitations of the Study
One limitation of this study is that there may not be significant amounts of research on
how parents and educators can help to prevent and respond to negative media messages that
impact young girls. While there is an abundance of research on the affects the media and
sociocultural factors have on young girls, concise information on how to disrupt the
bombardment of harmful messages while creating meaningful dialogues with young people
about counteracting these issues was limited.
It was also taken into consideration that while there is a plentiful amount of research on
media messages, there is perceived cultural bias both in the media and in the research, which
may be another limitation of this study. Most research on body image and dissatisfaction was
based on the views of Caucasian girls and women from the United States, England or Austrailia
and most of the research found on early sexualization was based on minority races and lowincome teenagers in the United States. The available research was somewhat biased in this way
and the media also shows a lack of racial diversity. Barbie dolls, Disney movies, and fashion
magazines usually showcase Caucasian women.
14
Another limitation of this study is the limited amount of time and access the researcher
had to read all the literature that is available. It was also much more difficult for the researcher to
find literature on the topic of sexualization than body image. The topic of sexualization is less
researched and may still be considered a taboo topic when dealing with the influences on
children and adolescents. This literature was reviewed during spring 20 I O.
15
Chapter II: Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter will begin with a discussion on the affects that media and sociocultural
influences have on pre-adolescent and adolescent girls' body image and body dissatisfaction,
followed by the influences that media and sociocultural factors have on their attitudes toward
sexuality and decisions about sexual activity. This chapter will conclude with a discussion on
ways parents and educators can implement preventative and responsive services to help protect,
educate, and discuss with young girls regarding negative messages they receive about their
bodies and sexuality.
In the field of psychology, it is generally well-understood that humans are developed and
shaped by both genetic and biological predispositions, as well as environmental factors. It is the
environmental factors that build schemas, ideals, and values into the way a person thinks about
the world. Traditionally, young girls and boys observe what it means to be male or female. Girls
wear pink and boys wear blue. Girls play with dolls and kitchen sets and boys play with trucks
and pretend weapons. From the minute these children are born, they are bombarded with
messages about their genders and what they should aspire to be in their lives.
Body Image and the Impact of Barbie
Girls in particular are flooded with messages about the importance of their physical
appearances. From the very early ages of five years or even younger, girls are often given a
Barbie doll at some point. "Barbie is the cultural icon of female beauty ... for young girls and
99% of three to ten-year-olds in the United States own at least one Barbie doll" (Rogers, cited in
Dittmar, Halliwell, & lve, 2006, p. 283). It is interesting that we give five year old girls a doll
who is not only an older woman, but who has an unrealistic body type. It has been calculated
16
that Barbie represents the body type of "fewer than 1 in 100,000 women" in the United States
(Dittmar, Halliwell, & lve, 2006, p. 284).
Barbie is selected as an example not only because of her prevalence in young girls' play,
but because of the imp0l1ance of the nature of the play to the girls.
"For young children, fantasy and play are vital pm1s of socialization in which they
internalize ideals and values, and dolls provide a tangible image of the body that can be
internalized as part of the child ' s developing self-concept and body image" (Kuther &
McDonald, cited in Dittmar, Halliwell, & lve, 2006, p. 283).
Children are ultimately interpreting and practicing their roles for the future through play and
using Barbie as their role model. They are given messages that Barbie is a successful woman
who is also very beautiful and thin.
However, it is important to consider the plethora of additional role models for girls of
very young ages. Disney movies often show princesses who have unrealistic, voluptuous bodies.
These girls often have unusually large breasts, tiny waists, and long, slim legs. Often these
princess figure dolls look very thin while their heads are quite large for their bodies. Their faces
show huge, sparkling eyes and long, flowing hair. It is also ironic that characters like The Little
Mermaid's Ariel and Princess Jasmine from Aladdin show an extremely large amount of skin
and cleavage even though these films are for children.
There is also a large deficit in racial and ethnic diversity shown in Disney movies and
other cartoons. This theme is consistent in cartoons and comics which show women as superheroes. While the men are unfairly shown as large and muscular, the women, like wonder
women and cat-woman are thin, have tiny waste lines and curvy features with very large breasts
17
and tiny waistlines. These convey early body image messages that very young girls observe in
the media in supposedly child-friendly television shows, comics, and films.
While the Barbie doll is under much scmtiny, there is a new revolution of dolls which
resembles the growing acceptance of girls becoming too physically mature too soon. These dolls
are the Bratz dolls.
The Bratz, a clique of sultry-eyed trollops with the slogan "a passion for fashion," have
come from nowhere in just five years to threaten the crown of the Queen Bee, Barbie, the
world's most successful toy. MGA Entertainment, the family-owned California firm that
launched the Bratz in June 2001, earns around $1.6 billion a year from the dolls and
accessories. In the four years since their launch in Britain, the Bratz have grabbed a 40%
slice of the $100 million-a-year UK doll market, outselling Barbie by an astonishing two
to one. (Mail Online, 2006)
These dolls are supposed to resemble younger girls, unlike Barbie who is an adult woman. While
Bratz dolls are more racially diverse, they still send an alarming message to young girls.
In these days of anorexia anxiety, some are celebrating the dolls' "more realistic" body
prop0l1ions. And true enough, these dolls don't seem to have Barbie's surgically enhanced
chest. But is it any better to replace one advertisement for cosmetic surgery with another
one? These Bratz dolls all obviously make regular trips to the plastic surgeon for collagen
lip injections. And their makeup, on dolls targeted at 8 to 14-year-olds, would make a
Broadway performer playing to the back of the hall feel underdone. (Shaw Crouse, 2003)
According to Mail Online (2006), Paula Treantafelles, the creator ofthe Bratz dolls,
indicated her dolls were designed to market to the younger girls that Barbie was now missing.
18
She stated,
"At this age, they're very different to four-to-six year olds. Bratz are about selfexpression, self-identity. When Barbie was in her prime, girls were taught to be career
women, to be men's equals. Today, yes, career and education matter, but it's also
'express yourself, have your own identity, girl power" (Mail Online, 2006).
By internalizing these messages, girls are linking together the ideas of success, beauty, and
thinness, and may interconnect these ideas as mutually inclusive.
Researchers have yet to experiment with the effects of the new Bratz dolls on young
girls' body image. However, since Barbie has been around for so much longer, there is much
more research on the influence the doll has on girls. Through exposure experiments, Dittmar,
Halliwell, and lve (2006) found two significant results. The first is that younger girls, who
ranged in ages 5 Y2 years to 7 Y2 years old developed greater body dissatisfaction after being
exposed to Barbie images and did not have increased body dissatisfaction after viewing neutral
images as well as Emme (a full-figured doll) images. The body dissatisfaction they felt
incorporated both lower esteem about their bodies, as well as lowered satisfaction with their
body weights and shapes and increased their desire to be thinner (Dittmar, Halliwell, & lve,
2006).
The other important result that the authors found was that older girls between ages seven
and eight years old were not as affected by Barbie's images. It is predicted that perhaps these
girls have already internalized the thinness ideal by the ages of seven and eight, which makes
them less sensitive to the images of Barbie. The surprising piece of data found that after viewing
the Emme doll images, the girls' desire to be thinner when grown up increased as if they were
afraid to look like Emme when they are adults (Dittmar, Halliwell, & lve, 2006). This study is a
19
piece of eye-opening literature that should help adults to realize not only how media messages
can be transmitted to children, but how young children are when they first are able to be affected
by, and internalize negative messages about themselves.
It is apparent that messages about thinness and beauty are conveyed to very young girls
through the media and other sociocultural factors. Clark and Tiggemann (2006) wrote about the
links between both the media and peer influences on adolescent girls ' body dissatisfaction. They
stated:
Such body dissatisfaction during childhood has important implications. In addition to
impeding a child's developing sense of self-worth, childhood body dissatisfaction may
lead to dieting and related behaviors that are risk factors for chronic body image
problems, weight cycling, obesity and eating disorders . (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Shisslak,
Renger, Sharpe, Crago, McKnight, Gray et aI., 2000, cited in Clark & Tiggemann, 2006,
p.629)
The authors' results confirmed their previous research. They found that 49% of the girls wanted
to be thinner than they were at the time even though less than 15% of the girls had a BMI (Body
Mass Index) that indicated being overweight to some degree (Clark & Tiggemann, 2006).
Peer Influence and Familial Messages
Clark and Tiggemann (2006) also found an important link between how adolescent girls
are influenced by the collaboration of the media and their peers when it comes to body image.
Their research showed how it is difficult to find the "cause" of body dissatisfaction, but it is
apparent that the cycle is complex and includes influences from both media and peers. They
studied which appearance-saturated television shows and magazines that were viewed by the
20
teenage girls and determined what types of appearance-related conversations they engaged in
with their friends. The authors stated the following:
Our prediction that peer appearance conversations would provide the link between media
exposure and peer norms was confirmed by both the correlational and path analyses.
Importantly, watching or reading appearance media was significantly related to
conversations among friends about appearance topics, which were, in tum, a significant
predictor of peer appearance norms. Peer appearance conversations were also related to
the internalization of appearance ideals and to body dissatisfaction. Thus, the more girls
talked about topics such as clothes, make-up and their favorite pop stars, the more they
perceived their friends to be focused upon appearance issues and the more they
themselves internalized these appearance ideals. (Clark & Tiggemann, 2006, p. 640)
While it is apparent that family, peers, and mass media messages influence young girls,
Choate and Curry (2009) stressed that media messages of popular culture are often the root of the
influence because family members and peers often transmit their own messages and ideals to
young girls, which they have received from the media. In regard to the influence of parents on
their daughters, the authors stated,
When parents adopt sociocultural messages regarding the importance of thinness, beauty,
and sexiness and transmit them to their daughters, criticize girls about their weight and
shape, or model the centrality of physical appearance in their own lives, girls begin to
evaluate themselves according to these same standards. (Haworth-Hoeppner, 2000;
McKinley, 1999, cited in Choate & Curry, 2009, p. 215)
The authors also mentioned the importance of peer relationships during the pre-adolescent and
adolescent stages and said that not only do young girls mimic what they see in the media, but
21
they imitate their friends ' apparent level of effort to look like those in the media (Choate &
CUlTY, 2009). Considering that in 2005, 50-88% of girls said they have negative feelings about
their bodies and 49% of teenage girls said they know someone with an eating disorder, it is
crucial to explore why young girls feel this way. With the amount of eating disorders and
pessimistic views of body image, it seems apparent that girls are receiving messages from
several different avenues.
So even if a girl doesn't spend much time watching television or movies and doesn ' t look
through fashion magazines, she is still most likely watching these messages on a daily basis in
school with her peers. Small (2001) explains that girls test their independence, values, and
opinions with their friends. They often share their beliefs with their peers and use their peers as
the fundamental reason of rejecting or accepting a value.
At a time when young girls are often insecure with their bodies they lean on their friends
for emotional support and usually get advice on how to cope. Their friends may convince them
to engage in unhealthy eating or exercising habits or may be the strength they need to accept
their bodies for how they are. Teenagers tend to dress similar to how their social group does and
often their self-esteem is directly related to whether they are accepted by other girls (Small,
2001).
It has been noted in research by Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2002), that those girls who
place higher importance on their appearances and invest more time in how they look usually
reported higher rates of body dissatisfaction. The authors also found that girls' appearance
schematicity predicted body dissatisfaction more than their general sense of self-esteem. It was
noted that the adolescents' appearance schemas were built overtime and were usually not
considerably affected from a short exposure of appearance related stimuli (Hargreaves &
22
Tiggemann, 2002). Contradictorily, McCabe and Ricciardelli (2003) found that those who placed
higher importance on their body image were more satisfied with their body images. It makes
sense that perhaps those who are more concerned with the way they look will spend more time
on their appearances resulting in higher body image satisfaction with their appearances.
Interestingly, McCabe and Ricciardelli (2003) found that media messages were not the
main influences on girls' body image issues. They did say that media influenced girls to want to
decrease their weight, reaching for the thinness ideal, but that parents had more affect on girls '
outlooks than both media and peers. Parents ' influences tended to lie on both sides of the
extremes, either affecting teenagers to participate in "body-change strategies (e.g., binge eating,
use of food supplements) or strategies that moved the adolescent away from the sociocultural
ideal" (McCabe & Ricciardelli , 2003, p. 21). The latter influence from parents also coincided
with the natural development of young girls through pubelty. "With pubertal development, girls
experience a normative increase in body fat that inevitably moves them further away from
society's ideal body shape for a woman" (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003, p. 16).
For adolescent girls, dealing with their feelings toward body image is not an easy one.
When they reach adolescents they usually begin to aspire to look like the women they see in the
media. However, this is the same time the girls ' bodies stalt changing including weight gain and
skin-breakouts. Additionally, adolescents tend to receive the most criticism about their bodies
during this time as well , with a lack of understanding of what their bodies are going through.
According to Croll (2005),
Parents tend to become less positive and more critical regarding their children's
appearance, eating, and physical activity as they move into and through adolescence.
Adolescents receive the most criticism regarding their physical appearance and the most
23
pressure to change their appearance. Parental over-concern with children being thin or
encouragement to avoid being fat can influence young people to become constant dieters
and use unhealthy weight control methods.
The influence parents and family members have on adolescents' body image and disordered
eating is important to consider. Another thought to consider is the different ages of the girls and
who is the most influential at those times. As discussed previously, teenagers are influenced
heavily by their peers and friends. However, it is imp0l1ant to remember that from birth to about
the ages often and eleven, parents and siblings are the most significant influences in a child's
life. Children, who see their parents constantly diet or talk negatively about their own bodies or
weight, may begin to do this to themselves (Small, 2001) .
While McCabe and Ricciardelli's (2003) research was one of few studies examining
media, peers and parental affects on adolescent girls' body image, the authors were distinctive in
pointing out the small findings supp0l1ing the impact of the media on girls' body dissatisfaction.
Tiggemarm (2006) also pointed out that media has never been proved as a causal effect on body
dissatisfaction, but warned that it should not be dismissed . Tiggemarm stated:
The conelational results show that media consumption of thin ideals goes hand-in-hand
with negative body image in a reflexive relationship. In particular, we need to remember
that in the real world, in contrast to experimentally manipulated exposure, people are
active media consumers who exercise considerable choice over the amount and nature of
media they read or watch ... Body image seems to already have largely stabilized and
media exposure to thin ideals may likewise have reached saturation point by the time
girls reach early adolescence, mitigating against finding significant predictors of change.
Thus any potential causal effects may have long passed (Tiggemarm, 2006, p. 537).
24
Media Influence
While there may be some dispute over how much influence media messages have on
girls ' body image and dissatisfaction, it is clear that there are some implications that media
exposure through television, film, magazines, and music videos have on young girls. Hargreaves
and Tiggemann (2003) reminded us to translate the laboratory results into everyday life to realize
the significance that media has on young children and teenagers.
If pre-adolescent and adolescent girls feel even a little worse in an experiment after
viewing thin-ideal models, then imagine how they feel after several years of being bombarded
with overly slim-figures on a daily basis. These types of media exposure add up and eventually
may become internalized in how the girl perceives herself and women (Hargreaves &
Tiggemann, 2003). She becomes so saturated with messages of what she should look like and
how her body should be shaped, that she begins to view these ideals as the only option for what it
means to be successful, beautiful, and worthy.
Affects on Sexualization and Sexual Activity
Sexualization and sexual activity are also major areas of concern when it comes to how
young girls are affected by sociocultural factors and especially the media. Pre-adolescent and
adolescent girls are often the subjects of advertisements in the media, giving the impression of
being sexual and having sexual desires. Yet, the majority of advertisements and other forms of
media, including fashion magazines, films, television shows, and music videos, display adult
women as over sexualized and often the object of a male's sexual desires. As one journalist
crudely, but accurately reported in a popular men's magazine, Gentlemen's Quarterly (GQ),
" . .. the window of innocence has been closing, leaving us benighted souls to wander through the
25
mall confronted by the ass cleavage, thong outline, and hooker makeup on the 13-year-old ahead
of us, who is veering off to enter Hot Topic" (Norris, cited in Bray, 2008 , p. 323).
This statement may be utterly alarming to people, but it emphasizes the fact that many
young girls are following the trends displayed in the media, without truly understanding what the
sexual image represents. Some young girls walk around wearing thongs with the strings
showing above their belt lines, with "juicy" or "sexy" written on the back of their pants, and
shirts that show considerable amounts of cleavage or midriff. The question is for whom are
middle school and high school girls dressing? What are their intentions when wearing these
sexualized outfits?
In many cases, most of these young girls are simply dressing this way because they think
it will make them appear attractive and help them to fit in with the media images and their peers.
Most of these girls, presumably, do not dress provocatively to send messages to boys or men that
they are interested in sexual advances or activity. As questioned by Bray (2008), "are these
images an example of post -feminist girl power chic, or a sexualization process that has become
so ubiquitous that it has faded into the texture of everyday life and become invisible?" (p. 328).
Definition of Sexualization
These very concerns have been identified by the American Psychological Association
(APA) (2007) and given to the Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls to publish a document
calling attention to this major issue affecting young girls and their personal, academic, and career
opportunities. The APA defined the term sexualization as a person who is subjected to at least
one of the following:
1. A person ' s value comes only from his or her sexual appeal or behavior, to the
exclusion of other characteristics.
26
2. A person is held to a standard that that equates physical attractiveness (narrowly
defined) with being sexy.
3. A person is sexually objectified-that is, made into a thing for others' sexual use,
rather than seen as a person with the capacity for independent action and decision
making.
4. Sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon a person. (AP A, 2007, p. 1)
There are some who oppose aspects of the APA's repOli. Lerum and Dworkin (2009) argued that
while the Task Force delivered a good campaign for fighting sexualization, they did not want
people to assume that sexualization was necessarily always harmful or degrading to women and
girls, and girls should be taught to embrace their sexuality.
Self-Objectification
Nonetheless, this paper was written in concert with APA's stance on the harms of
sexualization of girls and women and the detrimental affects it can have on young girls'
development. Similar to the topic of internalization of appearance schemas and thinness ideals,
Choate and Curry (2009) discussed the internalization process and self-objectification of young
girls and sexualization. Girls begin to self-objectify by placing high significance on the
importance of their sexual appearances. It is clear when a girl is self-objectifying herself when
she is more concerned with her appearance as a third-person perspective, rather than her own
perspective. This means she will spend considerable time wondering what others think of her
body and clothing, rather than whether she likes the way she looks.
APA described this idea of girls self-objectifying when they "evaluate and control their
own bodies more in terms of their sexual desirability to others than in terms of their own desires,
health, well ness, achievements, and competence" (2007, p. 21). Because the young girls may not
27
really know what others think of them, they are likely to compare themselves to those who seem
to be receiving praise and compliments from peers, especially from males. In turn, they may
begin to constantly monitor themselves as well as self-criticize.
Sex Education: Media vs. Parents
While some adults may already be desensitized to the amount of sexual material in the
media, it should be a major concern to parents and educators. A research study in 2006 found
that students agreed "that the media, in general, is the place where teenagers learn about sex and
sexual behavior" (Johnston Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006, p. 55). And while they
may be learning about sex, they are generally not learning about safe sex. Escobar-Chaves,
Tortolero, Markham, and Baumler (2006) reported that nearly 70% of television shows most
often viewed by adolescents contained sexual content. However, only 5% of the shows with
sexual content watched by teenagers showed serious consequences or safe sex practices.
An impOliant consideration that the authors also emphasized was that it may be "equally
plausible ... that those adolescents who engage in greater amounts of sexual risk taking are more
attracted to television with sexual content" (Escobar-Chaves, Tortolero, Markham, & Baumler,
2006, p. 46). While this debate may continue, it is pertinent that higher amounts of sexual
activity tend to be somehow linked with higher amounts of consumption of sexual content in the
media.
Many students also admitted that they rarely talked with their parents about sex. They
indicated that while they learned about sex in their school's health class, they thought the
teachers took a very conservative view and the teenagers would have liked to learn more about
safe sex and STDs. When considering sociocultural influences, it was found that most teenagers
ranked their parents, especially their mothers, last of those they would want to talk to about sex.
28
Interestingly, both the males and females expressed that it was most difficult to talk with their
moms because they felt she had higher expectations for them and their moms would not see their
perspective when it came to sexual issues.
Even more surprisingly, many of the females expressed more comfort in talking to their
fathers about sex rather than their mothers. So while many fathers may feel uncomfortable
talking about these issues with their daughters, they may be able to help their daughters express
their feelings and response to questions while learning of the consequences of casual sex from
their fathers. However, it was found that the more frequently mothers communicated about sex
with their daughters, sexual activity decreased for the adolescent girls (Johnston Polacek, Rojas,
Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006).
Male Influence on Girls' Body Dissatisfaction and Sexualization
One of the largest sociocultural influences on girls' body dissatisfaction and sexualization
may be the male population. When girls self-objectifY, they tend to consider what males think of
their body appearance. While many guys may know that they should not focus solely on a girl's
looks or sexuality, it may be challenging in today's society. One young male stated, "They show
women half naked or in underwear ... the guys, it's just driving them, the sex drive is extreme"
(Johnston Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006, p. 56). Still another young male
explained, "They show the girls, which sexually stimulates the guy, and that gives more pressure
on the male. It ' s really, really hard on guys. You are getting stimulated all the time" (Johnston
Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006, p. 56).
It is important to consider that males are often experiencing many of the same messages
and negative influences from the media and sociocultural influences. While they of course feel
pressure to look a certain way and have a particular body type, it is vital to realize the messages
29
young males receive about sexuality and the sexualization of girls. It is not to be assumed that
young boys understand the messages they receive about girls, but they internalize these messages
and interpret them into what it means to be a "man." These messages are often encouraged by
other males in society. One male student explained "that his older friends, a year or two older
than him, would mildly tease him about his virginity and would offer him advice on how to get
chicks" (Johnston Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006, p. 59). Males generally begin
having sex at younger ages and this may be because of the pressure to do so.
It seems reasonable to assume that while girls internalize messages about their
sexualization and body image, that boys would also internalize the messages of how girls
"should" look and express their sexuality. So the messages in the media may contribute to a
vicious cycle. Young girls are taught to show off their sexuality and young boys are taught to
want young girls to show off their sexuality. It is both boys and girls who are taught what a
"perfect" and "ideal" woman looks like and how she should act. This continues into adolescence
and adulthood and greatly affects both women and men.
An aliicle in a popular women's magazine indicated that women should never be caught
in "granny panties" or unsexy underwear and further explained why men find these unappealing.
According to the magazine, women should be wearing sexy underwear at all times so that she
can feel sexy at all times and if a woman is always wearing sexy underwear, then a man will
never catch her off guard and have to see her boring, cotton underwear. How sad is it that a
woman should only feel sexy because she knows she has on fancy lingerie. It is terribly
disheartning that this message reinforces that women should be ready for sex at any time on any
given day. And even worse, if she is not wearing her best underwear, a man willl10t find her
sexy and he may make negative assumptions about her based solely on that.
30
For an article written in a women's magazine that is supposed to help "liberate" women
and assist them in accepting their sexuality, this al1icle exemplifies how little has really changed.
The media tells women that wanting to please her man all the time is liberating to her yet while
there is nothing wrong with wanting to make your partner happy, the message of what is
narrowly defined as sexy is promoted on a daily basis.
Positive Influences from Parents and Educators
There may be those who question the school's role in helping to minimize the effects that
the media and other sociocultural influences have on youth. But schools are one option to help
girls with self esteem issues. Schools are where children and teenagers are around their peers
and friends, and where many of the fashion trends are seen and popularized. Also, most schools
teach some sort of sex education in a health class in paJ1nership with the school counselor,
general education teacher, or school nurse.
Another consideration is the impact that body image and sexualization have on students'
learning in the classroom. Choate and Curry (2009) discussed ways in which these issues affect
students' academic performance and career goals. They mentioned that when girls partake in
self-objectification, much of their cognitive concentration is focused on their looks, behaviors,
and peers, rather than their school work. The authors described some research which related to
the issues young girls may face.
In one study of college students, participants were asked to tryon either a swimsuit or a
sweater and observe themselves in a full-length mirror with no observers present. The
women in the swimsuit condition performed worse on a subsequent complex math test
compared to the women wearing a sweater. This difference did not occur with the male
participants in the study, who performed equally well under both conditions. While this
31
study was conducted with college students, it follows that when an adolescent girl is
engaging in chronic body surveillance, evaluation, and anticipation of others' judgment,
her mental resources are not fully directed toward her academic work. If she is overly
concerned about what others are thinking about her body, it stands to reason that she will
not perform to her fullest potential in academic or future professional environments.
(Choate & Curry, 2009, p. 216-217)
Choate and CUITY (2009) also mentioned the impact that the media and other
sociocultural influences may have on girls' career aspirations. The largest threat is that of
stereotypes. The authors explained that girls are often perceived as not being good at math and
science, and thus feel discouraged both from registering for and taking these classes. There also
tend to be careers which are more gender stereotyped and may prevent girls from considering
them as options. If the media portrays mostly men as doctors, lawyers, police officers,
administrators, and government officials, for example, then girls may think that they do not have
great chances of being in higher positions or may not even consider those careers.
Increasing Parental Influence
When it comes to the ways which parents, educators, and other adults can help decrease
the influence of the media and other sociocultural aspects on young girls, there are a few
different approaches that can be taken. According to Escobar-Chaves, Tortolero, Markham, and
Baumler (2006), three main suggestions shouid be followed. They first recommended that
parents as well as students become more media literate. The parents should address this as a
serious issue, so that they are not only aware of what types of messages and material are being
presented to their children, but also how to explain or dissect the information. Parents should
take an active role in selecting age-appropriate programs and magazines for their children to
32
view. If the parents pass on this process of critical viewing to their children, the children may
understand more about how the media works and develop their own critical eyes.
Similarly, the second suggestion the authors made was for parents to be more involved in
their children's sexual education. While these conversations can be awkward for both kids and
adults, it is pertinent that they occur. The media can be paI1icularly useful in this aspect,
providing a launching pad for dialogue to occur. "Research has shown that parents who watch
and discuss TV programs with their children could filter values and serve as media educators"
(Escobar-Chaves, Tortolero, Markham, & Baumler, 2006, p. 46).
Johnston, Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, and Seguin Mika (2006) agreed that parents need to
have more open and honest conversations about sex and the media to bring trust to the
relationship and critical thinking about the media. The authors said it was· important "that the
aim should not be to control behavior, but to achieve an understanding of teens' knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviors ... " (p. 66).
The third suggestion was for schools to carryon the process of training students to be
media literate. Educators could give students the skills needed to interpret and critique the media
messages. The schools could also teach sexual education classes with the assumption that there
are some students who engage in "high-risk sexual behavior" (Escobar-Chaves, Tortolero,
Markham, & Baumler, 2006, p. 47). "Additionally, the media can be used in the classroom
settings to debunk the myths about STDs and pregnancy, using advertisements, songs,
commercials, and scenes from movies or television shows as discussion topics" (Johnston
Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006, p. 66). The authors suggested involving students
in creative ways in which the media could be changed for the better.
33
Media Literacy and Inclusive Sex Education
Media literacy and inclusive sexual education are the common suggestions among many
researchers. Lerum and Dworkin (2009) said that schools could teach media literacy as well
"comprehensive sexuality education" (p. 253). The APA task force agreed with this point as
well stating that the schools' involvement can "help youth counteract distorted views presented
by the media and culture about girls, sex, and the sexualization of girls" (2007, p. 40-41).
Furthermore, Clark and Tiggemann (2006) reported that those girls who were trained to
interpret the truth about media images were more able to disrupt the process of internalizing the
messages. "Among 6 to 12-year old girls, those who rejected images that objectified women had
higher body esteem and seemed less vulnerable to the cultural ideal of thin, sexy women, thus
demonstrating the value in challenging cultural stereotypes" (Clark & Tiggemann, 2006, p. 640).
Lerum and Dworkin (2009) also recommended that girls be involved in athletics that teach them
how their bodies work and appreciate what their bodies can do, rather than concentrating on how
their bodies look.
Usually, in teenagers' lives their peers are central in their world. Clark and Tiggemann
(2006) suggested that perhaps peer aged groups could be formed to bring adolescents together to
talk about body image issues. If young people view their peers as allies rather that critics of the
way they look, they may be more open to discussing body image and rejecting media ideals.
Neveliheless, Dittmar, Halliwell, and Ive (2006) said there is a need to start educating
girls at younger ages. The earlier parents and educators start to disrupt the internalization
process, the more aware girls may be, and the more likely they will be able to reject thin ideals.
The authors concluded by stating a need to "advance the understanding of how body image
develops as part of the self-concept generally and how girls' body dissatisfaction develops
34
specifically, and to inform early interventions that can help protect young girls' body image"
(Dittmar, Halli well, & I ve, 2006, p. 291). It is important that conununities, educators and
parents all work together to find ways to support young girls as they strive to make healthy
decisions that impact their body image, develop their self confidence, and define their
relationships with others without the negative images in the media.
35
Chapter III: Summary, Discussion, and Recommendations
Introduction
This chapter will include a summary and discussion of the literature that was presented in
Chapter Two. Additionally, recommendations for parents and educators, specifically school
counselors, will be given along with recommendations for future research.
Summary
If anyone in the United States, or Western culture in general, were to look through a
fashion magazine, flip through nightly television, or watch a film in the theater, they would
quickly realize the different standards and objectification stereotyped for girls and women.
Society has become fast paced and flooded with the presence of the mass media. Internet photos,
movies, and music videos are viewed by millions of people on a daily basis. While the media can
help share news and provide entertainment to people, there are many negative media messages
that are constantly reaching children and adolescents. Strasburger (2000) found that "it is
estimated that nationally, teens have viewed over 15,000 hours of television by the time they
graduate from high school but have spent only 11,000 hours in formal classroom instruction"
(cited in Johnston Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, & Seguin Mika, 2006, p. 53).
With all of the different types of media viewed by children and adolescents, the affects can
be life-changing. Clark and Tiggemann (2006) found that nearly half of girls wanted to be
thinner, regardless of whether or not they actually were overweight. The authors added that
many girls begin wanting to be thinner as early as fourth grade. Another surprising revelation
found by Johnston, Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, and Seguin Mika (2006), was that many teenagers
admitted to learning about sex from the media, specifically television. Girls in palticular are
36
increasingly learning to be dissatisfied with their bodies as well as to trying and appear sexy at
very young ages.
However, the media is not the only influence on girls' body image dissatisfaction or early
sexualization. Peers and parents are also major contributors to body image perceptions. McCabe
and Ricciardelli (2003) found that parents can have a major influence of extreme body-change
strategies in young girls. The authors also found that young girls are most likely to copy their
mother's habits when it comes to dieting and exercise routines and are most influenced by eating
habits in the home when they are younger. Parents are also influential on girls' sexual behaviors.
Johnston, Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, and Seguin Mika (2006) found that many girls would like to
talk with their fathers more about sexual issues, and felt that it would make a difference in their
decisions. The authors also concluded that the more frequently mothers discussed sexual
behaviors and attitudes with their daughters, the daughters' sexual activity decreased.
Discussion
Given the plethora of resources on body image dissatisfaction and sexualization, most
resources cited were in agreement with the detrimental affects the media and sociocultural
factors can have on young pre-adolescent and adolescent females. Most of the researchers
mentioned the body dissatisfaction process as being perpetuated through the process of
internalization or creation of appearance schemas.
Dittmar, Halliwell, and lve (2006) discussed girls beginning to internalize thinness ideals
as early as age five while playing with Barbie dolls. Tiggemann (2006) agreed that girls and
women are constantly given sociocultural and media messages containing the beauty image and
thin ideals which females then begin to accept and internalize. Once girls internalize these
messages, they base their self-worth and body image on these ideals. Clark and Tiggemann
37
(2006) discussed these dangerous repercussions which may disrupt the healthy mind and body
image of young girls. After searching the literature, it became truly apparent how these messages
are internalized and embodied in girls from very young ages. Considering the media subjected
girls to early exposure to Barbie and Bratz dolls, Disney movies and other cartoons, and
sexualization in music videos and television shows, it is no wonder girls begin to scrutinize their
bodies.
Choate and Cuny (2009) explained how media messages are passed along. They
suggested that even if children are not over-saturated by media messages, they receive messages
from their parents and peers. They then questioned where the parents and peers received their
messages and how they were established . The answer was a vicious cycle. Popular culture and
media are the root of their beliefs about body image and sexualization and then the parents and
peers transmit those values to the girls from one generation to the next.
Most articles cited found the media to be influential towards girls' body image
dissatisfaction. Dittmar, Halliwell, and Ive (2006) found that girls ages five to seven years-old
developed greater body dissatisfaction after being exposed to Barbie images. They also found
that girls older than seven were not directly impacted by the images, most likely because they
had already internalized the thinness ideal which was suggested through their desires to be
thinner now, and later as adults.
Clark and Tiggemann (2006) also found influences on girls' body images from the media.
The authors established a cycle which seems to occur with young girls and the media. The more
girls view appearance-related television programs, movies, and magazines, the more they
discussed these topics with their peers. The more they conversed about appearance-related
38
issues with their peers, they tended to think their peers placed high importance on appearance
based media and ideals, thus the girls would engage in viewing this media more often.
In February 2010, a workshop was presented about an organization called ' Project Girl.'
This project was created and headed by Kelly Parks Snider and Jane Bartell. The purpose of this
project was to help teach media literacy to young girls in middle school and high school and help
them combine a!1 with self-exploration. The slogan was "Un-Mediafy Your Life," meaning that
through a critical eye and an active approach, girls can slowly but surely take the media' s
influence out of their lives.
Parks Snider and Bartell wrote, "Every media message has been constructed by someone.
You can deconstruct media messages by examining them closely and carefully, looking beneath
the surface to understand their deeper meanings" (Parks, Snider & Bartell, 2003). They described
the deconstruction process and what questions girls and women can ask themselves about media
messages. They also went into detail about typical stereotypes and messages which are
transmitted through the media. Some of these messages include "pressure to be skinny, too much
attention on certain body parts, girls looking weak and confused like they need to be rescued,
young girls and teens looking too sexy too soon, buy more to solve your problems and to make
you happy, girls not getting along with each other, girl/boy stereotypes, too much violence and
making violence cool, and the last word game of disrespectful relationships" (Parks Snider &
Bartell, 2003).
The most memorable aspects of the workshop were the comprehensive coverage of the
issues. While it focused on girls and young women, it focused on both the issues of body image
in the media as well as sexualization of girls and women in the media. It also made participants
realize how these two issues often go hand-in-hand. While the workshop incorporated ways to
39
educate adults and kids about these issues it was a great lesson on how to truly change young
girls' experiences. Through the Project Girl groups, girls are able to explore their values and the
societal pressures put on them. These girls then create artwork as a way of self-expression that
may otherwise not be able to put into words. A key component of this campaign was also to
inform girls how to teach younger girls about these issues; as most educators are aware that kids
learn best from other peers who are a little bit older than them.
Finally, another interesting aspect of this project was that the creators took extensive time
interviewing young girls about the pressures they feel and what influences them most when it
comes to their body image and attitudes towards sexuality. The co-founders used this insight
with the art projects that were created and then developed techniques that would be used to help
girls and educators. The Project Girl curriculum was designed for use by any educator or parent.
These ideas could be used in art classes, as guidance lessons, media literacy sessions, small
groups, and individually. Parents are also encouraged to learn more about media messages and
then teach their children how to view media critically. It was so inspiring to know that there are
people who are so passionate about this issue and realize how detrimental media literacy and
youth advocacy is in today's society.
While the media was found to be a major contributing factor in the vicious cycle of girls '
body dissatisfaction, authors did not ignore other important sociocultural influences especially
from parents. Choate and Curry (2009) stressed that media messages are often transmitted from
parents to their children. McCabe and Ricciardelli (2003) also found that parents are major
influences on girls' body esteem. They explained that parents were more influential than either
media or peers, and tended to influence both extremes in their children's body image habits.
40
Parents were most likely to influence the adolescent to participate in body-change strategies or to
reinforce moving away from the thinness ideals.
Similar research was found in telms of media and sociocultural affects on girls'
sexualization. Choate and Cuny (2009) found that as girls internalized thinness ideals, they also
learned to self-objectify and care mostly about their sexual appearances. AP A (2007) created a
Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls which acknowledges and educates ways in which the
media and our culture promote the inappropriate sexualization of young girls. It also advocates
for parents and educators to take a stance against this sexualization of girls. Many media
messages are often promoting sexualization of young girls but it often gets overlooked as only a
body image issue. While both are serious issues, sexualization of young girls and adolescents can
lead to inappropriate clothing, early sexual activity, sexual harassment and sexual abuse. This is
something which not only sends messages to girls, but sends equally dangerous messages to
boys. While girls see these women and think that they should try to appear sexy and give the
impression of being sexually active, young boys see these women and hold them up on a
pedestal of what to look for in a romantic partner.
Johnston, Polacek, Rojas, Levitt, and Seguin Mika (2006) reported that most teenagers
admitted to learning about sex from different media sources. While young people are leaming
about different sexual behaviors and attitudes from the media, Escobar-Chaves, Tortolero,
Markham, and Baumler (2006) found that television shows most often viewed by adolescents
contained sexual content, but very few of the shows with sexual content watched by teenagers
showed serious consequences or safe-sex practices.
41
Recommendations for Further Research
It would be helpful to further explore the similarities and differences of the media impact
on both boys and girls. While there was a large amount of research on girls' body dissatisfaction
and body image, boys are becoming more targeted as they too are pressured to have toned,
muscular bodies. It would also be worthy of additional research to know how girls and boys
influence each other on body dissatisfaction and early sexualization.
McCabe and Ricciardelli (2003) stated that "few studies have examined the combined
effects of family, peers and the media within a single research design" (p. 8). It would also give
more variety in results as to which factors are most influential. Examine not only the young
girls' views on their body image and sexual attitudes, but to study in the future, their parents'
views and where these initiated from. Choate and Curry (2009) suggested that parents are often
the transmitters of their ideals and attitudes, which often are influenced by the media as well.
Finally, it would be very valuable and pertinent to explore differences between different
cultures and races of people to compare and contrast the differences and similarities. Examining
other cultures could provide more ideas on how much media influences cultural images too.
Recommendations for School Counselors
Choate and Curry (2009) advocated for six different methods for promoting media
literacy and issues regarding body image and sexualization. The first recommendation was
large-group guidance. This may be the best way to teach media literacy to all students. They
stated that "students learn how to become active consumers, rather than passive victims of media
influence" (Levine & Piran, 2001 , cited in Choate & Curry, 2009, p. 219).
The second method would be that of small-group counseling. Small groups could consist
of girls examining the media and discussing self-wolih and body image or it could be a group of
42
boys examining similar topics, as well as how they perpetuate the negative messages toward
girls. Having students discuss these topics together may bring fUliher unification and
understanding in the group.
Individual counseling was also suggested if a single student was really having issues
related to body image or sexual behaviors or attitudes. Choate and Curry also recommended
providing in-service trainings for school faculty so that they are aware of these issues and can be
advocates in the classroom. Finally, the authors said that parent workshops can be very helpful
in getting to the root of the problem. Parents should be aware of how the media and they
themselves influence their children. The school counselor may suggest ways for parents to
communicate with their teens, as well as provide parents with tips for actively selecting and
interpreting media for their children. The bottom line is that all parents and educators should
work together to promote healthy body images and choices for future generations of young
women and men.
43
References
American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. (2007). Report of
the APA task force on the sexualization of girls: Executive summary. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association. Retrieved from: www.apa.org/pi/wpol
sexualization.html
Bray, A. (2008). The question of intolerance: 'Corporate paedophilia' and child sexual abuse
moral panics [Electronic version]. Australian Feminist Studies, 23 (57), 323-341. doi:
10.1080108164640802233286
Choate, L., & Curry, J. R. (2009). Addressing the sexualization of girls through comprehensive
programs, advocacy, and systemic change: Implications for professional school
counselors [Electronic version]. Professional School Counseling, 12 (3), 213-222.
Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.lib.uwstouLedu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohosL
Com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=a9h&AN=3 6603 917 &si te=ehost -li ve
Clark, L., & Tiggemann, M. (2006). Appearance culture in nine- to 12-year-old girls: Media and
peer influences on body dissatisfaction [Electronic version]. Social Development, 15(4),
628-643. doi: 10.11 Il/j.1467-9507.2006.00361.x
Croll, J. (2005). Body image and adolescents [Electronic version]. Guidelinesfor Adolescent
Nutrition Services, Chapter 13, 155-166.Retrieved from: http://www.epi.umn.edu/
let/pubs/adol_book.shtm
Dittmar, H., Halliwell, E., & Ive, S. (2006). Does Barbie make girls want to be thing? The effect
of experimental exposure to images of dolls on the body image of five 5- to 8-year-old
girls [Electronic version]. Developmental Psychology, 42 (2), 283-292. doi:
10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.283
44
Escobar-Chaves, S.L., Tortolero, S.R., Markham,
c., & Baumler, E. (2006). Media and sex
among alternative school students [Electronic version]. American Journal of Sexuality
Education, 1(4),33-47. doi: 10. 1300IJ455vOl n04_04
Hargreaves, D., & Tiggemann, M ., (2002). The role of appearance schematicity in the
development of adolescent body dissatisfaction [Electronic version]. Cognitive Therapy
and Research, 26 (6), 691-700.Retrieved from : http://ezproxy.lib.uwstout.edu:2048/10gin
?url=http://search.ebscohost.comllogin.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN= 11306212&si te=
ehost-live
Hargreaves, D., & Tiggemann, M., (2003). Longer-term implications of responsiveness to 'thin
idea' television: Support for a cumulative hypothesis of body image disturbance?
[Electronic version]. European Eating Disorders Review, 11 (6),465-477. Retrieved
from: http://ezproxy.lib.uwstout.edu:2048/10gin?url=http://search .ebscohost.coml
login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=11361842&site=ehost-live
Johnston Polacek, G. N. L., Rojas, V., Levitt, S., & Seguin Mika, V. (2006). Media and sex:
Perspectives from Hispanic teens [Electronic version]. American Journal of Sexuality
Education, 1 (4), 51-69. doi: 10.13001J455v01n04_05
Lerum, K., & Dworkin, S. L. (2009). "Bad girls rule": An interdisciplinary feminist commentary
on the report of the AP A task force on the sexualization of girls [Electronic version].
Journal of Sex Research, 46 (4),250-263. doi: 10.1080/00224490903079542
Mail Online (2006). Over-sexed and over here: The 'tarty' Bratz doll [Electronic version] .
Associated Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved from: http://www.dailymail.co.uklfemaillarticle41126610ver-sexed-The-tarty-Bratz-Doll.html
45
McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2003). Sociocultural influences on body image and body
changes among adolescent boys and girls [Electronic version]. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 143 (1), 5-26. Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.lib.uwstout.edu:2048/Iogin
?ur l=http://search.ebscohost. comllo gin. aspx? direct=true&db=a9h&AN=92 73 199&si te=e
host-live
Shaw Crouse, 1. (2003). Bratz against beauty [Electronic version]. Concerned Women for
America. Retrieved from: http://www.cwfa.org/artic1es/4790IBLIIdotcommentary/
index.htm
Small, K. (2001). Addressing body image, self-esteem, and eating disorders: Semester II
independent inquiry [Electronic version]. E-Gallery: Exemplary Student Scholarship
Master of Teaching Program, Faculty of Education, 2 (2), 1-27. Retrieved from:
http://www.Ucalgary.cal-egallery/volume2/small.html
Tiggemann, M. (2006). The role of media exposure in adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction and
drive for thinness: Prospective results [Electronic version]. Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 25 (5),523-541. Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.lib.uwstout.edu:2048/Iogin
?url=http://search.ebscohost. com/lo gin. aspx? direct=true&db=a9h&AN =2120033 6&si te=
ehost-live