HANDOUT: G. BODEN, KBA Meeting Aarhus, 8.-9.4.2013
Title: Grandparent-grandchild and bifurcate merging equations in 'Khoisan' kinship terminologies:
A contact perspective
Aim: Show the hybrid character of a number of Khoisan kinship terminologies, namely: Naro
(Khoe), South Ju|'hoan, Ekoka !Xun, ǂHoan (Kx'a) and Taa (Tuu), and explain them as mixtures of
features which are typical for Khoe kinship terminologies (bifurcate merging equations &
cross/parallel distinctions) and features which are un-typical for Khoe (grandparent-grandchild
and further alternate generation equations).
1. Grandparent-grandchild equations
Grandparent-grandchild equation means that the same kin terms are used for grandparents and
grandchildren (with the terms for grandchildren often being marked by the diminutive -ma in Ju
and Taa dialects). The (non-)existence of terminological equivalence between grandparents and
grandchildren is realised in different ways in 'Khoisan' kinship terminologies:
Table 1: Types of grandparent-grandchild terminologies
Code
Explanation
Formula
Terminologies
0a
different generic terms used for
PP ≠ CC
!Ora (Khoe)
grandparents and grandchildren
Khoekhoe (Khoe)
South Ju|'hoan (Kx'a)
0b
generic terms for grandchildren,
PP = "old P" ≠ CC
terms for grandparents analyzable
G|ui (Khoe)
Khwe (Khoe)
as "old parent"
0c
generic terms for grandparents,
PP = generic terms
|Xam (Tuu)
descriptive terms for
CC = "CC"
Nǁng (Tuu) - ?
same terms for grandparents and
PM = CC
North Ju|'hoan (Kx'a)
grandchildren, sex-of-referent
PF = CS
Naro (Khoe: gramm.
grandchildren, e.g. "son's son"
1a
specific
1b
term for grandmother is used for
gender!)
PM = CC
grandchildren of both sexes
1c
Ekoka !Xun (Kx'a)
ǂHoan (Kx'a)
same terms for grandparents and
PM = CC (ws)
Taa (Tuu
grandchildren, sex-of-speaker
PF = CC (ms)
Nǁng (Tuu) - ?
specific of the speaker
Note: I excluded the data for Shua, Ts'ixa and Danisi because it was not exactly clear to me how
the terms should be analyzed, e.g. ma:_ma:_ 'PM' in Shua = duplicated term for M as in MeZ
tyama: and MyZ ǀu_ma_:_ (but not in M ade)? Whatever the correct linguistic analysis of these
terms, NO terminological equivalence between PP and CC in Eastern Kalahari Khoe languages !!!
1
Map 1: Language sample
Ekoka
!Xun
Khwe
N-Ju|'hoan
Hai||om
S-Ju|‘hoan
Damara
Naro
G|ui
Taa
ǂHoan
Nama
||Xegwi
N||ng
!Ora
|Xam
Khoe
Kx'a
Tuu
Map 2: Distribution of grandparent-grandchild (non-)equivalence
Grandparent/
Grandchild
Equivalence
0: No equivalence
0a: generic terms:
PP ≠ CC
0b: only CC terms
generic
0c: only PP terms
generic
1b
0b
0a
1a
(0)
0a
0a
1a
0b
1c
1b
1: Equivalence
a: PM=CD, PF=CS
b: PM=CC
c: PM=CC (ws)
PF=CC (ms)
0a
?
1c?
0c?
0a
0c
Khoe
Kx'a
Tuu
2
Table 2: Kx'a grandparent-grandchild terms
Language or
Sources
MM
FM
MF
FF
DD
DS
SD
SS
!Xun
König & Heine
txún (70)
txún (70)
txún-n‖ā'a
txún-n‖ā'a
txún-mà
txún-mà
txún-mà
txún-mà
Ekoka
2008
(71)
(71)
(70)
(70)
(70)
(70)
variety
Takada 2008
txun
txun
txunn‖a
txunn‖a
txun-ma
txun-ma
txun-ma
txun-ma
Ju|'hoan
Marshall 1957
tun
tun
!gu!na
!gu!na
tun-ma
!gu!na-ma
tun-ma
!gu!na-ma
North
Lee 1984
tun, mama
tun, mama
!kun!a
!kun!a
tuma
!kuma
tuma
!kuma
Wilmsen
txṹ,
txṹ
!ún!ã'a
!ún!ã'a
!úmà
!úmà
!úmà
!úmà
1989:172-3
!ún!ã'a
!ún!ã'a
txṹg!'á
txṹg!'á
mámà
mama
txún
txún
!ú n!a'àn
!ú-n!a'àn
txúnmà
txúnmà
!úmà
!úmà
(278)
(278)
(318)
(318)
(278)
(278)
(318)
(318)
mámà (234)
mámà (234)
Dickens 1994
Ju|'hoan
Sylvain 2000
mama di
mama di
mama !go
mama !go
!kuma
!kuma
!kuma
!kuma
South
KBA 2011
mama di
mama di
mama !o
mama !o
(di) !oma
(ba) !oma
(di) !oma
(ba) !oma
ǂHoan
Gruber 1973
kyxóõ
kyxóõ
kyxàna
kyxàna
kyxóõ
kyxóõ
kyxóõ
kyxóõ
KBA 2011
tyxóōn
tyxóōn
tyxana
tyxana
tyxóōn
tyxóōn
tyxóōn
tyxóōn
-
Probably cognate terms in bold type. Note different ways of differentiating PM and PF in Ju dialects and ǂHoan
-
Deviant terms are a) !ú n!a'àn, 'big name', and !úmà, 'small name', and b) mama, probably loaned from Khoe languages (see below)
-
All Kx'a data sets (in spite of some difference in detail (even within the same language variety according to different sources) reveal some
sort of terminological equivalence of grandparents and grandchildren with the exception of South Ju|'hoan. The latter is possibly due to the
use of a Khoe loan term for PP.
-
PP-CC equations in Ju|'hoan co-occur with naming rules according to which children should preferably be named after a grandparent,
cyclical concepts of generations, shared personalities and particularly affectionate relationships between namesakes (Marshall 1957). One
South Ju|'hoan informant translated !uma as "me when I was small".
3
Table 3: Kx'a naming rules and practices (ordered according to match with North Ju|'hoan)
Language or
Small set
Names have
Naming after
Naming after
People named after
Kin terms for relatives of namesake
variety
of names
meanings
relative is
P is
P/G marriageable
used as if in position of namesake
North Ju|'hoan
yes
no
obligatory
impossible
no
extensively
South Ju|'hoan
yes
no
obligatory
impossible
no
only closest relatives
Ekoka !Xun
yes
no
common
possible
yes
only closest relatives
ǂHoan
no
yes (refer to events
very rare
possible
yes
not applicable
during
pregnancy/birth)
-
System of name relationship nowhere as strict, clear and consistent as described for North Ju|'hoan by Marshall 1957and Lee, 1984, 1986);
seems to have completely dissolved in ǂHoan where naming practices correspond to those described for G|wi (Ono pers. comm.).
Table 4: Khoe grandparent-grandchild terms
Khoekhoe
!Ora
Engelbrecht
n‖aos
n‖aos
n‖aob
n‖aob
n‖ulis
n‖ulib
n‖ulis
n‖ulib
n‖áos
n‖áos
n‖áob
n‖áob
‖núris
‖núrib
‖núris
‖núrib
n‖aos
n‖aos
n‖aob
n‖aob
‖nuris
‖nurib
‖nuris
‖nurib
Haacke &
àűma̋s (16)
àűma̋s (16)
àűta̋b (16)
àűta̋b (16)
‖nȕrìs
‖nȕrìb
‖nȕrìs
‖nȕrìb
Eiseb 2002
‖nȁòs (286)
‖nȁòs (286)
‖nȁòb
‖nȁòb
(291)
(291)
(291)
(291)
(286)
(286)
1936
Nama
Hoernlé 1985
[1925]
Klocke-Daffa
2001
Damara
Hai‖om
Haacke &
àűma̋s (16)
àűma̋s (16)
àűta̋b (16)
àűta̋b (16)
‖nȕrìs
‖nȕrìb
‖nȕrìs
‖nȕrìb
Eiseb 2002
‖nȁòs (286)
‖nȁòs (286)
‖nȁòb
‖nȁòb
(291)
(291)
(291)
(291)
(286)
(286)
audab
audab
n‖uris
n‖urib
n‖uris
n‖urib
Widlok 1999
aumas
aumas
4
Kalahari
Naro
Khoe
Barnard 1992:
tsxõ-sa
tsxõ-sa
tsxõ-ba
tsxõ-ba
tsxõ-sa
tsxõ-ba
tsxõ-sa
tsxõ-ba
149
mama-sa
mama-sa
mama-ba
mama-ba
tsxõ|ua-sa
tsxõ|ua-ba
tsxõ|ua-sa
tsxõ|ua-ba
mama|ua-
mama|ua-
mama|ua-
mama-|ua-
sa
ba
sa
ba
Western
G|ui
Silberbauer
mamasa
mamasa
babama
babama
n‖odisa
n‖odima
n‖odisa
n‖odima
ciaǁku-sa
ciaǁku-sa
ciaǁku-ma
ciaǁku-ma
nǁoori-sa
nǁoori-ma
nǁoori-ma
nǁoori-ma
maā
maā
paaba
paaba
Kilian-Hatz
tá-‖ṹũ-hɛ̀
tá-‖ṹũ-hɛ̀
tá-‖ṹũ-mà
tá-‖ṹũ-mà
n‖góri-hɛ̀
n‖góri-
n‖góri-hɛ̀
n‖góri-
2003
(114)
(114)
(114)
(114)
(218)
ma
(218)
ma(218)
máma (83)
máma (83)
táva (115)
táva (115)
tá-‖ṹũ-hɛ̀
tá-‖ṹũ-hɛ̀
tá-‖ṹũ-mà
tá-‖ṹũ-mà
n‖góri-hɛ̀
n‖góri-
máma
máma
táva
táva
maàmaà
maàmaà
baàbaà
baàbaà
|ṍa|́̃ ṍá̃
ma
|ṍa|́̃ ṍá̃
1981
Ono 1996
Khwe
Boden 2005
Kalahari
Khoe
Shua
McGregor
(218)
n‖góri-hɛ̀
n‖góri-
|ṍa|́̃ ṍá̃
ma
|ṍa|́̃ ṍá̃
forthc.
Eastern
-
Cognate CC terms in bold type: wide distribution of cognates of nǁuri in the language family; two exceptions: In Naro PP terms are also used
for CC, with tsxõ possibly being a loan from Ju. In Shua CC terms seem to be descriptive or duplicated C terms.
-
PP terms show greater diversity. Khoekhoe: nǁao-PGN; forms aumas and autab probably at least partly loans from Afrikaans and/or similar
constructions to terms analyzable as "old-parent" in G|ui and Khwe; Kalahari Khoe languages: mama/baba, partly plus forms "old parent".
-
No PP-CC equations with the exception of Naro. Mutual loans Naro – Ju|'hoan: mama and tsxõ ?; Naro also has Ju-type name relationship
system: small sets of names which are partly the same as in Ju|'hoan; child never named after a parent; namesakes of parents and siblings are
excluded from marriage. Different from Ju name relationship system: additional individual names; names given by grandparents who first
arrive after birth of first child or discussed among both sets of grandparents instead of first child regularly named after paternal grandparent.
-
In other Khoe kinship systems children are not regularly named after relatives but most often after events during birth or pregnancy, for
physical pecularities or other individual characteristics (for Khwe Brenzinger 1999, Boden 2005; for G|ui Ono pers. comm..; for Ts'ixa Fehn
2012; for !Ora Engelbrecht 1936: 151).
5
Table 5: Tuu grandparent-grandchild terms
Taa
KBA 2004-2010
N‖ng
‖ham
‖ham
ǂhain
ǂhain
‖ham (ws)
‖ham (ws)
‖ham (ws)
‖ham (ws)
ǂhain (ms)
ǂhain (ms)
ǂhain (ms)
ǂhain (ms)
Heinz 1994*
‖ham
‖ham
ǂe
ǂe
ǂe
ǂe
ǂe
ǂe
Traill 1994
‖hām (120)
‖hām (120)
ǂqhèẽ (142)
ǂqhèẽ (142)
‖hām (ws)
‖hām (ws)
‖hām (ws)
‖hām (ws)
(120)
(120)
(120)
(120)
ǂqhèẽ (ms)
ǂqhèẽ (ms)
ǂqhèẽ (ms)
ǂqhèẽ (ms)
(142)
(142)
(142)
(142)
Bleek Notebook
!kuike (6)
!kuike (6)
!kon (6)
!kon (6)
!kúiki (221)
!kúiki (221)
!kúiki (221)
!kúiki (221)
Bleek 1929
!kuïke (43)
!kuïke (43)
!kɔŋ (43)
!kɔŋ (43)
no data
no data
no data
no data
KBA 2010
!uiki [8]
!uiki [8]
!on [8]
!on [8]
ka !on [1]
ka !on [1]
ka !on [1]
ka !on [1]
Bleek 1924
!koïte
!koïte
!kõïŋ
!kõïŋ
ʘpwa
ʘpwa
ʘpwa
ʘpwa
ʘpwaidi
ʘpwaidi
ʘpwaidi
ʘpwaidi
BC151_A3 1910
|Xam
‖Xegwi
Bleek 1929
Potgieter 1955
-
!xeike avale
!xeike avale
(43)
(43)
xwa xwa,
aa xwa,
mvali
mvali
!xeinja (43)
!xeinja (43)
no data
no data
no data
no data
xwa aa
aa aa, vumi
no data
no data
no data
no data
*Heinz seems to have documented terms only for male speaker; Taa PP-CC equations different from Kx'a type; Taa also regularly name their
children after PP and other relatives, usually starting with the mother's grandparents instead of the father's grandparents as do the Ju|'hoansi.
-
Nǁng might have had PP-CC equivalence (see dataset in Bleek's notebook and from one out of nine N|uu speakers as recorded by GB). Other
contemporary N|uu-speakers either said that grandchildren are "not respected by the use of a kin term" or they used descriptive terms, e.g.
'son's son'. Children regularly named after relatives including parents; no marriage restrictions; most names of Afrikaans origins.
-
|Xam: Descriptive terms documented for CC; individual names according to Hewitt (1986: 29-30); According to Bleek (1924: 59) a |Xam man
addressed his mother's siblings as 'son' and 'daughter' and was addressed 'father' by him, something she is "unable to explain" but would make
perfect sense in a name relationship system.
-
ǁXegwi: no CC terms documented. No information on naming practices
6
2. Bifurcate merging equations
The same terms are used for parents and same-sex siblings of parents. Bifurcate merging equations
involve cross/parallel distinctions, i.e. different terms are used for same-sex siblings of parents
and opposite-sex siblings of parents. According to structural reciprocity this means:
Generation +1:
P = PssG ≠ PosG
Generation 0:
G = PssGC ≠PosGC
Generation -1:
C = ssGC ≠ osGC
Those 'Khoisan' kinship terminologies which do make bifurcate merging equations and
cross/parallel distinctions also equate either all or only male PosG with PP and osGC of all or only
male speakers with CC.
P = PssG ≠ PosG = PP
or
P = PssG; MB = PF, FZ = separate term or FZ = MZ
C = ssGC ≠ osGC = CC
or
C = ssGC; ZC (ms) = CC; ZC (ws) = ssGC = C
Merging of relatives from two different ascending and two different descending generations
respectively but NOT relatives from an ascending AND a descending generation. Such
terminologies are non-alternate or hierarchical.
Another type of terminology equates collateral relatives and distinguishes them from lineal
relatives:
Generation +1:
P ≠ PssG = PosG
Generation 0: G ≠ PssGC = PosGC
Generation -1:
C ≠ ssGC = osGC
The lineal/collateral type is only found in North Ju|'hoan. The North Ju|'hoan terminology not
only equates grandparents with grandchildren but also with cousins as well as parents' siblings are
equated with siblings' children:
PP = PGC = CC
PG = GC
Terms and names are re-cycled in alternating generations. Such a high degree of alternate
generation equivalence as in the North Ju|'hoan terminology is exceptional not only within
Khoisan but also worldwide. Alternate generation equations are usually thought to be very
instable (Allen 1986, Parkin 1988). Furthermore, a high degree of alternate generation
equivalence is usually found together with bifurcate merging equations (Aberle 1967).
7
Table 6: Terminological equations in 'Khoisan' kinship terminologies beyond Grandparent/grandchild equivalence
Lineage
Language or variety
PG terms*
PGC terms
Kx'a
North Ju|'hoan
P ≠PssG = PosG
PGC = PP = CC
South Ju|'hoan
P ≠PssG = PosG
PGC = PP = CC
P = PssG
Khoe
MB = sep. term
PGC = G
FZ = MZ = M
PGC = GC = CC
Ekoka !Xun
P ≠PssG
PosG = PP
PGC = G
ǂHoan
P =PyssG**
PessG = PosG = PP
PssGC = G
PosGC = sep. loan term
!Ora
P = PssG
MB = PF
PssGC = G
PosGC = osGC = CC
PssGC = G
PosGC = osGC = CC
PssGC = G
PosGC = osGC = CC
PssGC = G
PosGC = osGC = CC
PssGC = G
PosGC = PosG = PP
FZ = sep. term
Nama
P = PssG
MB = PF
FZ = sep. term
Damara
P = PssG
MB = PF
FZ = sep. term
Haiǁom
P = PssG
MB = PF
FZ = sep. term
Naro
P = PssG
PosG = PP
PosGC = osGC = CC
G|wi
P =PyssG*
PessG = PosG = PP
PssGC = G
PosGC = sep. term
Khwe
P = PssG
MB = PF
PssGC = G
PosGC = sep. loan term
FZ = MZ = M
Tuu
Taa 1 (W-!Xoon, E-!Xoon
P = PssG
PosG = PP
PssGC = G
PosGC = CEP
Taa 2 ('N|oha, Tshasi, ǂHuan)
P =PyssG*
PessG = PosG = PP
PssGC = G
PosGC = sep. term
Nǁng
? (most probably NOT cross/parallel)
? (most probably NOT cross/parallel)
|Xam
? (descriptive terms)
PGC = G (?)
ǁXegwi
? (descriptive terms)
PssGC = G (?)
PosGC (?)
8
Notes to Table 6:
* Equations of terms for sibling's children not listed but structural reciprocal to be assumed
** Note: PssG are most often marked P terms
3. Contact scenarios
ǂHoan
-
PP= CC retained from Kx'a heritage including cognate terms
-
recruitment of grand-relative term for cross-relatives in first ascending and descending
generation modelled on Khoe;
-
bifurcate merging equations and cross/parallel distinctions adopted from Khoe language;
khoëization completed in generations 0 and +/-1 through recruitment of grand-relative
term for cross-relatives in first ascending and descending generation;
-
more recently: recruitment of grandparent term for PessG modelled on Kgalagadi kinship
terminology.
Ekoka !Xun
-
PP = CC retained from Kx'a heritage
-
recruitment of grand-relative term for cross-relatives in first ascending and descending
generation modelled on Khoe language;
-
bifurcate merging equations and cross/parallel distinctions not yet fully developed; PGC =
G and P ≠ PssG ≠ PosG appear to be transitional stages;
South Ju|'hoan
-
PP = CC broken up through use of Khoe loan term for PP;
-
terminology in the process of rebuilding and incorporating Khoe features such as bifurcate
merging equations with 'big/small' M + F for PssG, equation of PGC also with GC;
Taa
-
PP = CC = Tuu heritage? (different from Kx'a !)
-
recruitment of grand-realtive term for cross-relatives in first ascending and descending
generations and of CEP term (West !Xoon) or term for 'friend' (eastern Taa varieties) for
PosGC.
-
bifurcate merging equations and cross/parallel distinctions adopted from Khoe language;
khoëization completed in generations 0 and +/-1 through recruitment of grand-relative
term for cross-relatives in first ascending and descending generation;
-
more recently: recruitment of grandparent term for PessG modelled on Kgalagadi kinship
terminology.
Naro
-
PP = CC retained from earlier Kx'a language or adopted from Ju|'hoan together with Ju
loan term and name relationship system? Bifurcate merging and cross/parallel distinctions
introduced into earlier Kx'a kinship terminology or retained from Khoe language ?
9
4. Summary
Terminological equivalence of grandparents and grandchildren (albeit different in detail), is
prevalent in most Kx'a kinship terminologies as well as in Taa. Admittedly very faint indications of
such a feature have also been documented for |Xam and Nǁng. Terminological equivalence of
grandparents and grandchildren is, however, generally absent from Khoe terminologies with the
sole exception of Naro. Likewise, naming rules according to which grandchildren should be named
after their grandparents are absent from most Khoe kinship systems except for Naro. Naming rules
show a considerable variability within Kx'a and Tuu kinship systems and seem to disappear before
the terminological equivalence of grandparents and grandchildren.
Bifurcate merging equations and cross/parallel distinctions are typical for Khoe terminologies
while they seem to be secondary in ǂHoan, Ekoka !Xun, South Ju|'hoan and Taa. Khoe
terminologies also equate at least some cross-relatives in the first ascending and descending
generations with grand-relatives. The latter feature seems to be the first adopted by speakers of
Kx'a and Tuu languages with cross/parallel distinctions and bifurcate-merging equations in ego's
generation developing later. It is argued that present or developing bifurcate merging equations
and cross/parallel distinctions in Taa, ǂHoan, Ekoka !Xun and South Ju|'hoan represent
interference from Khoe kinship classifications. Naro seems to be a complete blend of Kx'a and
Khoe features and it is difficult to tell which features are older.
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10
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Symbols:
C
= Child
M
= Mother
y
= younger
B
= Brother
(ms) = man speaking
Z
= Sister
D
= Daughter
os
= opposite sex
e
= older
P
= Parent
(33) page number in source
E
= Spouse
S
= Son
[9] number of speakers
F
= Father
ss
= same sex
G
= Sibling
(ws) = woman speaking
12
13
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