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The Theatre of Terror: Relationships Between Media, Terror and
Government
Raphael Cohen-Almagor
The aim of this course is to probe the intricate relationships between
government, media and terror. Democracy allows terror more latitude than
any other forms of government. Often the media are utilized and exploited by
terrorists to exert pressure on governments, to mediate between the two sides,
and to transmit messages to the public in order to gain support. Terrorists
take advantage of the freedom granted to the media to advance their own
cause. The media give terrorism close attention and in the name of public’s
right to know cover terrorist incidents intensely.
The course will attempt to see at which point the journalistic coverage ends
and cooperation between media and terrorism begins. Issues at point are:
terrorists' memoirs; terror and rating; commercialization of terrorism;
journalists’ responsibilities; the Contagion Effect of terrorism; media influence
on public opinion and decision making; coverage of extortionist episodes.
Among the case studies that will be analyzed are: The Hanafi take over of
three buildings in Washington DC; the kidnapping of the TWA airplane to
Lebanon; the American hostages crisis in Teheran; the kidnapping of Hanns
Martin Schleyer in Germany; IRA terrorism in Britain; the FLQ crisis in
Canada; Palestinian terror in Israel, and the September 11, 2001 attack on the
US.
Grading
Active participation in class (25%);
Presenting a paper in class (25%);
Final Examination (50%).
Readings noted with * are optional.
1. Introduction: The Importance of Free Expression
- Arguments for the Free Speech Principle.
- Why tolerate: Respect for Others
- Why tolerate: The Search for Truth
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Raphael Cohen-Almagor, The Boundaries of Liberty and Tolerance
(Gainesville, FL: The University Press of Florida, 1994), chaps. 3, 5, 6.
2. The Characteristics of Terrorism in the Past and in the Present:
The Role of the Media
- What is the message of terrorism?
- What is the message of the media?
Brian M. Jenkins, International Terrorism: A New Mode of Conflict (Santa
Monica, Ca.: Rand Co., 1974), pp. 1-15.
Geoffrey Jackson, "Terrorism and the News Media", Terrorism and Political
Violence, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Winter 1990), pp. 521-528.
Ralph E. Dowling, "Terrorism and the Media: A Rhetorical Genre", Journal
of Communication, Vol. 36, No. 1, (1986), pp. 12-24.
Kenoye Kelvin Eke and A. Odasuo Alali, "Introduction: Critical Issues in
Media Coverage of Terrorism", in A. Odasuo Alali et al (eds.), Media
Coverage of Terrorism (Newbury Park, CA.: Sage, 1991), pp. 3-11.
3. Terrorists’ Memoirs
- How do terrorists conceive the role of the media?
David C. Rapoport, "The International World As Some Terrorists Have
Seen It: A Look At a Century of Memoirs", in David C. Rapoport, Inside
Terrorist Organizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), pp.
32-58.
Bonnie Cordes, "When Terrorists Do the Talking: Reflections on Terrorist
Literature", in David C. Rapoport, Inside Terrorist Organizations (N.Y.:
Columbia University Press, 1988), pp. 150-171.
Michael Stohl, "The Myths and Realities of Contemporary Political
Terrorism", in Michael Stohl (ed.), The Politics of Terrorism (N.Y. and Basel:
Marcel Dekker, 1988), pp. 1-19.
Robin P.J.M. Gerrits, "Terrorists' Perspectives: Memoirs", in David L. Paletz
and Alex P. Schmid (eds.), Terrorism and the Media (Newbury Park, CA.:
Sage, 1992), pp. 29-61.
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Video clip on Che Guevara.
* Jerrold M. Post, Ehud Sprinzak and Laurita M. Denny, "The Terrorists in Their Own Words:
Interviews with 35 Incarcerated Middle Eastern Terrorists" (forthcoming).
4. The Theatre of Terror or Terrorism as Theatre
- To what extent does terrorism become theatre, as Brian Jenkins claims?
- The Stockholm Syndrome.
- How do the media affect public opinion and decision making?
- How does the public view terrorism?
- Media access.
Christopher Hewitt, "Public's Perspectives", in David L. Paletz and Alex P.
Schmid (eds.), Terrorism and the Media (Newbury Park, CA.: Sage, 1992),
pp. 170-207.
J.Z. Rubin and N. Friedlander, "Theatre of Terror", Psychology Today
(March 1986).
Ronald D. Crelinsten, "Victims' Perspectives", in David L. Paletz and Alex
P. Schmid (eds.), Terrorism and the Media (Newbury Park, CA.: Sage, 1992),
pp. 208-238.
Screening of ABC tape.
5. Media Coverage of Terrorism and the Role of the Internet
- To what extent does a hostage hijacking become a media hijacking?
- The media as the terrorist's best friend;
- Media contagion;
- Terrorist representation and propaganda on the Internet.
Robert G. Picard, "The Journalist's Role in Coverage of Terrorist Events", in
Alali, A. Odasuo and Kenoye Kelvin Eke (eds.), Media Coverage of
Terrorism (Newbury Park, Cal.: Sage, 1991), pp. 40-48.
Robert G. Picard, "News Coverage as the Contagion of Terrorism", in
Alali, A. Odasuo and Kenoye Kelvin Eke (eds.), Media Coverage of
Terrorism, pp. 49-62.
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Yariv Tsfati and Gabriel Weimann, "www.terrorism.com: Terror on the
Internet", Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Vol. 25 (2002), pp. 317-332.
Alan Knight and Kasun Ubayasiri, "eTerror: Journalism, Terrorism and the
Internet", Ejournalist, Volume 2, Number 1 (2002). At
http://www.ejournalism.au.com/ejournalist/alkas.pdf
6. Terror and Democracy: Contradictory and Complementary
Relations
- Terrorism is highly effective in a democratic society. In authoritarian
societies it is far less effective. Is it true? Why?
- Technology, ratings, and terrorist commercialization.
- The journalists' responsibility.
John Tusa, "The Problems of Freedom and Responsibility in Broadcasting",
Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Winter 1990), pp. 544-553.
Paul Wilkinson, "Terrorism versus Liberal Democracy: The Problems of
Response", in Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism v. Liberal Democracy - The
Problems of Response (Centre for Security and Conflict Studies, No. 67,
January 1976), pp. 1-19.
Bowyer J. Bell, A Time of Terror: How Democratic Societies Respond to
Revolutionary Violence? (New York: Basic Books, 1978), chap. 1.
Lord Annan, "Do Broadcasters Owe a Duty to the State?", Terrorism and
Political Violence, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Winter 1990), pp. 529-543.
Philip Schlesinger, "Terrorism, the Media, and the Liberal-Democratic
State: A Critique of Orthodoxy", Social Research, Vol. 48 (Spring 1981), pp.
74-99.
7. Media Intervention in Terrorist Events
- Is there a need for guidelines to cover terrorist events?
- Relationships between media, government, and terrorists.
David L. Paletz and Laura L. Tawney, "Broadcasting Organizations'
Perspectives", in David L. Paletz and Alex P. Schmid (eds.), Terrorism and
the Media (Newbury Park, CA.: Sage, 1992), pp. 105-110.
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Kevin G. Barnhurst, "The Literature of Terrorism", in Alali, A. Odasuo and
Kenoye Kelvin Eke (eds.), Media Coverage of Terrorism (Newbury Park,
Cal.: Sage, 1991), pp. 112-137.
Alex P. Schmid, "Editors' Perspectives", in David L. Paletz and Alex P.
Schmid (eds.), Terrorism and the Media, pp. 111-136.
8. Case Studies
- Role playing: terrorists, government, and the media.
- The American hostages in Iran.
- The Hanafi case.
J.F. Larson, "Television and U.S. Foreign Policy: The Case of the Iran
Hostage Crisis", Journal of Communication, Vol. 36, No. 4 (Autumn 1986),
pp. 108-130.
M.D. Meeske and M.H. Javaheri, "Network Television Coverage of the
Iranian Hostage Crisis", Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 59 (1982), pp. 641-645.
Yonah Alexander, “The Media and Terrorism”, in David Carlton and Carlo
Schaerf (eds.), Contemporary Terror (London and Basingstoke: MacMillan,
1981), pp. 50-65.
Margaret G. Hermann and Charles F. Hermann, "Hostage Taking, the
Presidency, and Stress", in Walter Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism (N.Y.:
Woodrow Wilson Center and Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 211229.
Gary Sick, "Taking Vows: The Domestication of Policy-Making in Hostage
Incidents", in Walter Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism, pp. 230-244.
* Robert A. Friedlander, "Iran: The Hostage Sizure, the Media, and International Law", in A.H.
Miller (ed.), Terrorism, the Media and the Law (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Transnational, 1982), chap. 2.
9. Further Case Studies
- Role playing: terrorists, government, and the media.
- The hijacking of the TWA airplane.
- The Akila Lauro affair.
- Stand-off at Waco.
- The Algiers-Marseille kidnapping (December 24-27, 1994)
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Tony Atwater, "Network Evening News Coverage of the TWA Hostage
Crisis", in A. Odasuo Alali et al (eds.), Media Coverage of Terrorism
(Newbury Park, Cal.: Sage, 1991), pp. 63-72.
Jack Lule, "The Myth of My Widow", in Alali, A. Odasuo and Kenoye
Kelvin Eke (eds.), Media Coverage of Terrorism (Newbury Park, Cal.: Sage,
1991), pp. 87-111.
A.P. Schmid, "Terrorism and the Media: The Ethics of Publicity", Terrorism
and Political Violence, Vol. 1, No. 4 (October 1989), pp. 539-565.
Gabi Weimann, "Media Events: The Case of International Terrorism",
Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Winter 1987),
pp. 21-39.
Joseph Scanlon, “The Politics of Hostage Rescue: Is Violence a Route to
Political Success?”, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, Vol. 9,
No. 2 (June 2001), pp. 88-97.
Vidoe clip on the Lockerbie explosion.
* Linda N. Deitch, “Breaking News: Proposing a Pooling Requirement for Media Coverage of
Live Hostage Situations,” UCLA L. Rev., Vol. 47 (1999).
10. Images: Terrorists or Freedom Fighters?
- Is terrorism a subjective or objective notion?
- Mentioning the T word.
Brian K. Simmons, "U.S. Newsmagazines' Labeling of Terrorists", in A.
Odasuo Alali et al (eds.), Media Coverage of Terrorism (Newbury Park, Cal.:
Sage, 1991), pp. 23-39.
Thomas Raynor, Terrorism: Past, Present, Future (N.Y.:
1987), pp. 149-166.
Franklin Watts,
Gabi Weimann, "Terrorists or Freedom Fighters? Labeling Terrorism in the
Israeli Press", Political Communication and Persuasion, Vol. 2 (1985), pp.
433-445.
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Benzion Netanyahu, "Terrorists and Freedom Fighters", in Benjamin
Netanyahu (Ed.), Terrorism: How The West Can Win (New York: Farrar,
Straus, Giroux, 1986), pp. 25-30.
11. Objectivity in the Coverage of Terrorism
- The terrorist view of the media.
- The Cross-Laporte kidnapping, October 1970.
- The media as mediator.
George Shultz, "The Challenge to the Democracies", in Benjamin
Netanyahu (Ed.), Terrorism: How The West Can Win (New York: Farrar,
Straus, Giroux, 1986), pp. 16-24.
Raphael Cohen-Almagor, “Objective Reporting in the Media: Phantom
Rather than Panacea”, in Speech, Media, and Ethics: The Limits of Free
Expression (Houndmills and New York: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 69-86.
R. Cohen-Almagor, “The Terrorists’ Best Ally: The Quebec Media Coverage
of the FLQ Crisis in October 1970”, Canadian Journal of Communication,
Volume 25, No. 2 (2000), pp. 251-284.
* R.D. Crelinsten, “Power and Meaning: Terrorism as a Struggle over Access to the
Communication Structure”, in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart (eds.), Contemporary
Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1989), pp. 419-450.
* Marc Raboy, Movements and Messages (Toronto: Between the Lines, 1984), pp. 64-74.
12. Should the Media Boycott Terrorists?
- The kidnapping of German industialist Hanns Martin Schleyer in 1977.
- The Aldo Moro kidnapping in 1978.
- The Ku Klux Klan, the Unabomber, and the U.S. militias.
- In Israel, the media had boycotted Kahane and his movement. In Britain, a
similar boycott had been cast on IRA activists. Is this a justified policy?
- Can you discern different tavtics in dealing with kidnapping?
H.J. Horchem, "Terrorism in Germany: 1985", in Paul Wilkinson and
Alasdair M. Stewart (eds.), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen:
Aberdeen University Press, 1989), pp. 141-163.
David E. Boeyink, “Reporting on Political Extremists in the United States:
The Ku Klux Klan, the Unabomber, and the Militias”, in R. Cohen-Almagor
(ed.), Liberal Democracy and the Limits of Tolerance (Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press, 2000), pp. 215-231.
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R v. Home Secretary ex parte Brind [1991] 1 AC 696.
Richard Clutterbuck, The Media and Political Violence (London: Macmillan,
1983), Second Edition, pp. 109-123.
Raphael Cohen-Almagor, The Boundaries of Liberty and Tolerance: The
Fighting Against Kahanism in Israel (Gainesville, FL.: University Press of
Florida, 1994), chap. 12.
John David Viera, "Terrorism at the BBC: The IRA on British Television",
in A. Odasuo Alali et al (eds.), Media Coverage of Terrorism, pp. 73-85.
David Paletz et al, "Terrorism and Television News: the IRA, the FAIN and
the Red Brigades", in William C. Adams (ed.), Television Coverage of
International Affairs (Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1982).
A.H. Miller (ed.), Terrorism, the Media and the Law (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.:
Transnational, 1982), Introduction, chap. 6.
13. Journalistic Ethics, Freedom of Speech, and The Public's
Right to know
- Does the public have a right to know everything?
- The public's right to know v. assisting terrorism.
- The limits of free speech: Where to draw the lines?
- American ideology and Libya.
Lord Chalfont, "The Price of Sympathy", in Benjamin Netanyahu (Ed.),
Terrorism: How The West Can Win (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1986),
pp. 126-129.
A. Schmid, and J. deGraaf, Violence as Communication (Beverly Hills: Sage,
1982), chaps. 2, 3, 4.
Noam Chomsky, Pirates and Emperors: International Terrorism in the Real
World (N.Y.: Claremont Publications, 1986), chap. 3.
Joseph E. Magnet, "Freedom of the Press and Terrorism", in R. CohenAlmagor (ed.), Liberal Democracy and the Limits of Tolerance (Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press, 2000), pp. 200-214.
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14. The Palestinian Intifada (1987-1993) and the Palestinian
Terror Attack on Israel (2000 - )
- Media coverage of the first and second Intifada.
- The bus bombings.
- Suicide bombrs.
Akiba Cohen and Gadi Wolfsfeld, Framing the Intifada (Norwood, N.J.:
Ablex, 1993), chap. 1
Jim Lederman, Battle Lines - The American Media and the Intifada (N.Y.:
Henry Holt, 1993), pp. 141-169.
Gadi Wolfsfeld, The Role of the News Media in Unequal Political Conflict:
From the Intifada to the Gulf War and Back Again (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1993).
Gadi Wolfsfeld, “The News Media and the Second Intifada: Some Initial
Lessons”, Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, Vol. 6 (2001), pp.
113-118.
Video clip on the PLO.
* Ariel Merari, "Israel Facing Terrorism", in R. Cohen-Almagor (ed.), Israeli Democracy at the
Crossroads (London: Frank Cass, forthcoming).
* Raphael Cohen-Almagor, "The Intifada: Causes, Consequences, and Future Trends”, Small
Wars & Insurgencies, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1991), 12-40.
* Jim Lederman, Battle Lines - The American Media and the Intifada (N.Y.: Henry Holt, 1993),
chap. 1.
15. September 11, 2001: Looking Ahead
- Free speech after September 11, 2001;
- The Patriot Act
- The threat of biological terror.
Brigitte L. Nacos, Mass-Mediated Terrorism (Oxford: Rowman and
Littlefield, 2002), chaps. 2, 6.
Raphael Cohen-Almagor, “Ethical Boundaries to Media Coverage”, Speech,
Media, and Ethics: The Limits of Free Expression (Houndmills and New
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York: Palgrave, 2001). Reprinted from Australian Journal of Communication,
Vol. 26, No. 2 (1999), pp. 11-34.
Benjamin Netanyahu, "Terrorism: How the West Can Win", in Benjamin
Netanyahu (Ed.), Terrorism: How The West Can Win (New York: Farrar,
Straus, Giroux, 1986), pp. 199-226.
* Kelly Amanda Train, "As Long As It's Not in My Backyard: September 11th and Other
Apocalyptic Events", Journal of Mundane Behavior, Vol. 3, No. 3 (September 2002).
*
http://www.eff.org/Privacy/Surveillance/Terrorism_militias/20011025_hr3162_usa_patriot
_bill.html
Video: Attack on America: September 11.
Video clip: biological terror.