AP Psychology Cram Kit I 20
DEMIDEC~
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Vision
VISUAL SENSATION
VISUAL STIMULI
LET THE SUNSHINE IN
DISTAL VS. PROXIMAL STIMULI
The thstalstimulusis the object being perceived as it
exists in the environment. The proximal stimu/usis the
image of the object as it is projected on the retina.
Ins
Pupil
Cornea
Posterior chamber
Anterior chamber
(aqueous humour)
Zonular
fibres
Lens
Retina
Choroid
Sctera
/
FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIP
Cilialy muscle
Suspensory
ligament
humour
Hyaroid
canal
Optic disc
Optic nerve
f~~vea
/
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Retinal
blood vessels
The eye gathers light reflected off of objects.
Different wavelengths of light are perceived as
different colors.
Light enters the eye through the cornea, which helps
protect the outer eye and focus the light.
The light then passes through the pupil, which is
controlled by the iris. The pupil dilates and contracts
to determine how much light passes through.
Through accommodation, the curvature of the lens
changes to focus light. At this point, images are
flipped upside down and mirrored.
The image is projected onto the retina in the back of
the eye. When light activates the neurons in the
retina, it is known as transduction. The retinal cells
include rods and cones. Rods are responsible for
black and white vision and peripheral vision. Cones
are responsible for color vision; they are primarily
located in the fovea (the center of the retina).
When the information passes from the retina to the
occipital lobe, it goes through the optic nerves,
where there is a blind spot with no rods or cones.
The optic nerves cross at the optic chiasma; at this
point, the visual information goes from each side of
the eye to the opposite side of the brain.
The visual cortex of the brain receives the
information. At this point, sensation changes to
perception.
What do you see in this picture?
A vase? Two faces?
The visual field is divided into foreground and back
ground. Perception allows the viewer to distinguish
objects from their surroundings, but a single stimulus
can sometimes be seen in multiple ways.
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION
TRICHROMATIC
OPPONENT PROCESS
G
According to the Young
Helmholtz trichromatic
theory, the eye has
receptors for each of the
primary colors of light:
red, green, and blue.
Stimulating different
combinations of cones
causes the eye to
perceive other colors.
(Note that these primary
colors differ from those
of pigment: red, yellow,
and blue.)
The opponent process
theory suggests that cells
are stimulated and
inhibited by opposite
colors. Opposing colors
are red and green, yellow
and blue, and white and
black. When you stare at
one color for awhile and
then look at a white
background, you should
see its opposing color—
this is called an
afterimage.
AP Psychology Cram Kit I 21
DEMIDEC~
CRAM QUIZ
Vision
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 5
Which of the following colors would a person with
dichromatic color blindness have the least difficulty
seeing?
(A)red
(B) green
(C) black
(D) yellow
(E) blue
What part of the eye is responsible for peripheral vision?
(A) rods
(B) cones
(C) retina
(D) lens
(E) cornea
QUESTION 2
QUESTION 6
Hubel and Wiesel discovered that neurons in the visual
cortex differentiate visual images such as lines, curves,
and motion. What are these neurons called?
(A) prototype stimulators
(B) schema activators
(C) feature detectors
(D) sensory coders
(E) discrimination cells
What is a distal stimulus?
(A) an object that can be perceived with use of
binocular and monocular cues
(B) an object located in the foreground
(C) an object’s sensory information converted into
neural signals
(D) an object as it exists in its environment
(E) an image of an object projected on the retina
QUESTION 3
QUESTION 7
Where are the cones of the eye located?
(A) cornea
(B) iris
(C) optic chiasma
(D)pupil
(E) fovea
If you stare at a blue dot and then look away at a white
piece of paper, what color afterimage will you see?
(A) yellow
(B) green
(C) red
(D)blue
(E) black
QUESTION 4
QUESTION 8
What are the primary colors of light?
(A) red, blue, yellow
(B) white, black, gray
(C) red, blue, green
(D) red, yellow, green
(E) white, black, blue
What process translates sensory stimuli into neural
signals?
(A) accommodation
(B) transduction
(C) dilation
(D) contralateral shift
(E) assimilation
ANSWERS
UUuJO<~<~
AP Psychology Cram Kit I
DEMIDEC~
22
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Vision
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
DEPTH PERCEPTION
LAW OF PRAGNANZ
People tend to perceive objects in a simple
and orderly way.
BINOCULAR CUES
Binocular cues rely on two eyes set apart on the face,
each seeing images from a different angle.
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Proximity. Objects
located close together
are perceived as being
part of the same group
•
Retinal disparity: The more similar the images each
eye sees, the farther away the object is. Large
disparities between the images suggest that the
object is close.
•
Convergence: The eyes turn inward based on the
closeness of the object they are viewing. The closer
the object, the more inward they turn. The brain
uses the angle at which the eyes are turned to
gauge distance.
Closure: The mind fills
in gaps in recognizable
objects in order to make
them complete
Similarity. Objects that
appear similar are
perceived as being part
of the same group
Continuity. Objects
that form a continuous
visual pattern are
perceived as being part
of the same group
PERCEPTUAL PROCESSING
MONOCULAR CUES
Monocular cues rely on one eye gauging distance
independently.
•
•
•
•
Texture gradient: Detailed textures are apparent
close up, but they appear dense from a distance
•
Relative clarity: Objects that appear blurry and
unclear look farther away than those that are crisp
and easy to see
•
Motion parallax: Distant objects appear to move
slowly and in the same direction as the viewer,
while close objects seem to move quickly and in the
opposite direction as the viewer
BOTTOM-UP VS. TOP-DOWN
Bottom-up processing involves breaking an
object down into its parts. It is also called feature
analysis because the feature detectors in the brain
recognize the different elements of the objects.
These components are built together into the
overall image.
Top-down processing uses prior experiences
to identify objects. Schemata are mental
representations of the world based on experience;
they can create perceptual sets, which predispose
people to view the world in a certain way.
Perceptual sets can influence top-down
processing, which is faster (but less accurate)
than bottom-up processing.
THE CHT
The second letter of each of these words is
ambiguously shaped. Experience allows us to read
“the cat,” but breaking up the elements of these
words would not allow us to identify them.
Linear perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge
in the distance
Interposition: Objects that block the view of other
objects appear closer
Relative size: Objects that are farther away project
smaller images on the retina than closer objects
PERCEPTION AND CULTURE
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
“Carpentered” cultures that use many right angles see
the top lines as having different lengths. Cultures that
do not have as many right angles and corners can
usually see that the lines are the same length.
AP Psychology Cram Kit I 23
DEMIDEC~
CRAM QUIZ
Vision
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 5
When a series of lights turn on and off in succession at a
steady rate, they cause an effect known as the
(A) Phi phenomenon
(B) Motion parallax
(C) Autokinetic effect
(D) Stroboscopic effect
(E) Optical flow
Which of the following is not included in the law of
pragnanz?
(A) Texture
(B) Similarity
(C) Proximity
(D) Continuity
(E) Closure
QUESTION 2
QUESTION 6
Which of the following researchers studied the
development of depth perception using the visual cliff?
(A) Sherif
(B) Asch
(C) Weber
(D) Gibson
(E) Wiesel
Which of the following monocular cues indicates that an
object is close by?
(A) The object looks extremely different from one eye
to the other.
(B) The object is blocked from view by another object.
(C) The object does not appear crisp.
(D) The object appears to move slowly in the same
direction as the viewer.
(E) The object appears to have detailed textures.
QUESTION 3
QUESTION 7
Which of the following is not a monocular cue to depth
perception?
(A) Interposition
(B) Convergence
(C) Relative clarity
(D) Motion parallax
(E) Linear perspective
According to the law of similarity, when are objects
grouped together?
(A) When they are located close together
(B) When they form a continuous visual pattern
(C) When they look alike
(D) When they have gaps that can be filled by the
mind
(E) When they move in the same direction
QUESTION 4
QUESTION 8
On what does top-down processing rely most?
(A) Feature analysis
(B) Prototypes
(C) Signal detection
(D) Threshold detection
(E) Experience
What effect explains why still lights appear to move in
the darkness?
(A) phi phenomenon
(B) motion parallax
(C) autokinetic effect
(D) stroboscopic effect
(E) optical flow
ANSWERS
DEMIDEC~
AP Psychology Cram Kit
I 24
SENSATION AND PERC~EPTION
Hearing
AUDITORY SENSATION
PITCH THEORIES
CAN YOU HEAR ME NOW?
PLACE VS. FREQUNCY
r
Stapes
oval window)
Malleus
Semicircular
Canals
Incus
Vestibular
Nerve
~
(attached to
cociiiear
Nerve
‘N.
External
AuditoryCanal
T~’nipanic
Membrane
cochiea
lympanic
EustachianTube
Round
Frequency Theory
The hair cells in
the cochlea fire at
different
frequencies. Low
pitched sounds
can be sensed by
the rate of firing.
Place Theory
Sound waves are
generated at
different locations
in the cochlea.
High and low
pitches depend on
which hair cells
vibrate.
Window
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sound waves enter the ear through the outer ear, or
pinna.
The waves travel through the ear canal until they
reach the eardrum, or tympanic membrane, which
vibrates when hit by the waves.
The eardrum is attached to three bones called the
ossicles; individually, they are the hammer
(malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes). The
vibration passes through these bones to the oval
window.
The oval window passes the vibration on to the
cochlea, which is located in the basilar membrane
and the organ of Corti.
The sound waves are then transferred to the
auditory nerve and into the temporal lobe.
AMPLITUDE AND FRE UENCY
The amplltua’e of sound waves is their height. It
determines their loudness and is measured in decibels.
The frequency of the waves is a measure of their
length. It determines their pitch and is measured in
megahertz. High frequency is associated with high
pitch and densely packed waves. Low frequency is
associated with low pitch and loosely packed waves.
r
DEAFNESS
Conduction Deafness
• Results from damage to the middle or
outer ear
• The problem occurs before sound is
conducted to the cochlea
Sensorineural Deafness
• Also known as nerve deafness
• Results from damage to the cochlea or
auditory cortex
• When hair cells degenerate, they will
not regrow
• Can be caused by loud noises
AP Psychology Cram Kit I 25
DEMIDEC~
CRAM QUIZ
Hearing
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 5
Which of the following controls the decibel level of
sound waves?
(A) amplitude
(B) frequency
(C) pitch
(D) vibration location
(E) transduction
What is the highest frequency humans can hear?
(A)20 Hz
(B) 200 Hz
(C) 2,000 Hz
(D)20,000 Hz
(E) 200,000 Hz
QUESTION 2
QUESTION 6
What is the collective name for the hammer, anvil, and
stirrup?
(A) tympanic membrane
(B) ossicles
(C) cochlea
(D) organ of Corti
(E) basilar membrane
Which structure is the beginning of the inner ear?
(A) tympanic membrane
(B) ossicles
(C) organ of Corti
(D)vestibular sacs
(E) oval window
QUESTION 3
QUESTION 7
What part of the ear is responsible for balance?
(A) incus
(B) cochlea
(C) vestibular sacs
(D) eardrum
(E) malleus
Which of the following statements is true according to
the volley principle?
(A) Receptor cells have a fixed firing capacity.
(B) Receptor cells alternate firing.
(C) Receptor cells decrease their firing intensity over
time.
(D) Receptor cells fire simultaneously.
(E) Receptor cells generate lengthy pulses
QUESTION 4
QUESTION 8
Which of the following is caused by damage to the outer
or middle ears?
(A) sensorineural deafness
(B) tinnitus
(C) otitis externa
(D) conductive deafness
(E) nerve deafness
Why is sensorineural deafness harder to treat than
conduction deafness?
(A) It involves permanent hair cell destruction.
(B) It is caused by genetics.
(C) It destroys the brain’s ability to comprehend
noise.
(D) It involves permanent eardrum destruction.
(E) It occurs before language skills are learned.
ANSWERS
AP Psychology Cram Kit I 26
DEMIDEC~
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Senses, Thresholds, and Attention
TOUCH, TASTE, SMELL, AND BODY SENSES
THRESHOLDS
BEYOND THE SIXTH SENSE
MAKING A DIFFERENCE
Detection
TOUCH
•
Skin has cutaneous and tactile receptors, which
provide information about pressure, pain, and
temperature
•
Pressure and movement receptor cells are
myelinated; pain and temperature receptor cells are
not myelinated
DifferenI~areas of the body havevarying numbers of
nerveehdings; for example, the fing~rtips are more
sensitivè~to touch~thah the e!bow.
•
•
•
Pain serves as a warning systeth tdprevënt injury
According to the gate-contr.ol theory of pain, high
priority messages temporarily shut the ~te on low
priority messages; if you rub ydur hand after
smashing it against something, the pain will be
reduced by the rubbing sensation
TASTE/GUSTATION
The tongue is covered in bumps called papillae,
which contain the taste buds
•
The basic tastes are sweet, salty, bitter, and sour
•
People have varying levels of sensitivity to taste;
densely packed taste buds lead to stronger taste
Flavor is a combination of taste and smell
SMELL/OLFACTORY
• Chernicalmoleculesin the air ar.e drawn into the
: .nose,.Where they reach themucoàsmeh,~rane
•
Absolute threshold
Minimal amount of
stimulation necessary
to detect stimulus at
least half the time
(
Signal detection
theory
Therearefour
j potential outcomes in
a detection trial: hit,
miss, false alarm, and
correct rejection
I
(
Just noticeable
difference
Minimum distance
between stimuli
necessary to detect
l~ them as distinct
—~
{ I
Weber’s law
The difference
threshold is
proportional to the
intensity of the
stimulus
HABITUATION
CH-CH-CHANGES
•
•
Discrimination
Up to 100 kinds of receptor cells absorb sFnells and
send th~ sensory information directly ~to ‘the limbic
s~t~r~i
Habituation: Decreased response to a stimulus after
repeated exposure for a period of time; this is a primarily
unconscious process, but the stimulus can still be
detected if the subject is asked to pay attention to it.
Dishabituation: A slight change in the stimulus causes
it to be noticeable again.
Sensory adaptation: Unconscious change in the
sensory system’s response to a stimulus; the senses tire
out after constant exposure to the stimulus; this change
cannot be controlled like habituation.
ATTENTION
..
VESTIBULAR
•
This sense informs the body of its orientation and
balance
•
Canals in the inner ear contain fluid; when the head
moves, the fluid moves; the sensors then alert the
brain of where the body is
•
-,
If the fluid moves around a lot, the individual may
experience dizziness
KINESTHETIC
•
This sense gives the brain information about ~here
specific body parts are located
u
Tf~ej~,uscles and joints keep track of where all the
body parts are and how they are oriented
GETTING NOTICED
Attention is the processing of a limited amount of
information taken out of the massive amount brought
in by all the senses.
Selective attention involves focusing on one thing while
ignoring another. The cocktail party phenomenon
exemplifies this type: while talking in a noisy room, one
can still usually hear his name mentioned in another
conversation; though the person is consciously focusing
on his own conversation, he is still filtering information
from the rest of the room.
Divided attention involves attempting to focus on
multiple things simultaneously. This is increasingly
difficult when the stimuli being focused on activate the
same sense.
AP Psychology Cram Kit I 27
DEMlDEc~
CRAM QUIZ
Senses, Thresholds, Attention
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 5
Who proposed the filter theory of selective attention?
(A) Broadbent
(B) Weber
(C) Fechner
(D) Hubel
(E) Wiesel
Who founded the field of psychophysics?
(A) Broadbent
(B) Weber
(C) Fechner
(D) Hubel
(E) Wiesel
QUESTION 2
QUESTION 6
Which of the following is not a potential outcome of
signal detection theory?
(A) hit
(B) miss
(C) bias
(D) false alarm
(E) correct rejection
The body’s ability to stop noticing the sensation of
clothing on the body can be attributed to
(A) habituation
(B) dishabituation
(C) sensory adaptation
(D) selective attention
(E) divided attention
QUESTION 3
QUESTION 7
The vestibular sense receives information from the
(A) muscles
(B) joints
(C) outer ear
(D) inner ear
(E) papillae
Which of the following stimuli would require the
greatest change in intensity for the difference between
stimuli to be noticeable?
(A) faint scent
(B) light-weight object
(C) soft touch
(D) subtle taste
(E) loud noise
QUESTION 4
QUESTION 8
A research participant performs a dichotomous listening
task, hearing a different message in each ear. The
participant is asked to repeat one of the messages; this
is known as
(A) filtering
(B) shadowing
(C) allocating
CD) resourcing
(E) echoing
Which of the following topics would not be studied in
the field of parapsychology?
(A) clairvoyance
(B) psychokinesis
(C) telepathy
(D) precognition
(E) kinesthesis
ANSWERS
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