The Manifesto Category Scheme for Classifying Policy Preferences
Since 1979, the Manifesto Project has been collecting and coding election programs with
the aim of estimating policy preferences of political parties. Detailed descriptions of
this project can be found in Budge et al. (1987, 2001), Laver and Budge (1992), and
Klingemann et al. (1994, 2006). Using the traditional content analytical method, native
coders are first trained and then hired to code party manifestos according to a
handbook.
The handbook (now in its fourth version) describes in detail how to select the
documents, how to identify the coding units, and how to apply the category scheme. The
coding process comprises two steps: a) unitising (how many unique statements do
parties make?) and b) coding (what kind of statements do parties make?). The general
rule for unitising is that every sentence is one unit of analysis, except in case the
sentence comprises more than one unique policy statement. In the latter case, the
sentence is cut into as many quasi-sentences as there are statements. While unitising is
a central feature of the whole process, the focus of this introduction is on the second
step, the application of the categories. The category scheme comprises 56 categories,
which are grouped into seven major policy areas and are designed to be comparable
between parties, countries, elections, and across time. Several rules guide the process of
applying these categories. First, coders are asked to read every single quasi-sentence
and discern its central message. Then they should allocate the one category to this
quasi-sentence, which captures its central message. For the common case that the
central message is not easily condensable, several rules are provided for in the
handbook. These tell coders how to differentiate between the stated goal and the tools
to reach them, to handle rhetorical means, and to use several levels of context to help in
their decision-making.
A first version of the classification scheme was developed by David Robertson (1976:
73-75) for analysing modes of party competition in Britain and the USA. In 1979, the
‘‘Manifesto Research Group’’ (MRG) was constituted as a research group of the European
Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) by scholars interested in a comparative
content-analytic approach on policy preferences of parties. The development of the
coding scheme was a mix between deductive and inductive approaches. On the one
hand, it rests on the issues defining the classical cleavages described by Lipset and
Rokkan. On the other hand, the categories resulting from the cleavage approach were
expanded to issues that were found while coding real life manifestos and deemed
important to accurately describe the political competition of the countries under
scrutiny. Since 1979, the classification scheme was extended and revised to fit
additional, mainly European, countries. After 1989, Central and Eastern European
countries were added to the project. During these revision phases, the main concern of
the project was always to keep continuity. The purpose of the project has always been to
provide data that is comparable over time and regions. Therefore, the main category
scheme was mainly kept constant. So far, it travelled well into new countries and
regions.
Next to measuring the salience of single issues and issue groups, a central concern has
always been to provide a category scheme on which aggregated measures, such as the
left-right dimension, can be based. Therefore, most categories have an inherent
underlying directionality, which needs to be kept. While some are obvious antipodes to
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each other –– usually denoted as a ‘‘positive’’ and a ‘‘negative’’ category –– many categories
are built on the salience assumption that disagreement with a general position is
expressed by not mentioning the issue instead of taking a negative viewpoint (e.g. on
environmental protection). Therefore, these categories also have a clear directionality,
which is always positive. It is important, then, that all issues and statements falling into
this category, have the same (positive) tendency and that they do not contradict each
other.
With the extension of the project to Latin America, the question arises again whether
the category scheme originally developed for Western Europe and Anglo-Saxon
countries travels into another region. Two concerns are at the core of this question:
Firstly, does the category scheme reproduce all cleavages and other main political
conflict lines in Latin America? This concern would lead to a decision whether new
categories need to be introduced or whether existent definitions need to be broadened
or specified. Secondly, are the categories defined in such a way that they do not
encompass issues that belong to totally different parts of the political spectrum? The
policies that fall under one category should not contradict each other (too much) within
the logic of the political competition. Our central concern remains twofold: (1)
Adequately measuring the political competition in the countries incorporated into the
data collection, and (2) keeping a high level of continuity in order to ensure
comparability over regions.
On the following pages, you will find the categories and their definitions. Please note
that, in general, the definitions do not list every issue and policy that fall into each
category. The definitions state the categories’’ basic logic and provide central and easily
transferable examples.
Category Scheme
NOTE: Every negative category includes all references of the positive category but
negative. For instance, ‘‘Military: Negative’’ is the reversal of all ‘‘Military: Positive’’
statements.
DOMAIN 1: External Relations
101 Foreign Special Relationships: Positive
Favourable mentions of particular countries with which the manifesto country has a
special relationship; the need for co-operation with and/or aid to such countries.
102 Foreign Special Relationships: Negative
Negative mentions of particular countries with which the manifesto country has a
special relationship.
These special relationships should be predetermined on a case by case basis. Refer to the
supervisor for detailed information and attach a list of special relations to the coding
protocol.
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103 Anti-Imperialism
Negative references to imperial behaviour and/or negative references to one state
exerting strong influence (political, military or commercial) over other states. May also
include:
x negative references to controlling other countries as if they were part of an
empire;
x favourable references to greater self-government and independence for
colonies;
x favourable mentions of de-colonisation.
104 Military: Positive
The importance of external security and defence. May include statements concerning:
x the need to maintain or increase military expenditure;
x the need to secure adequate manpower in the military;
x the need to modernise armed forces and improve military strength;
x the need for rearmament and self-defence;
x the need to keep military treaty obligations.
105 Military: Negative
Negative references to the military or use of military power to solve conflicts.
References to the ‘‘evils of war’’. May include references to:
x decreasing military expenditures;
x disarmament;
x reduced or abolished conscription.
106 Peace
Any declaration of belief in peace and peaceful means of solving crises -- absent
reference to the military. May include:
x peace as a general goal;
x desirability of countries joining in negotiations with hostile countries;
x ending wars in order to establish peace.
107 Internationalism: Positive
Need for international co-operation, including co-operation with specific countries
other than those coded in 101. May also include references to the:
x need for aid to developing countries;
x need for world planning of resources;
x support for global governance;
x need for international courts;
x support for UN or other international organisations.
108 European Community/Union: Positive
Favourable mentions of European Community/Union in general. May include the:
x desirability of the manifesto country joining (or remaining a member);
x desirability of expanding the European Community/Union;
x desirability of increasing the ECs/EUs competences;
x desirability of expanding the competences of the European Parliament.
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109 Internationalism: Negative
Negative references to international co-operation. Favourable mentions of national
independence and sovereignty with regard to the manifesto country’’s foreign policy,
isolation and/or unilateralism as opposed to internationalism.
110 European Community/Union: Negative
Negative references to the European Community/Union. May include:
x opposition to specific European policies which are preferred by European
authorities;
x opposition to the net-contribution of the manifesto country to the EU budget.
DOMAIN 2: Freedom and Democracy
201 Freedom and Human Rights
Favourable mentions of importance of personal freedom and civil rights in the
manifesto and other countries. May include mentions of:
x the right to the freedom of speech, press, assembly etc.;
x freedom from state coercion in the political and economic spheres;
x freedom from bureaucratic control;
x the idea of individualism.
202 Democracy
Favourable mentions of democracy as the ““only game in town””. General support for the
manifesto country’’s democracy. May also include:
x democracy as method or goal in national, international or other organisations
(e.g. labour unions, political parties etc.);
x the need for the involvement of all citizens in political decision-making;
x support for either direct or representative democracy;
x support for parts of democratic regimes (rule of law, division of powers,
independence of courts etc.).
203 Constitutionalism: Positive
Support for maintaining the status quo of the constitution. Support for specific aspects
of the manifesto country’’s constitution. The use of constitutionalism as an argument for
any policy.
204 Constitutionalism: Negative
Opposition to the entirety or specific aspects of the manifesto country’’s constitution.
Calls for constitutional amendments or changes. May include calls to abolish or rewrite
the current constitution.
DOMAIN 3: Political System
301 Federalism
Support for federalism or decentralisation of political and/or economic power. May
include:
x favourable mentions of the territorial subsidiary principle;
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x
x
x
more autonomy for any sub-national level in policy making and/or economics;
support for the continuation and importance of local and regional customs and
symbols and/or deference to local expertise;
favourable mentions of special consideration for sub-national areas.
302 Centralisation
General opposition to political decision-making at lower political levels. Support for
unitary government and for more centralisation in political and administrative
procedures.
303 Governmental and Administrative Efficiency
Need for efficiency and economy in government and administration and/or the general
appeal to make the process of government and administration cheaper and more
efficient. May include:
x restructuring the civil service;
x cutting down on the civil service;
x improving bureaucratic procedures.
Note: Specific policy positions overrule this category! If there is no specific policy position,
however, this category applies.
304 Political Corruption
Need to eliminate political corruption and associated abuses of political and/or
bureaucratic power.
305 Political Authority
References to the manifesto party’’s competence to govern and/or other party’’s lack of
such competence. Also includes favourable mentions of the desirability of a strong
and/or stable government in general.
Note: Specific policy positions overrule this category! If there is no specific policy position,
however, this category applies.
DOMAIN 4: Economy
401 Free Market Economy
Favourable mentions of the free market and free market capitalism as an economic
model. May include favourable references to:
x laissez-faire economy;
x superiority of individual enterprise over state and control systems;
x private property rights;
x personal enterprise and initiative;
x need for unhampered individual enterprises.
402 Incentives
Favourable mentions of supply side oriented economic policies (assistance to businesses
rather than consumers). May include:
x financial and other incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks etc.;
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x
x
wage and tax policies to induce enterprise;
encouragement to start enterprises.
403 Market Regulation
Support for policies designed to create a fair and open economic market. May include:
x calls for increased consumer protection;
x increasing economic competition by preventing monopolies and other actions
disrupting the functioning of the market;
x defence of small businesses against disruptive powers of big businesses;
x social market economy.
404 Economic Planning
Favourable mentions of long-standing economic planning by the government. May be:
x policy plans, strategies, policy patterns etc.;
x of a consultative or indicative nature.
405 Corporatism/ Mixed Economy
Favourable mentions of cooperation of government, employers, and trade unions
simultaneously. The collaboration of employers and employee organisations in overall
economic planning supervised by the state.
406 Protectionism: Positive
Favourable mentions of extending or maintaining the protection of internal markets
(by the manifesto or other countries). Measures may include:
x tariffs;
x quota restrictions;
x export subsidies.
407 Protectionism: Negative
Support for the concept of free trade and open markets. Call for abolishing all means of
market protection (in the manifesto or any other country).
408 Economic Goals
Broad and general economic goals that are not mentioned in relation to any other
category. General economic statements that fail to include any specific goal.
Note: Specific policy positions overrule this category! If there is no specific policy position,
however, this category applies.
409 Keynesian Demand Management
Favourable mentions of demand side oriented economic policies (assistance to
consumers rather than businesses). Particularly includes increase private demand
through
x increasing public demand;
x increasing social expenditures.
May also include:
x stabilisation in the face of depression;
x government stimulus plans in the face of economic crises.
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410 Economic Growth: Positive
The paradigm of economic growth. Includes:
x general need to encourage or facilitate greater production;
x need for the government to take measures to aid economic growth.
411 Technology and Infrastructure
Importance of modernisation of industry and updated methods of transport and
communication. May include:
x importance of science and technological developments in industry;
x need for training and research within the economy (This does not imply
education in general (see category 506);
x calls for public spending on infrastructure such as roads and bridges;
x support for public spending on technological infrastructure (e.g.: broadband
internet, etc.).
412 Controlled Economy
Support for direct government control of economy. May include, for instance:
x control over prices;
x introduction of minimum wages.
413 Nationalisation
Favourable mentions of government ownership of industries, either partial or complete.
May also include favourable mentions of government ownership of land.
414 Economic Orthodoxy
Need for economically healthy government policy making. May include calls for:
x reduction of budget deficits;
x retrenchment in crisis;
x thrift and savings in the face of economic hardship;
x support for traditional economic institutions such as stock market and banking
system;
x support for strong currency.
415 Marxist Analysis: Positive
Positive references to Marxist-Leninist ideology and specific use of Marxist-Leninist
terminology by the manifesto party (typically but not necessary by communist parties).
Note: If unsure about what constitutes Marxist-Leninist ideology in general or terminology
in a particular language, please research.
416 Anti-Growth Economy: Positive
Favourable mentions of anti-growth politics. Rejection of the idea that all growth is
good growth. Opposition to growth that causes environmental or societal harm. Call for
sustainable economic development.
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DOMAIN 5: Welfare and Quality of Life
501 Environmental Protection: Positive
General policies in favour of protecting the environment, fighting climate change, and
other ““green”” policies. For instance:
x general preservation of natural resources;
x preservation of countryside, forests, etc.;
x protection of national parks;
x animal rights.
May include a great variance of policies that have the unified goal of environmental
protection.
502 Culture: Positive
Need for state funding of cultural and leisure facilities including arts and sport. May
include:
x the need to fund museums, art galleries, libraries etc.;
x the need to encourage cultural mass media and worthwhile leisure activities,
such as public sport clubs.
503 Equality: Positive
Concept of social justice and the need for fair treatment of all people. This may include:
x special protection for underprivileged social groups;
x removal of class barriers;
x need for fair distribution of resources;
x the end of discrimination (e.g. racial or sexual discrimination).
504 Welfare State Expansion
Favourable mentions of need to introduce, maintain or expand any public social service
or social security scheme. This includes, for example, government funding of:
x health care
x child care
x elder care and pensions
x social housing
Note: This category excludes education.
505 Welfare State Limitation
Limiting state expenditures on social services or social security. Favourable mentions of
the social subsidiary principle (i.e. private care before state care);
506 Education Expansion
Need to expand and/or improve educational provision at all levels.
Note: This excludes technical training which is coded under 411.
507 Education Limitation
Limiting state expenditure on education. May include:
x the introduction or expansion of study fees at all educational levels;
x increasing the number of private schools.
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DOMAIN 6: Fabric of Society
601 National Way of Life: Positive
Favourable mentions of the manifesto country’’s nation, history, and general appeals.
May include:
x support for established national ideas;
x general appeals to pride of citizenship;
x appeals to patriotism;
x appeals to nationalism;
x suspension of some freedoms in order to protect the state against subversion.
602 National Way of Life: Negative
Unfavourable mentions of the manifesto country’’s nation and history. May include:
x opposition to patriotism;
x opposition to nationalism;
x opposition to the existing national state, national pride, and national ideas.
603 Traditional Morality: Positive
Favourable mentions of traditional and/or religious moral values. May include:
x prohibition, censorship and suppression of immorality and unseemly behaviour;
x maintenance and stability of the traditional family as a value;
x support for the role of religious institutions in state and society.
604 Traditional Morality: Negative
Opposition to traditional and/or religious moral values. May include:
x support for divorce, abortion etc.;
x general support for modern family composition;
x calls for the separation of church and state.
605 Law and Order: Positive
Favourable mentions of strict law enforcement, and tougher actions against domestic
crime. Only refers to the enforcement of the status quo of the manifesto country’’s law
code. May include:
x increasing support and resources for the police;
x tougher attitudes in courts;
x importance of internal security.
606 Civic Mindedness: Positive
Appeals for national solidarity and the need for society to see itself as united. Calls for
solidarity with and help for fellow people, familiar and unfamiliar. May include:
x favourable mention of the civil society;
x decrying anti-social attitudes in times of crisis;
x appeal for public spiritedness;
x support for the public interest.
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607 Multiculturalism: Positive
Favourable mentions of cultural diversity and cultural plurality within domestic
societies. May include the preservation of autonomy of religious, linguistic heritages
within the country including special educational provisions.
608 Multiculturalism: Negative
The enforcement or encouragement of cultural integration. Appeals for cultural
homogeneity in society.
DOMAIN 7: Social Groups
Note: Specific policy positions overrule this domain (except 703)! If there is no specific
policy position, however, these categories apply.
701 Labour Groups: Positive
Favourable references to all labour groups, the working class, and unemployed workers
in general. Support for trade unions and calls for the good treatment of all employees,
including:
x more jobs;
x good working conditions;
x fair wages ;
x pension provisions etc.
702 Labour Groups: Negative
Negative references to labour groups and trade unions. May focus specifically on the
danger of unions ‘‘abusing power’’.
703 Agriculture and Farmers: Positive
Specific policies in favour of agriculture and farmers. Includes all types of agriculture
and farming practises. Only statements that have agriculture as the key goal should be
included in this category.
Note: Statements that should be categorized as ““Agriculture: Negative”” are coded as ““000””
704 Middle Class and Professional Groups
General favourable references to the middle class. Specifically, statements may include
references to:
x professional groups, (e.g.: doctors or lawyers);
x white collar groups, (e.g.: bankers or office employees),
x service sector groups (e.g.: IT industry employees);
x old and/or new middle class.
Note: This is not an economical category but refers to the social group(s).
705 Underprivileged Minority Groups
Very general favourable references to underprivileged minorities who are defined
neither in economic nor in demographic terms (e.g. the handicapped, homosexuals,
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immigrants). Only includes favourable statements that cannot be classified in other
categories (e.g. 503, 504, 604 etc.)
706 Non-economic Demographic Groups
General favourable mentions of demographically defined special interest groups of all
kinds. They may include:
x women;
x university students;
x old, young, or middle aged people.
x might include references to assistance to these groups, but only if these do not
fall under other categories (e.g. 503 or 504).
000 No meaningful category applies
Statements not covered by other categories; sentences devoid of any meaning.
The Subcategory Scheme
Subcategories were developed during prior phases of the Manifesto Project. They are
still in use but they raise some problems. (1) Most of them have a country- or areaspecific bias. Being developed by country experts concerned with specifics of singular
elections and singular parties, most of them are virtually empty. (2) Two of them even
contradict the logic of the main categories into which they are supposed to be
aggregated. Fortunately, these subcategories primarily pertain to Central and Eastern
European countries during the first years of the post-communist transition period,
only.
Given our previous experience with coder-developed subcategories, we would like to
keep the number of newly introduced subcategories for Latin America as small as
possible. They should only be developed in case a very important aspect of the political
competition runs counter to the general meaning of the main category and in case this
aspect is present in a sufficient number of countries. Therefore, we don’’t want our new
coders to develop subcategories for single countries.
However, it might be necessary to introduce new subcategories. This is the case when
issues already incorporated in the existing category scheme have a completely different
meaning in the Latin American context and, therefore, should not be conflated into the
same main category. We are thankful for every hint into this direction.
Definition of Subcategories
1011 Russia/USSR/CIS: Positive
Favourable mentions of Russia, the USSR, the CMEA bloc or the Community of
Independent States.
1012 Western States: Positive
Favourable mentions of Western states, including the USA and Germany.
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1013 Eastern European Countries: positive
Favourable mentions of Eastern European countries in general.
1014 Baltic States: Positive
Favourable mentions of the Baltic states, including other states bordering the Baltic Sea.
1015 Nordic Council: Positive
Favourable mentions of the Nordic Council.
1016 SFR Yugoslavia: Positive
Favourable mentions of countries formerly belonging to SFR Yugoslavia including
special relationships with Montenegro, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia and BosniaHerzegovina.
1021 Russia/USSR/CIS: Negative
Negative mentions of Russia, the USSR or the Community of Independent States.
1022 Western States: Negative
Negative mentions of Western states, including the USA and Germany.
1023 East European Countries: Negative
Negative mentions of Eastern European countries in general.
1024 Baltic States: Negative
Negative references to the Baltic states.
1025 Nordic Council: Negative
Negative references to the Nordic Council.
1026 SFR Yugoslavia: Negative
Negative mentions of countries formerly belonging to SFR Yugoslavia including
negative references to Montenegro, Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia and BosniaHercegovina.
1031 Russian Army: Negative
Need to withdraw the Russian army from the territory of the manifesto country; need
to receive reparations for the damage caused by the Russian army or other Soviet
institutions.
1032 Independence: Positive
Favourable mentions of the independence and sovereignty of the manifesto country.
1033 Rights of Nations: Positive
Favourable mentions of freedom, rights and interests of nations.
2021 Transition to Democracy
General references to the transition process of one-party states to pluralist democracy.
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2022 Restrictive Citizenship
Favourable mentions of restrictions in citizenship; restrictions in enfranchisement with
respect to (ethnic) groups.
2023 Lax Citizenship
Favourable mentions of lax citizenship and election laws; no or few restrictions in
enfranchisement.
2031 Presidential Regime: Positive
Positive mentioning of the presidential system within the context of an existing
presidential system (subcategory of 203); statements in favour of a powerful presidency
(subcategory of 204 for parliamentary regimes).
2032 Republic: Positive
Support for the republican form of government as opposed to monarchy.
2033 Checks and Balances (to be coded for Mexico, only)
Support for checks and balances and separation of powers, and specifically for limiting
the powers of the presidency by increasing legislative/judicial powers, or transferring
some executive powers to the legislature or judiciary.
2041 Monarchy: Positive
Support for a monarchy, including conceptions of constitutional monarchy.
3011 Republican Powers: Positive
Favourable mentions of stronger republican powers.
3051 Public Situation: Negative
Negative references to the situation in public life after the founding elections.
3052 Communist: Positive
Co-operation with former authorities/communists in the transition period; procommunist involvement in the transition process; and 'let sleeping dogs lie' in dealing
with the nomenclature.
3053 Communist: Negative
Against communist involvement in democratic government; weeding out the
collaborators from governmental service; need for political coalition except communist
parties.
3054 Rehabilitation and Compensation
References to civic rehabilitation of politically persecuted people in the communist era;
references to juridical compensation concerning communist expropriations; moral
compensation.
3055 Political Coalitions
References to the need of broader political coalition; need for co-operation at the
political level; necessity of collaboration among all political forces.
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4011 Privatisation: Positive
Favourable references to privatisation.
4012 Control of Economy: Negative
Negative references to the general need for direct governmental control of the
economy.
4013 Property-Restitution: Positive
Favourable references to the physical restitution of property to previous owners.
4014 Privatisation Vouchers: Positive
Favourable references to privatisation vouchers.
4121 Social Ownership: Positive
Favourable references to the creation or preservation of co-operative or non-state
social ownership within a market economy.
4122 Mixed Economy: Positive
Favourable references to mixed ownership within a market economy.
4123 Publicly-Owned Industry: Positive
Positive references to the concept of publicly-owned industries.
4124 Socialist Property: Positive
Positive references to socialist property, including public and co-operative property;
negative references to privatisation.
4131 Property-Restitution: Negative
Negative references to the physical restitution of property to previous owners.
4132 Privatisation: Negative
Negative references to the privatisation system; need to change the privatisation
system.
5021 Private-Public Mix in Culture
Necessity of private provisions due to economic constraints; private funding in addition
to public activity.
5031 Private-Public Mix in Social Justice
Necessity of private initiatives due to economic constraints.
5041 Private-Public Mix in Welfare
Necessity of private welfare provisions due to economic constraints; desirability of
competition in welfare service provisions; private funding in addition to public activity.
5061 Private-Public Mix in Education
Necessity of private education due to economic constraints; desirability of competition
in education.
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6011 The Karabakh Issue
Positive references to the unity of Karabakh and Armenia or the recognition of the
independent
Republic of Karabakh; rendering assistance to Karabakh.
6012 Rebuilding the USSR
Favourable mentions of the reunification of all republics and nations living on the
former territory of the USSR into a new common (democratic) state or into a common
economic space whereby the new union would be the guarantor of the manifesto
country's sovereignty; negative references to the dissolution of the USSR and the
respective treaties.
6013 National Security
Support for or need to maintain national security in all spheres of social life; policies
devoted to this
goal.
6014 Cyprus Issue (to be coded for Cyprus, only)
All references concerning the division of Cyprus in a Greek and a Turkish part.
6061 General Crisis
Identification of a general crisis in the country.
6071 Cultural Autonomy: Positive
Favourable mentions of cultural autonomy.
6072 Multiculturalism pro Roma
Favourable mentions of cultural autonomy of Roma.
6081 Multiculturalism against Roma
Negative mentions of cultural autonomy of Roma.
7051 Minorities Inland
References to manifesto country minorities in foreign countries; positive references to
manifesto country minorities.
7052 Minorities Abroad
References to ethnic minorities living in the manifesto country such as Latvians living
in Estonia.
7061 War Participants
Favourable mentions of, or need for, assistance to people taking part in the war, for
instance on the territory of ex-Yugoslavia, Korea etc.
7062 Refugees
Favourable mentions of, or need for, assistance to people who left their homes because
of the war (for instance, on the territory of ex-Yugoslavia) or were forcibly displaced.
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