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Contents
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................1
Cities...........................................................................................................................................2
Urban evolution .....................................................................................................................2
Function of urban settlements ..............................................................................................3
Population size of urban areas ..............................................................................................3
Urban revolution....................................................................................................................3
Types of urban settlements ...................................................................................................4
World cities ................................................................................................................................5
What are world cities?...........................................................................................................5
Functions of world cities........................................................................................................6
Characteristics of world cities................................................................................................7
Spatial distribution of world cities.......................................................................................10
Operations of the global network of world cities................................................................12
Interaction between world cities and other urban areas....................................................13
Dominance .......................................................................................................................13
Dependence .....................................................................................................................13
Mega cities ...............................................................................................................................15
Why study megacities? ........................................................................................................15
Spatial distribution of megacities ........................................................................................15
Megacities in developed and developing countries ............................................................16
Growth patterns of megacities in LEDCs and MEDCs......................................................17
Characteristics of Megacities...............................................................................................19
Social characteristics:.......................................................................................................19
Economical characteristics:..............................................................................................19
Ecological characteristics: ................................................................................................19
Sustainable development in megacities ..................................................................................20
Sustainable development ....................................................................................................20
Challenges before megacities ..............................................................................................21
Soil and groundwater problems ......................................................................................22
Sewage .............................................................................................................................22
Air pollution .....................................................................................................................22
Solid Waste Management................................................................................................23
Infectious diseases...........................................................................................................24
Traffic and spatial problems ............................................................................................25
Water ...............................................................................................................................27
Housing ............................................................................................................................27
Solutions to ensure sustainable development in megacities ..............................................31
Urban Dynamics.......................................................................................................................34
Urbanization.........................................................................................................................34
Suburbanization ...................................................................................................................34
Exurbanization .....................................................................................................................35
Counter-urbanization...........................................................................................................36
Decentralization...................................................................................................................37
Urban decay .........................................................................................................................37
Urban renewal .....................................................................................................................39
Urban sprawl........................................................................................................................41
Urban villages.......................................................................................................................41
Effects of population movement into urban villages ......................................................42
Future of Megacities ................................................................................................................43
Futuristic cities .....................................................................................................................43
Retrofitting megacities to become sustainable cities .........................................................44
. Case Studies ...........................................................................................................................47
1. Green neighbourhoods ....................................................................................................47
2. Transport..........................................................................................................................47
3. Sustainable Energy Consumption: Iceland ......................................................................48
4. Waste removal .................................................................................................................49
Introduction
th
In the 19 century, only 3 percent of the
world's population lived in urban areas. By
th
the beginning of the 20 century, almost
14 percent of the population was urban,
although only 12 cities had 1 million or
more inhabitants. In 1950, 30 percent of
the world's population resided in urban
centres.
Global urbanization is the megatrend of the new
millennium. In 2008, for the first time in the history
of humanity, the world's population evenly split
between urban and rural areas. There were more
than 400 cities with a population of over 1 million
and 19 over 10 million. UN population data also
Source: Population Reference Bureau
indicated that by 2030, two thirds of the people in
the world will be urban residents. Clearly, the world
is experiencing unprecedented urban growth and most of this urbanization will occur in less
developed countries.
These figures demand attention because just about 200 years ago, more than ninety
percent of the world’s population was still rural.
Urban Population Size by Major Geographic Area
Region
Urban Population (Millions)
Africa
Asia
Europe
Latin America and the Caribbean
Northern America
Oceania
Urban Population (Percentage)
Africa
Asia
Europe
Latin America and the Caribbean
Northern America
Oceania
1950
1975
2000
2030
33
232
280
70
110
103
575
446
197
180
295
1367
529
393
250
748
2664
545
602
354
14.9
16.6
51.2
41.9
63.9
60.6
25.3
24
66
61.2
73.8
71.7
37.1
37.1
72.7
75.5
79.1
72.7
53.5
54.5
79.6
84.6
86.9
74.9
Source: United Nations, Population Division
Nevertheless, it is not only the rural spaces that have seen changes with rapid urbanization.
The nature and scope of urban places too has undergone a sea change.
No longer limited to towns and cities, the term ‘urban’ has grown to encompass world cities
and megacities, bringing about dramatic demographic, economic and social changes in both
the developing and the developed world.
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Cities
Despite the massive urbanization that we are witnessing today, the world has largely been
without cities through the several million years that human beings have inhabited this earth.
Villages first came up when the primitive man changed from gathering food to producing it.
While settled lifestyles allowed for population growth, surplus agricultural produce made it
possible for these early humans to practice occupations other than agriculture and
exchange their goods and services.
The sole claim of these early “cities” to being urban spaces is that agriculture was not the
prime occupation of its inhabitants. In no way
would the size of their population or the size of the The term “civilization” comes from the Latin
area they occupied compare to the urban sprawls civis, meaning a citizen living in a city. The
of today. The city of Ur, the largest city in word urban is derived from the Latin urbs
that refers to the built form of the city.
Mesopotamia, occupied only 220 acres. It had a Thus, city was civilization.
population of 24,000 persons. Athens occupied
612 acres and Carthage 712 acres. Only Rome exceeded an area of 5 square miles.
Notwithstanding their size or the number of residents, these early cities are seen as the
beginning of social, economical, architectural, and cultural development.
Urban evolution
Site and situation were two important factors for the first ancient cities. These cities came
up in areas where there was:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Fertile soil
Reliable and sufficient rainfall
Moderate climate
Natural defence
Transport routes
Usually, these cities were built within a thick defensive wall, and were organized around a
hilltop castle at the centre. The residential areas would be segregated in accordance with
the professions of the residents, e.g., aristocracy, traders etc. An open market would be
where farmers from neighbouring villages would come to sell their produce.
As you can see, the major function of these early cities was trade and defence. Much later,
with the evolution of civilization, these ancient cities took on other functions, such as
administration, industry, religion and education.
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Function of urban settlements
While rural settlements are essentially residential units where the residents are involved in
primary activities such as farming, fishing or mining, the urban areas provide a range of
services to its residents as well as to nearby rural populace, such as shops, banks, post
offices, cinema halls, manufacturing etc. This is a key indicator in identifying a settlement as
urban. If the majority of the population practices non-agricultural activities, the settlement
is labelled urban.
Population size of urban areas
Governments usually use the population density of their nation to determine the population
size of an urban area. For example, in the United States, areas with a minimum population
of 2,500 are defined as urban. The Indian census describes urban areas as settlements with
a population over 5000. The number rises to 30,000 in Japan, and drops drastically to a
minimum of 250 persons in Denmark, Sweden and Finland.
Urban revolution
Modern cities first began appearing in European
countries where the Industrial Revolution had
helped make huge strides in the fields of
agricultural, transportation, and industrial
technologies. The result was a rapid growth in the
manufacturing, commercial and service sectors, as
well as increased demand for labour. Employment
opportunities led to rural-urban migration and the
growth of the cities’ population and an expansion
of the city boundaries.
In 1800, London was the largest city on
earth with a 1 million strong population. It
was followed by Paris in 1850, and New
York in 1860. A century later, other cities,
such as Vienna, Moscow, St. Petersburg,
Calcutta, Tokyo, New York, Chicago, and
Philadelphia had also reached or exceeded
a population of 1 million.
Source: Population Reference Bureau
Some of the most important factors responsible for this spurt in population included:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Declining death rates
Improved agricultural practices including mechanisation
Improved transportation and communication systems
Stable political governments
Development of secondary industry
However, lower death rates and higher birth rates are not the sole factors that led to an
urban explosion. The steep rise in the number of urban residents is attributed to the ruralurban migration. As more and more people lost their livelihoods to mechanization of
farming activities, they were lured by the promise of employment, better earnings, and
improved living standards in cities.
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Source: Population Reference Bureau
The Push factors that influence the decision to migrate to urban areas include loss of
employment due to mechanisation of agriculture or loss of land. The Pull factors include
anticipation of a better income and improved living standards.
Types of urban settlements
Before we understand the nature and characteristics of world cities and megacities, let’s
quickly take a look at what are the other types of urban areas.
TYPE
Town
City
Conurbation
Megalopolis
Million City
4
DEFINTION
The major difference between a village and a town are the functions
such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional
services that exist in towns.
Cities are larger than towns, both in terms of population and
economic functions, such as transport terminals and financial
institutions. They also have administrative offices.
Coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915, the term conurbation indicates a
large urban area that merges originally separate towns or cities. E.g.,
Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo.
Literally the great city”, it is a an area that merges conurbations. e.g.,
The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of
Washington in U.S.A.
A city where the population has reached or exceeded the million
mark. From around 160 million cities in 1975, we now have more than
438 million cities in the world.
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Case Study 1: Tokyo: The rise of an advanced economy
Tokyo, the largest megacity and one of the top three world cities, is a classic example of how global
economic developments can mould a city’s stature.
Even before Tokyo grew to be a megacity or world city, it was the hub of cultural and political
activities in Japan. Its rise as a prime business centre began only after WW II, and was accelerated by
the pro-industry policies adopted by the government.
The growing demand and increased production led to a large scale movement of labour into Tokyo.
Much of this labour was surplus from the agricultural sector. By 1960 Tokyo was the world's largest
city with a population of over 10 million. With 3 metropolitan areas within its boundaries, Tokyo was
witness to intense urbanization in the 1970s.
Alarmed at environmental deterioration, the government began to decentralize Tokyo’s heavy
industries, such as energy, steel, automobiles, and ships, petrochemical and chemical from urban
centres to hinterland areas. Simultaneously, transportation infrastructure was set up to encourage
Tokyo’s massive population base to move away from the city’s core business district. This attempt to
direct economic growth out of Tokyo received a boost in the form of the global energy crisis. Due to
the ensuing economic slow down, many of Tokyo’s major industries chose to shift away from the city
centre to hinterland areas to benefit from lower land prices and cheaper labour force.
But this apparent decrease in conventional employment opportunities did not slow down Tokyo’s
evolution into a world city. The outgoing heavy industries were beginning to be replaced by new
emerging technologies in the fields of computers and communication. There was a renewed demand
for skilled workforce that could work in these high-tech, knowledge-based industries. Around the
same time, Tokyo saw a boom in the tertiary service sector such as advertising, accounting, etc. From
being the industrial core of the country, the city had successfully transformed into a high-tech
manufacturing hub. The development of the city's stock exchange brought it on par with New York
and London with their major world stock trading institutions.
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However, when the yen was forced to devaluate in the 1980's by USA, meant another round of
restructuring the economy of the city was in the offing. Devaluation of currency meant that while
Japanese products became expensive worldwide and exports dropped, it was cheaper for the Japanese
to buy American goods. As their global market share plummeted, the Japanese companies were forced
to explore newer ways to lower their production costs. They began to outsource the manufacturing
functions to developing economies in Asia, such as Indonesia and Malaysia. The offshoring of
operations meant that businesses now retained only the central management functions in their Tokyo
headquarters.
With more and more Japanese companies following this trend, today Tokyo has become the controlling
space for finance, insurance, R&D, and information functions.
Spatial distribution of world cities
Based on their roles in the global economic, cultural, transportation and cultural affairs,
world cities are divided into three tiers. This hierarchy is based on a system devised by
University of Loughborough’s Globalization and World City research Group.
1. Recognition
How easily is the city recognized without other appendages?
E.g., Sydney, Australia?
2. Influence in
international affairs
How much influence do they exert on the international scene?
E.g., does it host headquarters of influential international
organizations such as UN and Corporations?
Population density adds to the status of a city. Most world
cities are Million Cities. But many are megacities. e.g., Tokyo.
How well connected is the city to other global cities, as also to
other national business centres? A good example is London
with its six airports, Euro Rail, subway network etc.
Is it home to international or expatriate communities? E.g.,
New York, London, Singapore, Tokyo and Hong Kong.
In addition to the tertiary services institutions, such as finance
and law firms, corporate headquarters, international
conglomerates, and stock exchanges that influence the global
economy, does the city also have cultural institutions of
significance?
An advanced communications infrastructure as well as the
presence of media houses with an international reach.
Does the city host international spectacles such as film
festivals, major sport events, international art exhibitions etc.?
3. Large population
4. Transport
infrastructure
5. Cultural communities
6. International
institutions
7. Media and
telecommunications
8. International events
World cities are classified in three tiers.
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1. Alpha cities: New York, Tokyo, London, and Paris score the highest, closely followed
by Chicago, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Milan and Singapore.
2. Beta cities: The second tier is occupied by San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto and
Zurich, Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Moscow, and Seoul.
3. Gamma cities: Approximately 35 emerging world cities are listed here. They include
Washington, Berlin, Istanbul, Mumbai, Buenos Aires etc.
City
Amsterdam
Beijing
Boston
Brussels
Buenos Aires
Caracas
Chicago
Frankfurt
Hong Kong
Jakarta
Kuala Lumpur
London
Los Angeles
Madrid
Melbourne
Mexico City
Miami
Milan
Moscow
Mumbai
New York
Paris
Sao Paulo
Seoul
Singapore
Sydney
Taipei
Tokyo
Toronto
Washington D.C.
Zurich
Highly
connected
world
cities
Highly
connected
financial
centres
Dominant
centres
Global
command
centres
Regional
command
centres
Highly
connected
gateway
cities
Emerging
city
gateways
Source: Taylor, Walker, Catalano and Hoyler, 2002
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Spatial Distribution of World Cities
Courtesy: www.mapsof.net
Operations of the global network of world cities
World cities work through the extensive transportation networks, including rail, road, sea
and air routes that link them to other world cities as well as to the large cities within their
own country. For example, London is connected to the globe through its many airports, as
well as international railway stations and shipping terminal. Within the city itself, there is a
web of transportation system including underground railways, and other public transport
networks.
Apart from the physical transport routes, world cities are connected via state-of-the-art
information networks that include telecommunication as well as the media (newspapers,
television stations and other forms of media and technology).
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However, fact remains that work conditions in Dharavi are difficult and precarious. It is common to
find workers spending over 15 hours a day in unventilated dingy rooms of making soap, tanning hides
or braving the heat of ovens as they bake pottery.
Planners believe that Dharavi residents need not only housing, but industrial and commercial space.
Without it, the displaced slum dwellers would be rendered jobless and that would kick-start another
round of problems for Mumbai.
Source: Google Earth Placemark
Solutions to ensure sustainable development in megacities
Problem
1. Traffic congestion
2. Poor housing
30
Possible Solutions
1. Constructing new roads (including flyovers, tunnels,
bypasses) to facilitate faster traffic flow.
2. Controlling increase of private car ownership. E.g. in
Singapore
3. Discourage use of private cars by placing heavier taxes on
petrol and increasing tolls on roads.
4. Encourage the use of public transport by making it faster and
more easily accessible in all parts of the city. E.g., MRT in
Singapore
1. Efficient land use, e.g., converting brownfield sites (vacant
homes/offices/factories) into residential blocks.
2. Developing infrastructure of surrounding villages so that they
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3.
3. Water supply
1.
4. Pollution
2.
1.
2.
5. Waste disposal
1.
2.
3.
can attract urban dwellers to buy homes in unused
residential pockets.
Discouraging rural-urban migration by providing rural
communities with better healthcare, education and
employment opportunities.
Create awareness about water conservation, recycling and
re-using water, rain water harvesting etc.
Build additional reservoirs for water storage.
Create awareness about the causes and consequences of air,
water and noise pollution.
Impose fines for violating environmental regulations and
norms.
Implementing efficient collection and disposal systems.
Creating awareness about segregation of bio-degradable and
non-degradable wastes such as plastic.
Encouraging citizens to implement methods such as compost
pits for bio-degradable waste.
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Case Study 5: Impact of rapid urbanisation in LEDCs
Sao Paulo is located on south-east coast of Brazil. With a population of approximately 25 million, it is
Brazil's largest city, and is representative of the rapid urban growth in Brazil. The population of Sao
Paulo owes its growth to:
1.
2.
Natural Increase: Birth rate is higher than the death rate
Urbanisation: Caused by large scale rural-urban migration
In 1940, approximately 12 million Brazilians lived in urban areas. By
1991 this number had risen to 123 million or 70 percent of the country’s
population. This rapid speed of the process of urbanization is one of the
causes of the poor quality of urban life that contributes to the growth
of crime. These crimes are concentrated in the peripheral regions of the
city.
Rapid urbanization has resulted in too many people and not enough land. The result is squatter
settlements that are illegally built on vacant plots of lands, but which have no access to services,
facilities and amenities.
In Sao Paulo, these squatter settlements or favelas are located on the outer edges of the city. They
occupy commercially unattractive areas such as the very steep hills or the banks of rivers and streams
which are prone to flooding. They have been illegally occupied, with no planning permissions, by low
income families or migrants who are unable to own houses or pay rent in the inner city. The quality of
life in favelas is very poor. Besides the near total absence of basic housing amenities such as water,
sewerage, electricity, and waste disposal, rising incidence of crime is a concern as people resort to
illegal activities to survive/provide for themselves and their families.
The population growth in the periphery regions of Sao Paulo is due to
the presence of shantytowns and illegal settlements. Due to deindustrialization and re-structuring of Sao Paulo’s industrial sector, jobs
moved out of the CBD. As people too preferred to relocate close to
factories, the density of these peripheral neighbourhoods rose.
Two major reasons for the economic backwardness of the residents of favelas are:
1.
2.
32
Not enough jobs
Especially as most migrants are unskilled
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Urban Dynamics
Urban dynamics refers to the movement of the population into or out of urban spaces. This
movement follows a 3-phase pattern.
Model of Population Movement
Source: Adapted from Urban Order, J. Short
Urbanization
When people move from rural to urban areas in search of employment, the process is called
urbanization. Many of the fastest growing megacities in LEDCs are currently experiencing
large-scale rural-urban migration. The three main causes of urbanization are:
a. Rural to urban migration when people move to urban areas in search of jobs,
education and healthcare. Poor harvests, mechanization, and lack of
agricultural land push them away.
b. Natural increase in urban population with improved and more readily
available healthcare increases life expectancy
c. Redrawing of urban boundaries as cities expand to accommodate growing
populations
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Suburbanization
Suburbanization occurs when affluent urban dwellers buy homes in the suburban areas on
the fringes of the city. One of the major push factors for this is that they cannot afford the
high land prices in the core of the city. However, improved transport infrastructure means
that they are able to continue commuting to the central business district (CBD) for work.
The development of suburbs leads to the decentralization of urban housing from the inner
city to an extensive commuting hinterland. As people move out, the inner city experiences a
decline.
Some of the major characteristics of suburbanization are:
1. Suburban residents can enjoy urban conveniences without the city.
2. They depend heavily on private transport for activities such as shopping, banking,
school, etc., but commute by public transport to their work in the city.
3. The long-established neighbourhoods that are characteristic of the inner city are lost
as suburban townships are more heterogeneous.
4. The malls in these new planned localities are places where people can drive in to
shop.
Exurbanization
Exurbanization is the growth of low-density, semirural settlements outside the urban area, including
its suburban periphery. It can be thought of as
“sprawl beyond sprawl”. You usually can tell when
you are in an exurb because you have to drive
through countryside to get to the “city”.
An exurb is a municipality or urban area in
a metropolitan area that is separated by
rural territory from the principal urban
area. For example, DeKalb and Kankakee
are exurbs of Chicago.
Source: demographia
Interestingly, as the affluent people move from the
city to rural areas in search of better environments, they continue to maintain an urban way
of life, largely due to the advanced transport and communication infrastructure.
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