Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Profile ............................................................................................................................ 7
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 7
Geographic Regions .................................................................................................................... 8
The Coast ................................................................................................................................ 8
The Eastern Plateaus and Northern Plains .............................................................................. 8
The Lake Victoria Basin ......................................................................................................... 9
The Highlands ......................................................................................................................... 9
Climate ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Rivers and Lakes ....................................................................................................................... 10
Tana River ............................................................................................................................. 10
Athi-Galana-Sabaki River..................................................................................................... 11
Lake Turkana ........................................................................................................................ 11
Lake Victoria ........................................................................................................................ 12
Population and Cities ................................................................................................................ 13
Nairobi .................................................................................................................................. 14
Mombasa ............................................................................................................................... 15
Kisumu .................................................................................................................................. 15
Nakuru................................................................................................................................... 16
Eldoret ................................................................................................................................... 16
Environmental Concerns ........................................................................................................... 17
Natural Hazards ........................................................................................................................ 18
Chapter 1: Assessments ................................................................................................................ 19
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Chapter 2: History ......................................................................................................................... 20
The ―Cradle of Humanity‖ ........................................................................................................ 20
A History of Political Violence................................................................................................. 20
The Lunatic Express and European Settlement ........................................................................ 23
African Nationalism and Rebellion .......................................................................................... 23
Kenyatta‘s Rule (1963–1978) ................................................................................................... 25
Kenyan Rule Under Moi (1978–2002) ..................................................................................... 26
International Intervention.......................................................................................................... 28
Constitutional Reform and Other Events .................................................................................. 29
Chapter 2: Assessments ................................................................................................................ 30
Chapter 3: Economy ..................................................................................................................... 31
Industry ..................................................................................................................................... 31
Banking ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Trade ......................................................................................................................................... 33
Investment ................................................................................................................................. 35
Energy and Resources ............................................................................................................... 37
Standard of Living .................................................................................................................... 38
Agriculture ................................................................................................................................ 39
Tourism ..................................................................................................................................... 40
Transportation ........................................................................................................................... 41
Railroads ................................................................................................................................... 41
Highways .................................................................................................................................. 42
Air Transportation ..................................................................................................................... 42
Business Outlook ...................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 3: Assessments ................................................................................................................ 45
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Chapter 4: Society ......................................................................................................................... 46
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 46
Ethnic Groups ........................................................................................................................... 46
Bantu ..................................................................................................................................... 46
Nilotic ................................................................................................................................... 47
Cushite .................................................................................................................................. 47
Other ..................................................................................................................................... 47
Languages ................................................................................................................................. 48
English .................................................................................................................................. 48
Swahili .................................................................................................................................. 48
Indigenous ............................................................................................................................. 49
Religion ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Christianity and Islam ........................................................................................................... 49
Indigenous ............................................................................................................................. 49
Holidays .................................................................................................................................... 50
Madaraka Day ....................................................................................................................... 50
Moi Day ................................................................................................................................ 50
Kenyatta Day ........................................................................................................................ 50
Jamhuri Day .......................................................................................................................... 51
Social Customs.......................................................................................................................... 51
Cuisine ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Arts ............................................................................................................................................ 52
Art as Ritual Decoration ....................................................................................................... 52
Music and Dance................................................................................................................... 53
Literature ............................................................................................................................... 53
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Sports ........................................................................................................................................ 54
Traditional Dress ....................................................................................................................... 54
Kangas, or Headscarves ........................................................................................................ 55
Gender Issues ............................................................................................................................ 55
Male Circumcision ................................................................................................................ 55
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) ........................................................................................ 55
Sexual Assault....................................................................................................................... 56
Chapter 4: Assessment .................................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 5: Security ....................................................................................................................... 58
United States–Kenya Relations................................................................................................. 58
Relations with Neighboring Countries...................................................................................... 58
Somalia ................................................................................................................................. 58
Ethiopia ................................................................................................................................. 59
Sudan..................................................................................................................................... 59
Tanzania ................................................................................................................................ 59
Uganda .................................................................................................................................. 60
Police Force .............................................................................................................................. 60
Military ..................................................................................................................................... 60
Army ..................................................................................................................................... 61
Air Force ............................................................................................................................... 61
Navy ...................................................................................................................................... 61
Issues Affecting Stability .......................................................................................................... 62
Radical Groups...................................................................................................................... 62
al-Qaeda in Africa ................................................................................................................. 62
Harakat al-Shabab al-Mujahideen (al-Shabab) ..................................................................... 62
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Private Military Companies (PMCs) .................................................................................... 63
Water Security .......................................................................................................................... 63
Outlook ..................................................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 5: Assessment .................................................................................................................. 65
Final Assessments ......................................................................................................................... 66
Further Reading ............................................................................................................................ 68
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Chapter 1: Profile
Introduction
Over 30 million people in more than 40 tribes inhabit
Kenya, a nation that ranges from deserts to coastal
mangrove forests. The country lies in central East Africa.
It‘s borders include the countries of Somalia, Ethiopia,
Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.
Many people associate Kenya with its famous wildlife
reserves and white-sand beaches on the Indian Ocean, but
the country is equally famous for its wealth of cultures.
The Swahili people of the coast, reflecting hundreds of
years of assimilation with Arab and Asian traders, are Kenyans. So are the Somali pastoralists of
the northern arid regions, the nomadic Maasai of the southern Highlands, and the Luo of the
Lake Victoria region.
Kenya emerged from the colonial era as an arbitrarily defined state. Neither traditional tribal
regions nor any natural boundaries—except for Lake Victoria in the southwest corner and the
Indian Ocean to the east—were used as Kenya‘s boundaries. During nearly 45 years of
independence, Kenya has struggled to develop a political and social structure that is tolerant of
tribal and ethnic differences yet reflects a national identity distinct from tribes or the vestiges of
British influence.
Kenya‘s national motto, harambee (―Let‘s pull together‖), helps the Kenyans forge a national
identity, while neighboring African countries continue to splinter from regional and tribal
disputes. The term harambee has been used since independence to remind many people of Kenya
to unite as a country. It also reflects a traditional principle among Kenyan tribes—the importance
of coming together to help each other and achieve a common good.1
1
.Susan Njeri Chieni, ―The Harambee Movement in Kenya: The Role Played by Kenyans and Their Government in
the Provision of Education and Other Services‖ (presentation, Seventh BOLESWA Symposium, University of
Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland, 38 July–1 August 1997), http://boleswa97.tripod.com/chieni.htm
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Geographic Regions
Kenya‘s diverse geography ranges from coastal
mangrove swamps to towering snow-covered mountains.
The terrain rises slowly from the coastal areas in a series
of plateaus that meet a chain of highlands running north
to south in the western half of the country.2 Through the
center of the highlands runs the Great Rift Valley, one of
the world‘s most famous geological features.
The Coast
The Coast region runs along the Indian Ocean and is marked by white-sand beaches, coral reefs,
and mangrove swamps.3 The largest population centers are to the south, where rainfall is
heaviest. The coastal plain is narrowest in this area and broadens as it moves northward.4 The
largest city in the Coast region is Mombasa, Kenya‘s bustling port. Malindi, near the mouth of
the Tana River, and Lamu are popular tourist locations farther up the coast. Lamu is one of the
best-preserved examples of traditional Swahili settlements and one of Kenya‘s three World
Heritage Sites.5
Kenya‘s coast has always been distinctly different from the interior because of the region‘s
history as an Arab and Persian trading center. The fusion of African and Asian influences in the
coastal cities produced the Swahili language, people, and culture.6 Even today, when Mombasa
and Nairobi are connected via road and rail, the coastal area remains culturally distinct.
The Eastern Plateaus and Northern Plains
This vast region, which extends from Kenya‘s northwestern to southeastern corners, is
characterized by arid to semi-arid plains and plateaus. Among these are the lowland Bun Plains
and Ngangerabeli Plain near the Somali border; the Yatta Plateau, formed from one of the
world‘s longest lava flows, along the lower stretch of the Athi River; the Chalbi, Kaisut, and
Dida Galgalu deserts, all east of Lake Turkana; and the Lotikipi Plain in northwestern Kenya
near the Sudanese border.
Although the Eastern Plateaus and Northern Plains region varies in climate, elevation, and has a
few isolated mountain peaks and small ranges, it is scarcely populated. There are no major cities
2
East African Living Encyclopedia, ―Kenya: A Profile,‖ n.d., http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/khome.htm
Nehemiah K. Rotich, ―World Wetlands Day Celebrations – 3/2/2001: Challenges of Conserving Coastal and
Marine Wetlands in Kenya‖ (presentation, The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 3 February 2001),
http://www.ramsar.org/wwd/1/wwd2001_rpt_kenya1.htm
4
Encylopædia Britannica Online, ―Kenya: Relief,‖ 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37523/Kenya
5
World Heritage Centre, UNESCO, ―Lamu Old Town,‖ 13 December 2001, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1055
6
Swahili Language & Culture, ―A Brief History of the Swahili Language,‖ n.d.,
http://www.glcom.com/hassan/swahili_history.html
3
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in this area. Garissa, the capital of the North Eastern Province, is the only city with a population
of more than 50,000.7
The Lake Victoria Basin
The entire southwestern portion of Kenya is a region of
uplands above 1,000 m (3,280 ft). Much of this area is
mountainous or hilly, but the region surrounding the
shore of Lake Victoria is primarily high plateau. To the
east lie the mountains or escarpments (cliffs) that define
the western boundary of the Great Rift Valley.
The Lake Victoria Basin is a densely populated area
containing two of Kenya‘s five biggest cities (Kisumu and Eldoret). It is also an area of
extensive agricultural cultivation. Parts of the region are among the wettest locations in Kenya.
One such area is Mount Elgon, an extinct volcano whose peak is on the Kenya–Uganda border.8
The Highlands
To the east of the Lake Victoria Basin lie the highest regions in Kenya. The Great Rift Valley,
which splits the region in two. This region defines an area where the earth‘s crust is slowly
being pulled apart by convection currents of molten rock from the mantle, like two conveyor
belts moving in opposite directions.9 The floor of the Great Rift Valley contains several freshand saltwater lakes (Turkana, Baringo, Nakuru, Naivasha, Bogoria, and Magadi) that trace the
Rift‘s north–south path through Kenya.
To the east of the Great Rift Valley lie Nairobi, East Africa‘s largest metropolis; Mount Kenya,
the second-highest peak in Africa; and the Aberdare Range, the highest mountain range in
Kenya. The Mau Escarpment provides a high-altitude rim to the western edge of the Great Rift.10
7
Thomas Brinkhoff, ―City Population: Kenya,‖ City Population, 28 March 2007,
http://www.citypopulation.de/Kenya.html
8
World Water Assessment Programme, United Nations, ―Mean (Up to 1980) Annual Rainfall Map,‖ in Kenya
National Water Development Report, 2005, 38, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001488/148866E.pdf
9
Encylopædia Britannica Online, ―East African Rift System,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/176462/East-African-Rift-System
10
Encylopædia Britannica Online, ―Mau Escarpment,‖ 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9051469/MauEscarpment
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Climate
Kenya is an equatorial country, but its climate is quite
different from other equatorial regions. The rainfall totals
are lower and vary from year to year. The wettest regions
are in the western Highlands, Lake Victoria Basin, and
along the southern coastal areas. Isolated areas such as
Mount Kenya may receive snowfall. Much of the
remaining part of Kenya is semiarid to arid, including the
entire northern region.
Rainfall in Kenya occurs primarily during two periods of the year. The months of March to May
are the wettest and are known as the ―long rains‖ season, followed by a relatively dry period until
the ―little rains‖ season of October to December.11 In 1997–1998, the latter rains turned much
heavier and longer-lasting when Kenya was hit by the effects of a powerful El Niño.12
Because of the high altitudes in the Highlands and Lake Victoria Basin, temperatures are mild.
Temperatures are higher in coastal regions, where it is more humid, though somewhat eased by
the sea breezes. Low-lying inland plains and plateaus are hot and even desert-like.13
Rivers and Lakes
Tana River
At 1,050 km (652 mi), the Tana is Kenya‘s longest river.14 Its headwaters are in the Aberdare
Mountains, northwest of Nairobi. From there, it flows south and then north before swinging
south again in the lowland plains of the Coast Province. It presently enters the Indian Ocean near
the small town of Kipini.15
The Tana River is navigable by small boat for its last 322 km (200 mi), although its sinuous path
makes such travel time-consuming. The only town of any size along its lower stretch is Garissa,
the capital of the North Eastern Province. On its upper stretch, five dams supply hydroelectric
power and irrigation. Two tributaries in the foothills of the Aberdare Mountains are also dammed
and supply 95% of Nairobi‘s water.16
11
BBC Weather Centre, ―Country Guide: Kenya,‖ n.d.,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT000300
12
Fredrick Karanja, et al., ―Kenya Country Case Study: Impacts and Responses to the 1997–98 El Niño Event,‖
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, 2007, http://www.ccb.ucar.edu/un/kenya.html
13
BBC Weather Centre, ―Country Guide: Kenya,‖ n.d.,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT000300
14
World Water Assessment Programme, United Nations, ―Table 3.11: Kenyan Rivers,‖ in Kenya National Water
Development Report 2005, 88, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001488/148866E.pdf
15
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Tana River,‖ 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071136/Tana-River
16
Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company, ―Water Sources,‖ 2007,
http://www.nairobiwater.co.ke/content/?contentid=45
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Athi-Galana-Sabaki River
At 631 km (392 mi) in length, the Athi-Galana-Sabaki River is Kenya‘s second-longest perennial
river. (The river is known as the Athi for its upstream length, becomes the Galana farther
downstream in Tsavo National Park, and is often referred to as the Sabaki near its mouth on the
Indian Ocean near the town of Malindi.) The Athi‘s headwaters are south of Nairobi, and several
of its tributaries flow through or near Kenya‘s capital city. Because of pollution, however, only a
small portion of Nairobi‘s water originates from any of the Athi River Basin sources.17, 18
Lake Turkana
Lake Turkana is the largest of Kenya‘s Great Rift Valley
lakes and extends along the valley floor from the
Ethiopian border to near the northern extent of the
Highlands region. It is one of the largest desert lakes in
the world.
There are no outlets for Lake Turkana. Much of its water
flows from the Omo River in southern Ethiopia, although
it is also fed by the north-flowing Turkwel River, which originates from the northern slopes of
Mount Elgon on the Kenya–Uganda border.19
Lake Turkana is known as a breeding ground for Nile crocodiles, hippopotamuses, and
poisonous snakes. The animal life can be viewed at two national parks on barren islands in the
lake. Sibiloi National Park along the lake‘s northeastern shore is famous for its numerous fossil
finds of Homo and Australopithecus species, which have led the Lake region to be called the
―Cradle of Mankind.‖20
17
Robert Otani, ―Fresh Initiative Taken to Refresh Nairobi River,‖ Environment News Service, 25 May 2001,
http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/may2001/2001-05-25-01.asp
18
Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company, ―Water Sources,‖ 2007,
http://www.nairobiwater.co.ke/water_quality/?ContentID=4
19
International Lake Environment Committee Foundation, ―World Lakes Database: Lake Turkana,‖ 1999,
http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html
20
Jens Finke, Bluegecko.org, The Traditional Music and Cultures of Kenya, ―Lake Turkana—Mankind‘s Origins,‖
13 December 2006, http://www.bluegecko.org/kenya/tribes/turkana/prehistory.htm
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Lake Victoria
Kenya shares Lake Victoria, the world‘s second-largest freshwater lake, with Uganda and
Tanzania. Several western Kenyan rivers feed into Lake Victoria, of which the largest is the
Nzoia River. The lake‘s sole outlet is the Victoria Nile in Uganda.
An inlet of Lake Victoria, known as Winam Gulf, is the setting for Kisumu, Kenya‘s sole port
city on the lake. But since 1997 the Winam Gulf has been hard-hit by several infestations of
water hyacinth, most recently in late 2006. Kisumu‘s fishing industry is severely affected by
these episodes, because the fishing boats often cannot be launched due to the thick mat of
vegetation on the lake‘s surface.21, 22
Another concern about Lake Victoria is its water level. Through mid-2006, the lake‘s surface
continued to drop, causing some lake regions to institute water rationing as water intake valves
became exposed. Fortunately, the problem was remedied by heavy rains in late 2006.23 Evidence
shows that Lake Victoria has dried up at various times in the past (most recently, between 10,000
and 14,000 years ago).24 Dense population are dependent on the lake for their survival. All three
countries monitor the lake‘s fluctuations level.
21
Garry Peterson, ―Water Hyacinth Re-Invades Lake Victoria,‖ Resilience Science, 22 February 2007,
http://rs.resalliance.org/2007/02/22/water-hyacinth-re-invades-lake-victoria/
22
Daniel Otieno, ―Alarm as Noxious Weed Returns to Lake Victoria,‖ The Nation (Nairobi), 21 December 2006,
http://www.safarilands.org/index.php/places/more/alarm_as_noxious_weed_returns_to_lake_victoria/
23
Pati Magubira,―Lake Victoria Water Level Rises,‖ Daily News, 24 March 2007, http://www.dailynewstsn.com/page.php?id=6166
24
University of Minnesota, Duluth, ―Mapping Lake Victoria,‖ in The Bridge 14, Winter 1998,
http://www.d.umn.edu/publications/bridge/Bridge97/lake.html
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Population and Cities
As of mid-2011, Kenya‘s estimated population was 41 million. The urban population was
estimated to be 21%, significantly lower than the 35% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a
whole.25 Kenya was one of the first African countries to institute family planning, and its
birthrate is now one of the lowest in sub-Saharan Africa.26 Like many developing countries, the
urban population is growing faster than the rural population.
City Name
Province (* = Prov. Capital)
Population 200927
Nairobi
Nairobi*
3,138,369
Mombasa
Coast*
939,370
Kisumu
Nyanza*
322,374
Nakuru
Rift Valley*
219,366
Eldoret
Rift Valley
167,016
Machakos
Eastern
144,109
Meru
Eastern
126,427
Nyeri
Central
98,908
Kitale
Rift Valley
86,055
Thika
Central
82,655
25
The World Bank Group, ―Kenya at a Glance,‖ 13 August 2006, http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/ken_aag.pdf
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, ―Society: Demography,‖ in Country Profile: Kenya, June 2007,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
27
Thomas Brinkhoff, ―City Population: Kenya,‖ City Population, 25 September 2010,
http://www.citypopulation.de/Kenya.html
26
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Nairobi
Geographers refer to Nairobi as a primate city, one that
dominates all other cities in the country in terms of
population, political influence, economic activity, and
cultural influence.28 Nairobi‘s population exceeds the
combined population of the country‘s next nine cities.
Only Mombasa, Kenya‘s largest port, approaches Nairobi
in terms of economic importance.
Nairobi has several faces. Its towering, modern downtown skyscrapers might be seen in any
major Western city. On the southern city limit is Nairobi National Park, perhaps the only wildlife
park in the world where a giraffe may be photographed with skyscrapers visible in the
background. Leafy suburbs around the edges of Nairobi house the city‘s many expatriate workers
affiliated with international and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).29
Only a few kilometers away, however, are slum areas that are among the worst in Africa. Most
infamous of these is Kibera, southwest of downtown Nairobi, which contains roughly 800,000
people in an area of about 250 hectares (1 sq mi).30 Kibera‘s residents amount to nearly one-third
of the city‘s population. What makes this statistic even more astounding is that virtually all the
housing is single-story. Health conditions in Kibera are among the worst in Africa because there
is limited access to toilets and clean water.
Nairobi is Kenya‘s industrial center. Items produced include processed food, beer, vehicles,
soaps, textiles, and chemicals.31 The city is home to the Kenya Stock Exchange. The flip side of
Nairobi‘s economy is the city‘s large informal sector, known as jua kali (―hot sun‖). Jua kali
workers are street traders, vendors, artisans, and service providers who work within the
unregistered (and thus untaxed) economy. They provide Nairobi with a parallel street economy,
which allows the city‘s many poorer residents to survive. Government statistics estimate that
more than three-quarters of Kenya‘s labor force is employed in jua kali enterprises.32
28
Matt Rosenberg, ―Primate Cities,‖ About.com, 10 January 2006,
http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/primatecities.htm
29
Mike Pflanz,and Laura Clarke, ―Where to Live in Nairobi,‖ Wanted in Africa, October 2005,
http://nairobi.wantedinafrica.com/
30
Integrated Regional Information Networks, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, ―Kenya:
Kibera, the Forgotten City,‖ 13 September 2006, http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=62409
31
City-Data.com, Cities of the World, ―Nairobi: Economy,‖ 2007, http://www.city-data.com/world-cities/NairobiEconomy.html
32
Sarah Macharia, ―Report From the Field‖ (paper for International Secretariat for Human Development, York
University, Toronto, May 2006), http://www.yorku.ca/ishd/SM.Kenya.Report.field
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Mombasa
The main part of Mombasa is on an island. On the west
side of the island is Kilidini Harbor, the city‘s deepwater
port. The Port of Mombasa serves as the main shipping
point for many of the goods from and to Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, eastern Democratic Republic of
Congo, Tanzania, and southern Sudan.33 The port is
hampered by a dilapidated rail system from Mombasa to
Uganda. This has caused a large percentage of the port‘s
goods to be transported by trucks on Kenya‘s already overstressed road system. The result has
been cargo pileups at the port of goods destined for Uganda and beyond.34
Mombasa is also a major tourist location, the central location of a string of coastal resorts up and
down the Kenyan coast. Apart from appealing beaches, Mombasa‘s Swahili culture and
architecture, which is a unique blend of Arabic and African influences, makes Mombasa and
other coastal locations attractive tourist exploration sites.
Though trade and tourism dominate the local economy, there is some modest industrial activity
in and near Mombasa. Kenya‘s only oil refinery is in Mombasa; other industries include cement
works, sugar refining, and automotive assembly plants.35, 36
Kisumu
Kenya‘s only port on Lake Victoria, Kisumu came into being in 1901 when the railroad reached
Lake Victoria at a point formerly named Port Florence. With the coming of the railroad, the new
port town soon became a bustling trade center. But beginning in 1977, the city went into a period
of decline for several decades after the collapse of the EAC.
Much of the city‘s economic revival in the 1990s came from the Mobassa–Nairobi oil pipeline
being extended to Kisumu, where the oil is taken by trucks from the depot to locations within
Kenya, Uganda, northern Tanzania, and other East African countries.37 The city has long been a
agricultural center for products such as rice, sugar, and cotton; but environmental degradation
has led to declines in these crops in recent years.38
33
Transit Transport Co-Ordination Authority of the Northern Corridor, ―The Maritime Port of Mombasa,‖ 2005,
http://www.ttcanc.org/transport.asp?pageid=2
34
Joseph Olanyo, AllAfrica.com, The Monitor (Kampala), ―Mombasa Waives Charges on Road Cargo,‖ 23 March
2007, http://allafrica.com/stories/200703230978.html
35
Ikiara K. Gerrishon, ―Chapter 10: Kenya,‖ in Exporting Africa: Technology, Trade and Industrialization in SubSaharan Africa (New York: United Nations University Press, 1995),
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu34ee/uu34ee0s.htm
36
Global Auto Index, ―Africa: Manufacturers,‖ 2007,
http://www.globalautoindex.com/makelist.plt?cntr=52&letter=All
37
Wairagala Wakabi and Philip Ngunjiri, ―UN Calls for Extension of Eldoret-Kampala Pipeline,‖ Alexander‘s Gas
and Oil Connections, 13 September 2005, http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/news/nta53919.htm
38
Columbia Program on International Investment, Columbia University, ―Millennium City Initiative—City Profiles:
Kisumu, Kenya,‖ 2007, http://www.cpii.columbia.edu/projects/MCI_City_Descriptions.php
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The Kisumu fishing industry underwent a boom in the 1980s when a significant export business
grew around the Nile perch, Lake Victoria‘s dominant fish species. It had been introduced to the
lake in the 1950s. Recent years have seen a decline in Nile perch stocks despite a ban on the use
of trawlers. The negative implications of this decline on the large local industry built around the
processing of the Nile perch are offset environmentally by an increasing diversity of fish species
in Lake Victoria.39, 40
Nakuru
Nakuru is the largest Kenyan city within the Great Rift
Valley. Neolithic fossil remains excavated by Mary
Leakey at Hyrax Hill show the area‘s long history of
human habitation.41 The modern town of Nakuru, sprung
to life with the coming of the Uganda Railway at the
beginning of the 20th century. Prior to the development of
the railroad, the area had primarily been grazing lands for
Maasai pastoralists. After World War I, Nakuru became the hub for a new line that extended
northwest toward Kampala in Uganda. The city soon became a regional trading and commerce
center and the capital of the Great Rift Valley Province.
Today the city is known as an agricultural center. Numerous related industries are in and near the
city, ranging from food-processing facilities to farm machinery assembly plants.42 Tourism is
also important to the local economy because of nearby Lake Nakuru National Park, which is one
of Kenya‘s most popular wildlife attractions for its spectacular flamingo population.
Eldoret
Eldoret is another of Kenya‘s ―railroad cities,‖ although it was actually founded in 1910 before
the railroad was built by Afrikaners. The town‘s original name was 64, based on its distance in
kilometers from the Uganda Railway railhead. The name was changed 2 years later to Eldoret,
based on the Maasai word for ―stony river.‖ Although the improved name did help spur
development, Eldoret began to grow when the railroad arrived in 1924.43 The town evolved as
the focal point of the surrounding agricultural region. Eldoret has been the heart of Kenya‘s
―grain basket‖ region.44 Wheat, maize, and dairy products from local farms are processed and
marketed.
39
Alexis Masciarelli, ―The Rise and Fall of the Nile Perch,‖ BBC News, 15 March 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4348289.stm
40
Helga Josupeit, ―Nile Perch Market Report,‖ FAO Globefish, August 2006,
http://www.globefish.org/index.php?id=3073
41
National Museums of Kenya, ―Hyrax Hill Museum,‖ n.d., http://www.museums.or.ke/reghyra.html
42
Dick W. J. Foeken and Samuel O. Owuer, ―Urban Farmers in Nakuru, Kenya,‖ City Farmer, Canada‘s Office of
Urban Agriculture, 2000, http://www.cityfarmer.org/nakuru.html
43
Eldoret Investers.com, ―About Eldoret: History of Eldoret,‖ 2004.
http://www.eldoretinvestors.com/about_eldoret.php
44
Agricultural Review, ―Africa‘s Largest Corn Wet Miller,‖ September 2006,
http://www.readafrica.com/publications/archive_stories.asp?issId=67&mId=4
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In recent times, Eldoret has been the center of controversies tied to the regime of former
President Daniel arap Moi, a Kalenjin, the dominant tribe in the area surrounding Eldoret.
During Moi‘s 24-year presidency, there were numerous claims that a disproportionate amount of
government-backed facility and infrastructure development had flowed into the Eldoret region.45
Two noteworthy examples of large-scale government investment in Eldoret during the Moi years
are the city‘s international airport, only the third to be built in Kenya (the other two are in
Nairobi and Mombasa, both much larger cities); and Moi University, now one of the country‘s
largest.46
Environmental Concerns
Although Kenya is a developing country and might be
expected to place economic development ahead of
environmental concerns, the government clearly
understands its environmental issues and has enacted
policies to address many of them. This makes good
business sense in a country whose geography and
abundant wildlife tourism have provided a major source
of revenue for the economy. But implementing and enforcing these policies have proved
difficult. Widespread poverty and a rapidly growing population suffering through the HIV/AIDS
pandemic have made it challenging to improve the environment in many areas.47 Thus, soil
degradation, deforestation, land erosion, loss of biodiversity, habitat encroachment, and surface
and groundwater contamination are just some of the problems that Kenya faces.
Nearly 75% of Kenyans work in agriculture, but only 8% of the country is arable land.48 The
need for such a tiny portion of the land to support a burgeoning population leads to practices that
create environmental shortfalls. Of these, soil and land degradation is perhaps the most pressing
issue in a semiarid country that is perpetually a few dry years away from drought and famine.49
Deforestation is a particularly damaging problem because it leads to significant erosion in
agricultural areas. The resulting buildup of silt behind dams lessens their water storage capacities
and their ability to produce hydroelectricity. Deforestation has a negative effect on biodiversity
and wildlife habitat.50
45
Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, ―Kenya: History. Part F. Moi‘s Rule,‖ by Robert M. Maxon, 2007,
http://encarta.msn.com/text_761564507__1/Kenya.html
46
Alicia Bannon, et al., ―Sources of Ethnic Identification in Africa‖ (Afro Barometer, Working Paper no. 44,
Department of Political Science, University of California-Los Angeles, August 2004),
http://www.polisci.ucla.edu/wgape/papers/5_Bannon.pdf
47
Anders Ekbom, ―Kenya—Environmental Policy Brief,‖ SIDA (Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency), 17 October 2002,
http://www.sida.se/shared/jsp/download.jsp?f=Kenya+Environmental+Policy+Brief.pdf&a=5304
48
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Kenya,‖ in The World Factbook, 14 June 2007,
https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ke.html
49
Anders Ekbom, ―Kenya—Environmental Policy Brief,‖ SIDA (Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency), 17 October 2002,
http://www.sida.se/shared/jsp/download.jsp?f=Kenya+Environmental+Policy+Brief.pdf&a=5304
50
Afrol News, IRIN (Integrated Regional Information Networks),―Deforestation Threatening in Kenya,‖ 3
November 2000, http://www.afrol.com/html/Categories/Environment/env033_kenya_deforest.htm
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Despite these concerns, it is difficult to provide alternatives to wood for cooking and heating in a
country with no oil or natural gas resources. Recently, solar cookers have been introduced;
including in the refugee camps near the Somalian and Sudanese borders.51 It is hoped that in
sunny Kenya these cookers may eventually lessen the demand for firewood.52
Natural Hazards
Kenya‘s most serious natural hazards are flooding,
landslides, and drought. The areas most prone to flooding
are the Highlands, Coast, and Lake Victoria Basin
regions. The lowland areas of the Lake Victoria Basin
have been particularly hard-hit by flooding, with
thousands of people displaced. The Eastern Plateaus and
Northern Basin region, especially the eastern portion, is
most vulnerable to droughts. Within this region, the
plateau areas east of the Highlands, including the lower
Tana River Basin, are at high risk for flooding and droughts.53 Landslides mostly occur in the
Highlands region. The areas at greatest risk from deadly landslides are deforested mountain
regions.
51
Kevin Porter, ―Final Kakuma Evaluation: Solar Cookers Filled a Critical Gap,‖ Solar Cooker Review, November
2004, http://solarcooking.org/newsletters/scrnov04.htm#Final_Kakuma_evaluation
52
Julius Ochieng, ―Solar Cooking Solution Changing Lives in Kenya,‖ Bureau of International Information
Programs, U.S. Department of State, 30 October 2006, http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfileenglish&y=2006&m=October&x=20061030131055AKllennoCcM0.9592554
53
Center for Hazards and Risk Research, Columbia University, ―Kenya Natural Disaster Profile,‖ 2005,
http://www.ldgo.columbia.edu/chrr/research/profiles/kenya.html
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Chapter 1: Assessments
1.
Kenya‘s geography consists of only dry deserts.
False
Kenya‘s diverse geography ranges from coastal mangrove swamps to towering snow-covered
mountains,
2.
Rain occurs once a year during what is known as the ―long rains,‖ which run from March
to May.
False
The ―long rains‖ last from March to May. This is followed by a dry season and another rainy
season, called the ―little rains,‖ from October to December.
3.
Nairobi‘s population is larger than any other city in Kenya.
True
Nairobi has a population of more than 3.1 million people. Geographers refer to Nairobi as a
primate city, one that dominates all other cities in the country in terms of population, political
influence, economic activity, and cultural influence.
4.
Kenya‘s longest river, the Tana, begins in Uganda.
False
Kenya‘s longest river, the Tana, begins northwest of Nairobi in the Aberdare Mountains.
5.
Nakura is the agricultural center of the country and is also known as the ―grain basket‖ of
Kenya.
False
Although Nakura is the agricultural center of Kenya, Eldoret is considered the ―grain basket‖ of
the country.
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Chapter 2: History
The “Cradle of Humanity”
Much of our knowledge about the early evolution of
hominids and prehominids comes from the fossil
evidence of East Africa‘s Great Rift Valley. One of the
most famous sites is Nariokotome, near Lake Turkana in
northern Kenya. In 1984, Kamoya Kimeu, working with
famed paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey, found the
skull of what eventually became an almost complete
skeleton of a Homo erectus boy.54, 55 These remains, later
dubbed ―Turkana Boy,‖ were dated to 1.6 million years
ago and represent some of the oldest known H. erectus fossils. They also provide evidence for an
African origin of H. erectus, because the Turkana Boy fossils predate finds in Java (1891) and
near Beijing (1923–1927) that date 900,000 and 1.1 million years, respectively.56, 57
Although not as ancient, the Hyrax Hill site near the city of Nakaru in East Africa is famous for
the Neolithic fossils and artifacts excavated by Mary Leakey in 1938–1939. Believed to be as old
as 3,000 years, the Hyrax Hills materials have provided a glimpse of prehistoric Stone Age
culture and settlement in the Great Rift Valley.58
A History of Political Violence
Warfare, tribal migrations, and assimilation have distinguished Kenya‘s interior throughout
history.59 Because there is no written record of inland Kenya prior to the colonial era, our
knowledge of these peoples comes from archeological and language studies and through oral
histories passed down by tribes.60
Based on language classifications, the three main ancestral groups to modern Kenyans are the
Cushites, the Nilotes, and the Bantus. Most of the Cushite groups—including Somalis—are
nomadic pastoralists who now dominate northern and eastern Kenya.61, 62, 63, 64 By comparison,
54
Jim Foley, ―KNM-WT 15000 (Turkana Boy),‖ Fossil Hominids, in The Talk Origins Archive, 31 August 2002,
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/15000.html
55
Many scientists now refer to the ―early‖ Homo erectus fossils from Africa as H. ergaster because of some
differences noted between them and later H. erectus populations found in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
56
Public Broadcasting System, ―Origins of Humankind: Homo erectus,‖ an episode in Evolution, 2001,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/humans/humankind/k.html
57
Great Archaelogy Website, ―Peking Man,‖ n.d., http://www.greatarchaeology.com/peking_man.htm
58
National Museums of Kenya, ―Hyrax Hill Museum,‖ n.d., http://www.museums.or.ke/reghyra.html
59
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: The Inland Peoples (500–1889),‖ in The Kenyalogy Guide of
Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
60
D. Anthony Low, ―History of Eastern Africa: The Interior Before the Colonial Era,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica
Online, 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37491/history-of-eastern-Africa
61
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Languages of Kenya,‖ in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. (Dallas: SIL
International, 2009), http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=KE
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the largest of the Nilote groups today are the Luo.65 Unlike the pastoralist Nilotes and Cushites,
the Bantus—who embody Kenya‘s largest tribe—are primarily farmers. Today their settlements
in the Highlands and Lake Victoria Basin are some of the most intensely cultivated regions in
Kenya. The Bantu also occupy land in the southern near-coastal areas and on the western side of
the Great Rift Valley.66, 67
Coastal Trade and Colonization
Kenya‘s history along the Indian Ocean is marked by
trade with Arabs, Persians, and Europeans dating to the
first century C.E.68 Between 900 and 1300 C.E., Arab
and Persian trading centers developed along the Kenyan
coast, both in the Lamu region and farther south in
Malindi and Mombasa. The Middle Eastern traders
brought salt, cloth, metal tools, weapons, beads, and
cowrie shells, which they exchanged for ivory, tortoise
shells, and leopard skins. The slave trade also became established during the Middle Eastern
expeditions into the interior.69
Over time, through intermarriage and cultural exchanges, a unique African-Arab culture
developed along the coast, which we now refer to as Swahili culture. The Bantu-based Swahili
language, which incorporates numerous borrowings from Arabic, is a product of this cultural
intermixing.
Another chapter in Kenyan history is marked by foreign invasion and European colonization,
from the Portuguese arrival in 1498 and their domination of the region with naval power until the
18th century. Unfortunately for the Portuguese, who built Fort Jesus on Mombasa Island in 1593
to serve as their main military headquarters along the Kenyan coast, a devastating local uprising
in 1631 and a 33-month naval assault by Omani ships ended their occupation.70, 71
62
Orville Boyd Jenkins, ―People Profile: The Orma of Kenya,‖ 15 April 2002,
http://www.orvillejenkins.com/profiles/orma.html
63
Orville Boyd Jenkins, ―People Profile: The Rendille of Kenya,‖ 15 April 2002,
http://orvillejenkins.com/profiles/rendille.html
64
Orville Boyd Jenkins, ―People Profile: The Gabbra of Kenya and Ethiopia,‖ 12 September 2005,
http://orvillejenkins.com/profiles/gabbra.html
65
Jens Finke, ―Kenya‘s Ethno-Linguistic Groups: The Nilotes,‖ in The Traditional Music and Cultures of Kenya, 13
December 2006, www.bluegecko.org/kenya/contexts/nilotes.htm
66
Everyculture.com, ―Mijikenda: Orientation,‖ Countries and Their Cultures, 2007,
http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Mijikenda-Orientation.html
67
Kenyaweb.com, ―Kenyan History: Early Settlements and Migration,‖ 2001,
http://www.kenyaweb.com/history/settlements/index.html#central_bant
68
Lance Jennot, ―The Voyage Around the Erythraean Sea‖ in Silk Road Seattle, Walter Chapin Simpson Center for
the Humanities, University of Washington, June 2004,
http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html
69
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: The Portuguese Empire (1498–1698),‖ in The Kenyalogy Guide
of Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
70
Giancarlo Casale, ―A Caliph, a Canal, and Twenty Thousand Cannibals: Global Politics in the 1580s,‖ Center for
Religion and Civic Culture, University of Southern California, 17 November 2005,
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Although the Omani gained control of the East African coast, numerous indigenous rebellions
against their rule occurred throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The slave trade increased
during this period, in part to supply labor for the Omani clove plantations on the islands of
Zanzibar and Pemba.72
The British and German Colonial Era
Beginning in the 1820s, the British tried to cut off slave
trading to French territories; however, their efforts did
not affect the slave trade between Arab territories.73
Although economic interests motivated the British, their
increasing focus on East Africa was also inspired by
missionaries returning from Africa who focused
attention on humanitarian issues. In 1873, the Sultan of
Zanzibar agreed to a British-negotiated ban on all slave trade from sultanate ports; 4 years later,
the Sultan further outlawed inland slave caravans.74
During this period, Germany also scrambled to secure an economic foothold in East Africa.
Directly south of modern Kenya, in the area then known as Tanganyika (modern Tanzania), a
German explorer/colonizer named Carl Peters consolidated a number of territories. They became
the German East African Company, which was issued a charter by the German government in
1885.
These actions led to the Anglo-German Agreement of 1886, in which much of East Africa was
carved into ―spheres of influence.‖ In this agreement, the dividing line between German and
British areas was drawn from south of Mombasa on the coast to the shores of Lake Victoria, with
Mount Kilimanjaro lying just to the south of the line (i.e., on the German side).75
The Sultanate of Zanzibar, which included Mombasa, was separately negotiated to become a
British Protectorate a few years later. This was the birth of the colonial region known as British
East Africa, an area that today constitutes the countries of Kenya and Uganda.76
http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/private/ierc/Caliph_Canal_Cannibals.pdf
71
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: The Portuguese Empire (1498–1698),‖ in The Kenyalogy Guide
of Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
72
BBC World Service, ―Slavery: The East African Slave Trade,‖ in The Story of Africa, n.d.,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/9chapter3.shtml
73
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: The Omani Domination (1698–1856),‖ in The Kenyalogy Guide
of Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
74
Timothy F. Bliss, ―History: The Omani Hegemony,‖ 13 March 2004,
http://www.blissites.com/kenya/history.html#kenya_coast
75
D. Anthony Low, ―History of Eastern Africa: Partition by Germany and Britain,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica
Online, 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37503/history-of-eastern-Africa
76
HistoryWorld Website, ―History of Kenya,‖ n.d.,
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad21
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The Lunatic Express and European Settlement
The Uganda portion of the region was not easy to reach
from the coast because the terrain was difficult and the
feared Masai tribe occupied much of the direct path from
Mombasa to Lake Victoria. Although initially hesitant,
the British government established the Uganda
Protectorate in 1894. The following year, much of what
is modern Kenya was declared the British East Africa
Protectorate. At the same time, approval and funding was
granted for the construction of a railway from Mombasa to the Uganda Protectorate.77
The 6-year construction of the railway—although controversial and over budget—transformed
the East Africa Protectorate.78 Three of Kenya‘s five largest cities, including Nairobi, sprang to
life where rail stations ushered European settlers into the highlands. This triggered discontent
when Masai and Kikuyu lands were expropriated for the settlers. Many Africans were forced to
work on the settlers‘ farms.79
During World War I, many of Kenya‘s British settlers attacked the German settler army in
Tanganyika. Many African males were conscripted as porters and soldiers, and they suffered
significant losses through battle and disease.80, 81 After the war, German East Africa came under
British control per the terms of the Versailles Treaty, thus uniting British colonial dominance of
the region that would later become the independent countries of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania
(Tanganyika). As British war veterans began to move into Kenya‘s ―White Highlands‖ as part of
a British postwar resettlement program, increasing African resentment toward the settlers sowed
the seeds of revolt.82
African Nationalism and Rebellion
Many leaders of the initial nationalist movements were Kikuyu, a tribe whose homeland was
most affected by the settlements in the Highland regions around Nairobi. Foremost among these
early African fighters against colonial rule was Jomo Kenyatta, later the first president of
Kenya.83
77
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: The Protectorates and the Lunatic Express (1891–1902),‖ in The
Kenyalogy Guide of Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
78
Linda Watanabe McFerrin, ―Aboard the Lunatic Express,‖ n.d.,
http://www.lwmcferrin.com/bookings/lunaticexp.htm
79
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―History of Kenya: The Uganda
Railway and European Settlement,‖ 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38091/History
80
BBC World Service, ―World War I: Support for the War Effort,‖ in The Story of Africa, n.d.,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page12.shtml
81
Jens Finke, ―Kamba—Colonial History: The Kamba and the Colonial Army,‖ in The Traditional Music and
Cultures of Kenya, 13 December 2006, http://www.bluegecko.org/kenya/tribes/kamba/history2.htm
82
Kenya Advisor Website, ―The History of Colonial Kenya,‖ n.d., http://www.kenya-advisor.com/colonialkenya.html
83
BBC News, ―Independence: Case Study Kenya,‖ in The Story of Africa, n.d.,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/14chapter8.shtml
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Through involvement in several pro-independence
organizations, Kenyatta worked to regain Kikuyu lands
taken when Kenya became a British crown colony in
1920.84 In 1929 and 1931, Kenyatta traveled to London
to lobby for this cause. Although his arguments were not
persuasive, Kenyatta stayed in Europe for more than a
decade, earning a PhD in anthropology from the London
School of Economics. During this time, he also briefly
joined the Communist Party and became known as an
outspoken African nationalist. After Kenyatta returned to
British East Africa in September 1946, he became leader of the newly founded Kenya African
Union (KAU) and continued to press the British colonial administration on land-return issues
and African political equality.85
A secretive resistance group of mostly Kikuyu tribespeople known as the Mau Mau had sprung
up in the 1940s and was outlawed in 1950. Although Kenyatta‘s membership in the group was
never proved, he was sentenced to 7 years of hard labor following a 1952 attack on white settlers
and African supporters of the colonists, which was blamed on the Mau Mau.86, 87, 88, 89 Following
his release in August 1961, Kenyatta united political rivals within the African nationalist
movement (e.g., two splinter groups of the KAU: the Kenya Africa National Union [KANU] and
the Kenya Africa Democratic Union [KADU]) into a coalition government for the emerging
nation of Kenya, which became fully independent in December 1963.90, 91 The following year,
the Republic of Kenya came into existence with Kenyatta as president. The KANU quickly
became the dominant political party, with several former KADU members, including Ronald
Ngala and Daniel arap Moi, assuming administrative and ministerial positions within the new
KANU government.92, 93
84
John A. Rowe, ―Jomo Kenyatta: Early Life,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007,
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-3881/Jomo-Kenyatta
85
Global Literacy Project Website, ―Roots of the Kenyan Struggle for Independence,‖ n.d.,
http://glpinc.org/Classroom%20Activities/Kenya%20Articles/Struggle%20for%20Independence.htm
86
Roger D. Hughes, ―Emergency in Kenya: Kikuyu and the Mau Mau Insurrection,‖ 2 April 1984,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/HRD.htm
87
BBC News, ―1953: Seven Years ‗Hard Labor‘ for Kenyatta,‖ On This Day, 8 April 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/8/newsid_2887000/2887641.stm
88
Hilda Nissimi, ―Mau Mau and the Decolonisation of Kenya,‖ Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 8, no. 3
(Spring 2006), http://www.jmss.org/2006/2006spring/articles/MauMau.pdf
89
BBC News, ―1953: Seven Years ‗Hard Labor‘ for Kenyatta‖ in On This Day, 8 April 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/8/newsid_2887000/2887641.stm
90
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, ―History of Kenya: World War II to Independence,‖ Encyclopædia
Britannica Online, 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38095/History
91
London reports in 1959 of a British-run torture camp in western Kenya had accelerated efforts of the British
government to transfer power and disengage from Kenya. See London Review of Books: Bernard Porter, ―How Did
They Get Away With It? (Review of ―Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of
Empire,‖ by David Anderson and ―Britain’s Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya,‖ by Caroline Elkins), 3
March 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/8/newsid_2887000/2887641.stm
92
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, ―History of Kenya: World War II to Independence,‖ Encyclopædia
Britannica Online, 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38095/History
93
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Daniel arap Moi,‖ 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article9343231/Daniel-arap-Moi
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Kenyatta’s Rule (1963–1978)
By consolidating power, the one-party state created by
Kenyatta ruled throughout the 20th century in a political
environment of suspicion and fear marked by political
assassinations, a failed coup, student riots, and repression
of dissent.94 Attempts at wealth and land distribution were
unsuccessful and ultimately benefited wealthy Kikuyu.95,
96
Although Kenya‘s economy grew as a result of freemarket capitalism, and tourism and foreign investment
flourished, the country‘s economic growth did not reach many of Kenya‘s poor. The
unemployment level remained high. Further, much of Kenya‘s valuable lands remained in the
hands of a small minority, albeit an African rather than a British elite.97
In 1966, Vice President Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, disgruntled by government policies, left the
KANU to form the Kenya People‘s Union (KPU) party. Thomas Mboya, the government‘s
Minister for Economic Planning and Development, was assassinated 3 years later. Many
suspected that the KANU was behind the killing.98 In the ensuing political battle, Kenyatta
banned the KPU and had Odinga arrested. Kenyatta released Odinga in 1971 in an act of
reconciliation.99
When another dissident KANU member, Josiah Mwangi Kariuki, was killed in 1975, student
riots broke out at the University of Nairobi. This ultimately led to Kenyatta‘s approval of an
independent investigation into the circumstances of Kariuki‘s death. The resulting report
implicated members of Kenyatta‘s government. Several KANU members of Parliament called
for a ―no confidence‖ vote. By arresting critics, however, Kenyatta was able to stifle dissent until
his death in 1978.100
94
Charles N. Mwaura, ―Political Succession and Related Conflicts in Kenya‖ (paper presented at the USAID
Conference on Conflict Resolution in the Greater Horn of Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, 27–28 March 1997),
http://payson.tulane.edu/conflict/Cs%20St/MWAURFIN2.html
95
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: Uhuru, Jamhuri, Harambee (1963–1978),‖ in The Kenyalogy
Guide of Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
96
Korwa G. Adar and Isaac M. Munyae, ―Human Rights Abuse in Kenya Under Daniel arap Moi, 1978–2001,‖
African Studies Quarterly 5, no. 1(2001), http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v5/v5i1a1.htm
97
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: Uhuru, Jamhuri, Harambee (1963–1978),‖ in The Kenyalogy
Guide of Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
98
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, ―History of Kenya: Kenyatta‘s Rule,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica Online,
2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38097/History
99
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, ―History of Kenya: Kenyatta‘s Rule,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica Online,
2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38097/History
100
Charles N. Mwaura, ―Political Succession and Related Conflicts in Kenya‖ (paper presented at the USAID
Conference on Conflict Resolution in the Greater Horn of Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, 27–28 March 1997),
http://payson.tulane.edu/conflict/Cs%20St/MWAURFIN2.html
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Kenyan Rule Under Moi (1978–2002)
President Kenyatta was succeeded by the Vice President,
Daniel arap Moi, who ruled as head of state until 2002
when he was constitutionally barred from re-election.101
Although supporters initially believed Moi might steer the
country away from ethnic politics and corruption, his
government also became autocratic and dishonest.102, 103
Following a failed coup in 1982, Moi ran unopposed in
national elections in 1983 and 1988.104
The Army quashed the coup attempt headed by junior Air Force officers and supported by
university students. Moi subsequently dismantled the Kenyan Air Force and temporarily closed
Kenyan universities. Moi‘s former benefactor, Charles Njonjo, was arrested the following year
and convicted on charges of treason and subversion for his role in the coup attempt, but he was
subsequently pardoned by Moi.105
During the 1980s, the Moi government continued to receive foreign aid because of its proWestern policies. But as the Soviet bloc collapsed in the early 1990s, international donors began
to demand political and economic reforms.106 In 1991, Moi repealed the one-party law after all
international aid to Kenya had been suspended for 6 months pending the implementation of
political and economic reforms.107
Although Moi‘s KANU party won multiparty elections in 1992 and 1997, the political victories
were marred by ethnic violence during both the pre- and post-election periods.108 The closeness
of the 1997 election, which the KANU party won with 40% of the vote, forced Moi to create a
coalition government by bringing in minority parties. This marked the first time in Kenya‘s
history that parties shared governmental power with KANU.109
101
Robert M. Maxon, ―Kenya: History. G. Recent Developments,‖ Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2007,
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564507_10/Kenya.html
102
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, ―History of Kenya: Kenyatta‘s Rule,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica
Online, 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38097/History
103
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, ―Historical Background: The Moi Presidency and the Kibaki
Government,‖ in Country Profile: Kenya, June 2007, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
104
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, ―History of Kenya: Moi‘s Rule,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica Online,
2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38098/History
105
Kenneth Ingham and Mwenda Ntarangwi, ―History of Kenya: Moi‘s Rule,‖ Encyclopædia Britannica Online,
2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38098/History
106
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Daniel arap Moi,‖ 2007, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article9343231/Daniel-arap-Moi
107
Javier Gomez-Garcia, Kenyalogy.com, ―History: Kenya at the Turn of the Century (1990–2000),‖ in The
Kenyalogy Guide of Kenya’s Nature, June 2002, http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/tienda/gklogyen.pdf
108
T. Craig Murphy, ―A Comparative Analysis of Violence in Kenya‖ (master‘s thesis, University of Denver, 2003),
http://www.du.edu/gsis/sfa/violenceinkenya.doc
109
Bureau of African Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Kenya,‖ 27 April 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2962.htm
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In 2002, Moi was constitutionally barred from running for re-election as a result of a two-term
limit instituted in the multiparty election reforms of the early 1990s. But Moi‘s hand-picked
successor, Uhuru Kenyatta (Jomo Kenyatta‘s son), was defeated by Mwai Kibaki, the candidate
of the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC).110
More Election Violence and Promised Reforms
The Kibaki government, which has pledged reform, has
also been plagued by corruption.111 An anti-corruption
commission was put into place soon after Kibaki came to
power, but its director, John Githongo, resigned in 2005
and moved to Great Britain. In January 2006, he
provided details about alleged fraud (known as the Anglo
Leasing deal) in which a contract issued for printing
Kenyan passports involved Kenya‘s vice president and several of Kibaki‘s cabinet ministers.112
Kibaki was confirmed for a second term as president on 27 December 2007, although the
opposition Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) accused Kibaki‘s NARC party of ―cooking‖
and ―witch doctoring‖ election results. Following ―the most closely contested elections in
Kenya‘s history,‖ which were peaceful, controversial allegations of discrepancies in vote
counting led to widespread violence—including charges of ―murder, deportation, persecution,
and torture.‖113, 114
Opposition supporters questioned the election results because voters, according to official
records, overwhelmingly rejected Kibaki‘s vice president and at least 19 other incumbent cabinet
members. An ―unusual delay in announcing the presidential results by the Election Commission
of Kenya also cast doubt on the validity of the election.‖ Adding to the controversy, pre-election
and exit polls predicted the opposition candidate to win.115
In the political violence between opposing parties that followed the elections, more than 1,200
people died and 500,000 were left homeless.116, 117 Bringing the country to the ―brink of civil
war,‖ the fighting between long-standing ethnic and economic rivals, encouraged and paid for by
110
Robert M. Maxon, ―Kenya: History. G. Recent Developments,‖ Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2007,
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564507_10/Kenya.html
111
BBC News, World Edition, ―New Kenya Leader Promises Reform,‖ 30 December 2002,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2614963.stm
112
Business Anti-Corruption Portal, ―Kenya Country Profile,‖ May 2006, http://www.business-anticorruption.dk/normal.asp?pageid=108
113
Lucien Toulou, ―A Brief Analysis of Recent Events in Kenya,‖ Electoral Institute for the Sustainability of
Democracy in Africa, n.d., http://www.eisa.org.za/EISA/pr20080109.htm
114
BBC News, ―Kenya Election Violence: ICC Names Suspects,‖ 15 December 2010,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11996652
115
Lucien Toulou, ―A Brief Analysis of Recent Events in Kenya,‖ Electoral Institute for the Sustainability of
Democracy in Africa, n.d., http://www.eisa.org.za/EISA/pr20080109.htm
116
Initial reports by the BBC placed the death toll at more than 1,500 and the displaced at more than 600,000.
However, these numbers have been lowered in subsequent reports.
117
BBC News, ―Kenya‘s Cabinet Learns the Ropes,‖ 9 May 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7391833.stm
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―power-hungry politicians,‖ included the burning down of a church ―where about 100 people
(mostly women and children) had sought sanctuary.‖118
International Intervention
To end the trouble—primarily in Nyanza, the Rift Valley,
and the Western provinces of Kenya—former UN
Secretary General Kofi Annan led negotiations in
February 2008 that ended almost two months of fighting.
Ultimately, President Kibaki agreed to share power with
his election rival and current Prime Minister of Kenya,
Raila Odinga.119, 120
As part of the agreement negotiated by Annan between NARC and ODM supporters to punish
those responsible for the post-election violence, six high-level government officials of Kenya
have been summoned before the International Criminal Court (ICC) at The Hague. The trials, if
not eventually blocked, are expected to begin in 2012.121 Luis Moreno Ocampo, prosecutor for
the ICC, has said that up to 60 ―protected‖ witnesses would testify in the upcoming trial,
focusing on allegations that ―powerful politicians‖ and ―wealthy business leaders‖ organized the
post-election ―crimes against humanity.‖122, 123 To cope with increasing threats against those
expected to testify before the ICC, Kenya‘s Witness Protection Act was amended in May 2010,
creating a more independent protection agency.124 U.S. President Barack Obama, whose father
was Kenyan, has encouraged cooperation with the international investigation.125 In April 2011,
defendants began appearing before the ICC in preliminary hearings.126
118
BBC News, ―Kenya Election Violence: ICC Names Suspects,‖ 15 December 2010,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11996652
119
BBC News, ―Kenya‘s Cabinet Learns the Ropes,‖ 9 May 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7391833.stm
120
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Kenya: Country Specific Information,‖ 28 December
2010, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1151.html
121
BBC News, ―ICC Summons Six Kenyans Over Post-Election Violence,‖ 9 March 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12683561
122
BBC News, ―Kenya Post-Election Violence Case ‗Unstoppable,‘‖ 12 May 2010,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8678427.stm
123
BBC News, ―Kenya Election Violence: ICC Names Suspects,‖ 15 December 2010,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11996652
124
Human Rights Watch, ―World Report 2011: Kenya,‖ n.d., http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/kenya
125
BBC News, ―Kenya Election Violence: ICC Names Suspects,‖ 15 December 2010,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11996652
126
BBC News, ―Key Kenya Figures Appear at ICC Over Post-Poll Violence,‖ 7 April 2011,
http://www.africanmorningnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2312:key-kenya-figuresappear-at-icc-over-post-poll-violence&catid=30:community&Itemid=95
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Constitutional Reform and Other Events
In addition to the prosecution, the peace deal that ended
the post-election violence included a provision to put
constitutional reform to a referendum vote. On 13 June
2010, 2 months prior to the referendum, a grenade attack
killed 6 and injured 130 more at a church rally in
Nairobi.127 Christian churches in Kenya—concerned
about constitutional provisions allowing abortion and
recognizing Islamic family courts—were leading the
opposition to constitutional reform.128, 129, 130 But after four decades of mounting support, 67% of
Kenyans cast ballots favoring reform on 4 August 2010, establishing in Kenyan law new human
rights for minorities and mandates to share power among government branches.131
Another area of concern for Kenya is terrorist attacks. In 1998, a bombing linked to al-Qaeda
rocked the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, killing 214 people and injuring more than 5,000.132 Attacks
by al-Qaeda in 2002 on a tourist hotel near Mombasa and on an Israeli jet taking off from the
Mombasa airport brought further travel warnings about Kenya in the U.S. and Europe.133
Tourism, the largest source of foreign revenue for the Kenyan economy, consequently suffered.
Although Kenyan tourism has rebounded, the government has been actively instituting antiterrorist policies and training.134, 135 According to a warning released by the U.S. Department of
State on 28 December 2010, future terrorist attacks in Kenya may occur because many of those
responsible for previous attacks remain at large. ―Terrorist acts could include suicide operations,
bombings, kidnappings, attacks on civil aviation… and attacks on maritime vessels in or near
Kenyan ports.‖136
127
Initial reports were that more than five people died. The number was raised to six in later reports.
BBC News, ―Kenya Churches Blame Government for Grenade Deaths,‖ 14 June 2010,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311179
129
Amadeus Institute, ―Attack Targeting Opponents of Constitutional Reform in Kenya,‖ 13 June 2010,
http://www.amadeusonline.org/en/publications/the-moroccan-middle-class/235-revue-de-presse-lattentat-visant-desopposants-a-la-reforme-de-la-constitution-au-kenya.html
130
BBC News, ―Five Killed in Kenyan Rally Crush,‖ 13 June 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10305750
131
Human Rights Watch, ―World Report 2011: Kenya,‖ n.d., http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/kenya
132
BBC News, World Service, ―US Embassy Bombing Four Convicted,‖ 29 May 2001,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1358141.stm
133
Stefan Lovgren, ―Terrorism Taking Toll on Kenya‘s Tourism Industry,‖ National Geographic News, 17 June
2003, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/06/0617_030617_kenyatourism_2.html
134
Business in Africa Online, ―Kenya Eyes Record $800mn Tourism Revenue,‖ 2 November 2006,
http://www.businessinafrica.net/news/east_africa/989559.htm
135
Fighting Terrorism in Africa, testimony before House International Relations Committee, Subcommittee on
Africa, 1 April 2004, (testimony of Karl Wykoff, Associate Coordinator, Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism), U.S. Department of State, http://2001-2009.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/2004/31077.htm
136
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Kenya Country Specific Information,‖ 28 December
2010, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1151.html
128
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Chapter 2: Assessments
1. The area formerly known as British East Africa included all the countries that make up
modern East Africa.
False
The area known as British East Africa contained the modern countries of Kenya and Uganda.
2. Jomo Kenyatta became the first president of the new nation of Kenya.
True
Jomo Kenyatta was Kenya‘s first president.
3. The Republic of Kenya was a model African nation with a higher standard of living than
much of Africa.
False
Although Kenya‘s economy grew and tourism and foreign investment flourished, the country‘s
poor did not benefit from its economic growth. Attempts at wealth and land distribution were
unsuccessful and ultimately benefited wealthy Kikuyu.
4. Turkana Boy, one of the oldest Homo erectus fossils, was discovered in Kenya‘s Great
Rift Valley.
True
In 1984, Kamoya Kimeu, working with famed paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey, discovered
the skull of what eventually became an almost complete skeleton dated to 1.6 million years ago.
5. The French were the first Europeans to colonize the region now known as Kenya.
False
European colonization of what is modern Kenya began in 1498 when the Portuguese arrived.
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Chapter 3: Economy
Industry
With 16% of the country‘s gross domestic product (GDP)
in 2010 coming from manufacturing, Kenya is East
Africa‘s largest industrial producer; however, its
economy is still suffering.137 An overreliance on a few
agricultural products, prolonged droughts, crumbling
infrastructure, high energy costs, rapid population
growth, and a widening gap between rich and poor have
all contributed to Kenya‘s negative economic situation.
Furthermore, widespread government corruption (e.g.,
bribery and fraud estimated at USD 1 billion per year)
have made it expensive to do business in Kenya.138
Because foreign companies continue to own 60% to 70% of Kenyan industries—with Great
Britain and the United States providing the majority of foreign investment—much of Kenya‘s
industrial output comes from local subsidiaries of multinational corporations.139, 140 The
processing of agricultural products (e.g., grain milling, sugarcane crushing) and the production of
consumer goods are the dominant industrial activities. Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu are the
primary industrial centers.141
Some of the fastest growing sectors in the manufacturing economy have been tobacco products
(36.9% from 2004 to 2005), plastic products (25.9% ), paper and paper products (20.8% ), meat
and dairy products (18.2% ), beverages (15.9%), and cement (13.3%).142 Other industries that are
not growing as quickly are still major contributors to the country‘s economy. These include
137
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Kenya,‖ in The World Factbook, March 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke.html
138
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Kenya, June 2007,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
139
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Kenya, June 2007,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
140
PriceWaterhouseCoopers, ―A Brief Overview of the Industrial Manufacturing Sector in Kenya,‖ 2011,
http://www.pwc.com/Extweb/industry.nsf/docid/1FED39714797C55285256CE60043AFD5
141
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, ―Economy: Industry and Manufacturing,‖ in the Country
Profile: Kenya, March 2005, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
142
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, ―KNBS Information: Sectoral Statistics: Manufacturing: Industry,‖
http://www.knbs.or.ke/manufacturing_index.php
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petroleum products, rubber products, transport equipment, printed materials, and textiles and
clothing.143
One of the problems that the manufacturing sector in Kenya still faces is that most of its raw
materials must be imported. This problem is further exacerbated by long delays in clearing
customs at Mombasa harbor, poor rail service to inland industrial centers, and deteriorating
roads. Besides these transportation issues, energy costs are high in Kenya.144Therefore, it is
difficult to produce products that will be cost competitive on the world market. It was hoped that
the East African Community (EAC) Customs Union instituted in 2005 would aid at least some
of Kenya‘s industries by expanding the domestic market, thereby creating more favorable
economies of scale for manufacturers.145 (A customs union is a trading countries with free trade
among themselves and one set of tariffs for nonmembers. It is often an interim step toward a
common market like the European Union.)
Banking
The Central Bank of Kenya (CBK) is responsible for
planning and implementing the country‘s monetary
policy.It also oversees the Kenyan banking industry. The
CBK and Kenyan banking industry have been involved
in corruption scandals in the past. These scandals have
shaken the people‘s confidence in the supervision of the
banking industry.
In March 2006, the Governor of the CBK, Andrew Mullei, was charged with four counts of
abuse of office for hiring four people, including his son, as consultants.146 The consultants had
been brought in by Mullei and the CBK to investigate charges of tax evasion and money
laundering by Charterhouse Bank, one of the 42 Kenyan banks under CBK purview. Defenders
of Mullei claim that the charges against him and his subsequent suspension as CBK Governor
are retribution for having recommended that Charterhouse be de-licensed after receiving the
consultants‘ interim report on the bank‘s activities.147, 148, 149 (The court acquitted Mullei on 26
143
Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Maxon, Robert M. ―Kenya: Economy. E. Mining and Manufacturing.‖
2007. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564507_6/Kenya.html
144
Central Bank of Kenya, ―Annual Report of the Central Bank of Kenya for the Financial Year 2005/06:
Manufacturing.‖ 17 October 2006. http://www.centralbank.go.ke/downloads/publications/annual/annual_2006L.pdf
145
PriceWaterhouseCoopers, ―A Brief Overview of the Industrial Manufacturing Sector in Kenya,‖ 2007.
http://www.pwc.com/Extweb/industry.nsf/docid/1FED39714797C55285256CE60043AFD5
146
Cathy Majtenyi, ―Kenya‘s Central Bank Chief Charged With Corruption,‖ , Voice of America ,23 March 2006,
http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-03/2006-03-23voa33.cfm?CFID=141612073&CFTOKEN=56897699
147
Richard Munguti,.,. ―Sh70b Petty Cash,‖ The Kenya Times, 18 October 2006,
http://www.timesnews.co.ke/18oct06/nwsstory/topstry.html
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May 2007.) In November 2006, the U.S. Ambassador to Kenya, Michael Ranneberger, asked the
Kenyan government to pass anti-money-laundering legislation to avoid future recurrences of
Charterhouse-style scandals.150
Another scandal that occurred during the early 1990s had come to light during the last years of
the Moi administration. Known as the Goldenberg scandal, it ultimately became tied to several
high-level government officials past and present, including President Moi himself.151 It may
ultimately have cost the CBK as much as KSh 60 billion (USD 850 million), or onefifth of the
Kenyan GDP.152 Ultimately the Goldenberg scandal significantly contributed to Kenya‘s
economic suffering in the 1990s. During this time, the combination of rampant inflation, a
rapidly increasing national debt, and the termination of international donor support brought
economic growth to a standstill.153
Trade
Kenya continues to show a significant trade deficit.
Because Kenya‘s manufacturing products are not
currently competitive in most world markets, a large part
of Kenya‘s trade deficit is in manufactured goods (2005
imports of USD 3.39 billion versus exports of USD 638
million). Within the manufactured goods category,
Kenya runs its largest deficit in machinery and transport
equipment (2005 imports of USD 1.50 billion versus exports of USD 55 million).154
Another significant percentage of the deficit comes from the importation of fuels and minerals.
Although some of Kenya‘s crude oil imports are later exported after being processed at the
Mombasa refinery, the gap between imports and exports was USD 634 million in 2005.155
148
The East African Standard, ―The KSh18 Billion Nakumatt Scam,‖ 22 June 2006,
http://www.eastandard.net/hm_news/news.php?articleid=1143954319
149
Ayub Savula, ―Big Names Summoned Over Nakumatt Scam,‖ The East African Standard, 23 June 2006,
http://www.eastandard.net/hm_news/news.php?articleid=1143954375
150
, Michael E. Ranneberger, ―The United States and Kenya: A Robust Partnership,‖ , U.S. Embassy, Kenya,21
November 2006, http://nairobi.usembassy.gov/wwwhccomsp.html
151
William Karanja, , ―Kenya: Corruption Scandal,‖ World Press Review, vol. 50:10 (October 2003).
http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/1499.cfm#down
152
William Karanja,. ―Kenya: Corruption Scandal,‖ World Press Review, vol. 50:10 ( October 2003),
http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/1499.cfm#down
153
Deremo Maiko, ―Heads to Roll Over Goldenberg Scandal,‖ , NEWSfromAFRICA, April 2003,
http://www.newsfromafrica.org/newsfromafrica/articles/art_1278.html
154
World Trade Organization, ―Time Series,‖ 2007,
http://stat.wto.org/StatisticalProgram/WSDBViewData.aspx?Language=E
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Agricultural products are Kenya‘s most valuable exports (2005 exports of USD 1.50 billion
versus imports of USD 676 million). In no other broad trade category for goods does Kenya
show a net trade surplus. In the services sector, tourism helps to reduce the trade deficit and
provides Kenya with a source of foreign currency.
Horticultural products (fruits, vegetables, cut flowers) are often cited as one of the few Kenyan
trade success stories.156 Now only tourism brings in more trade dollars than horticultural items,
and within the goods category only tea approaches generating as much export revenue.157
Kenya has long been associated with coffee, and as recently as 1989, coffee was the country‘s
most valuable export.. Since then, the growth of coffee exports have systematically declined. The
causes of the downward trend include lower world coffee prices, reduced production as small
farmers switch to other crops, droughts, and corruption in coffee cooperatives, which reduce the
profits of coffee growers.158 As of 2007, flowers and tea jumped ahead of coffee in export
earnings.159
Kenya‘s top trading partners for exports are the United Kingdom (11.3%), Netherlands (9.8%),
Uganda (9.1%), Tanzania (8.8%), the United States (5.9%), and Pakistan (5.6%).160 Most of
Kenya‘s exports to the United States are clothing and textiles that enter the U.S. duty free under
the terms of the African Growth and Opportunity Act of 2000.161 For imports, Kenya‘s leading
trading partners are India (11.7%), China (10.6%), the United Arab Emirates (9.3%), South
Africa (8.4%), Saudi Arabia (6.5%), the United States (6.3%), and Japan (5.1%).162
155
World Trade Organization, ―Time Series,‖ 2007,
http://stat.wto.org/StatisticalProgram/WSDBViewData.aspx?Language=E
156
Philip English, Steven M. Jaffee, and Julius Okello, ―Kenya: Exporting Out of Africa—Kenya‘s Horticulture
Success Story,‖ The World Bank, 25–27 May 2004,
http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/reducingpoverty/case/120/fullcase/Kenya%20Horticulture%20Full%20Case.p
df
157
Export Promotion Council, ―Export Statistics,‖ 2006,
http://www.epckenya.org/page.asp?page=EXP_STATS&submenu=KEN_PROF&childmenu=EXP_STATS
158
Global Exchange. Associated Press. ―Struggling Kenyan Coffee Growers Wonder Where All the Money Goes.‖
Tomlinson, Chris. 29 July 2001.
http://www.globalexchange.org/campaigns/fairtrade/coffee/news2001/ap072901.html.pf
159
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Kenya, June 2007,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
160
CIA, ―Kenya.‖ The World Factbook, March 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/ke.html
161
The East African Standard. Wandera, Noel. ―Kenya, US Trade Volume Hits Sh77.8b Mark.‖
http://www.eastandard.net/hm_news/news.php?articleid=1143951152
162
CIA, ―Kenya.‖ The World Factbook, March 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/ke.html
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Investment
Accurate statistics on foreign direct investment in Kenya
are difficult to obtain, but the country has experienced a
period of low investment since the mid-1980s. During
that time, the country suffered from a deteriorating
infrastructure, political corruption, inconsistent economic
policies, and the haphazard adoption of economic
structural reforms.163 According to a 2010 report
published by the World Economic Forum, corruption,
access to finance, inefficient government bureaucracy, and poor roads have continued to plague
foreign investment in Kenya. Out of 139 countries analyzed in terms of economic
competitiveness, Kenya was ranked 106, compared to its regional neighbors Uganda and
Tanzania (which were ranked 118 and 113, respectively).164 Previously, a Kenya Investment
Guide published by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development in May 2005
reported that poor infrastructure in transportation and telecommunications, high costs associated
with crime, and an expensive and undependable power and water supply created disincentives
for Kenyan investment.
Still, Kenya has been striving in recent years to improve its overall investment climate. The
Investment Promotion Act of 2004 streamlined some of the legal and administrative procedures
for new foreign or joint venture investments. Since the early 1990s, Kenya has promoted the
development of Export Processing Zones (EPZs) that encourage export-oriented businesses to
locate in Kenya in exchange for tax and tariff breaks. More than 85% of these businesses are
foreign-owned or joint ventures.165
Most of the EPZs are located in Mombasa or Nairobi, with the largest one located in the
suburban town of Athi River, not far from Nairobi‘s Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. In
2004, more than 10% of Kenya‘s total exports came from businesses operating in the EPZs.166
Much of the EPZ growth since 2000 has come from garment manufacturing startups created to
take advantage of the U.S. African Growth and Opportunity Act.167 The working conditions in
163
Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State. ―2006 Investment Climate Statement—
Kenya.‖ February 2006, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/ifd/2006/62005.htm
164
World Economic Forum, ―The Global Competitiveness Report, 2010-2011,‖ 2010,
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf
165
Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State. ―2006 Investment Climate Statement—
Kenya.‖ February 2006. http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/ifd/2006/62005.htm
166
Export Processing Zones Authority—Kenya. ―Current Status and Performance Statistics.‖ 23 April 2007.
http://www.epzakenya.com/epzsinkenya.php?cat=3&sub=7
167
Export Processing Zones Authority. ―Kenya‘s Apparel and Textile Industry 2005.‖ 2005.
http://www.epzakenya.com/UserFiles/File/ApparelTextile.pdf
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some of the enterprises within the EPZs have been an ongoing subject of controversy over the
past few years.168, 169
During 1993–94, the Kenyan government enacted an economic Structural Adjustment Program
prescribed by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF). As controls on foreign
exchange, prices, and interest rates were phased out and the economy moved toward greater
privatization, Kenya went through a phase of macroeconomic shock therapy. To counteract some
of the negative effects of economic liberalization, the government embraced microfinance
service providers as a way to jump-start lending at the grass-roots level.170, 171 Microfinance
lenders specialize in loans for small or micro-enterprises and for historically underserved
economic groups, such as rural workers and women. Such assistance has continued to this day
and is a key component of the Kenyan Government‘s poverty reduction program.172
Nevertheless, despite such efforts, the percentage of the population in Kenya considered
impoverished almost doubled between 1970 and 2000.173
168
Inter Press Service News Agency. Taylor, Darren. ―Kenya: ‗In a Situation Like This, Who Cares About Human
Rights?‘‖ 5 October 2005. http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=30542
169
AllAfrica.com. Inter Press Service. ―Export Processing Zones Still a Bone of Contention.‖ Mulama, Joyce. 30
April 2007. http://allafrica.com/stories/200704301509.html
170
United Nations Capital Development Fund. Enterprising Solutions Global Consulting, LLD. ―Kenya Companion
Report: UNCDF Microfinance Program Impact Assessment 2003.‖ 2003.
http://www.uncdf.org/english/about_uncdf/corporate_policy_papers/2004IIA/uncdf_MF_kenya.pdf
171
Foundation for Sustainable Development. ―Micro-Enterprise: Microfinance Issues in Kenya.‖
http://www.fsdinternational.org/?q=ntlopps/country/kenya/microfinance
172
United Nations Capital Development Fund. Microfinance Matters, Issue 16. Sabana, Beatrice. ―Report From the
Field: Incorporating Microfinance Into Kenya‘s Economic Recovery Strategy.‖ September 2005.
http://www.uncdf.org/english/microfinance/pubs/newsletter/pages/2005_09/news_rep_kenya.php
173
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Kenya, June 2007,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
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Energy and Resources
Kenya has no domestic fossil fuel, although offshore
petroleum exploration is ongoing.174 The country
generates nearly 55% of its electricity from hydropower
dams, and geothermal plants in the Great Rift Valley
produce an additional 17% of Kenya‘s electricity.175
Despite high start-up costs, geothermal energy is viewed
as the country‘s best bet for reducing its reliance on
imported fossil fuels, which are used to generate most of
the remainder of Kenya‘s current electricity needs.176, 177 A small amount of Kenya‘s electricity
is imported from Uganda. Although fluctuations in rainfall restrict the water supply, and thus
hydroelectric generating capacity, capacity can decrease during dry years and can lead to
periodic power outages. As power usage increases and rainfall patterns continue to be
unpredictable, increasing shortages are expected in the future.178
Kenya‘s mineral resources are limited. Soda ash generates 63% and fluorspar 17% of the value
of Kenya‘s mineral exports. They are the most valuable minerals that are mined.. Small goldmining operations in the western part of the country make gold the third most-valuable mineral
export (11% of total revenue). Three cement companies in the Nairobi and Mombasa areas
produce cement using locally mined limestone. The cement is both used in the domestic
construction industry and exported to neighboring countries. Because China‘s decision to limit
exports of raw materials, is driving world prices higher, mineral exports from Kenya are
expected to increase to meet international demand.179
174
U.S. Geological Survey. 2005 Minerals Yearbook. ―The Mineral Industry of Kenya.‖ Yager, Thomas. 2005.
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2005/kemyb05.pdf
175
Central Bank of Kenya. ―Annual Report of the Central Bank of Kenya for the Financial Year 2005/06: Energy
Sector Developments.‖ 17 October 2006.
http://www.centralbank.go.ke/downloads/publications/annual/annual_2006L.pdf
176
BBC News, UK Version. Matheson, Ishbel. ―Kenya Looks Underground for Power.‖ 22 April 2005.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4473111.stm
177
Central Bank of Kenya. ―Annual Report of the Central Bank of Kenya for the Financial Year 2005/06: Energy
Sector Developments.‖ 17 October 2006.
http://www.centralbank.go.ke/downloads/publications/annual/annual_2006L.pdf
178
Central Bank of Kenya. ―Annual Report of the Central Bank of Kenya for the Financial Year 2005/06: Energy
Sector Developments.‖ 17 October 2006.
http://www.centralbank.go.ke/downloads/publications/annual/annual_2006L.pdf
179
George Omondi, ―Firms Reap from Rising Demand of Kenyan Minerals,‖ Business Daily, Aug. 5, 2010,
http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/Corporate%20News/Firms%20reap%20from%20rising%20demand%20for%20
Kenyan%20minerals/-/539550/971278/-/view/printVersion/-/sb5m82z/-/index.html
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Standard of Living
Until quite recently, the standard of living in Kenya had
been undergoing a period of steady decline. Today,
Kenya ranks 128 out of 169 countries on the Human
Development Index (HDI).180 Sub-Saharan Africa has
been showing steady or declining HDI scores primarily
because of the toll that HIV/AIDS has placed on average
life expectancy in these countries.181 (AIDS also
adversely affects economic output, because the most
productive age group, ages 15–49, is the group most severely ravaged by the disease.182)
Nonetheless, the Kenyan HDI drop exceeded that of its neighbors. This decline was attributed to
the relatively stagnant economic growth during the last decade of the Moi era.Corruption, a
wavering commitment to economic reform, and massive flooding in 1997–98 halted outside
investment and development grants.183
Beginning in 2003, the newly elected Kibaki administration instituted some reforms—most
notably in opening up access to primary education and strongly committing to the
implementation of HIV/AIDS awareness, testing, and prevention programs.184 The economy has
also witnessed increasing growth during the last three years. These measures and trends should
eventually help raise Kenya‘s HDI scores.
As important as it is for Kenya to raise its overall standard of living, a more daunting task will
be to bridge the tremendous standard-of-living gap between Kenya‘s more prosperous areas,
most notably Nairobi and the surrounding areas, and the rest of the country.185, 186
180
United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 2010: The Real Wealth of Nations:
Pathways to Human Development, 2010, http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf
181
United Nations Development Programme. ―The State of Human Development.‖ 2006.
http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/documents/thestateofhumandevelopment.pdf
182
The World Bank Group. AIDS in Africa. ―HIV/AIDS Impact on the Macroeconomic Level.‖
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTAFRHEANUTPOP/EXTAFRR
EGTOPHIVAIDS/0,,contentMDK:20435845~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:717148,00.html
183
IDASA. Kioko, Urbanus and Enos Njeru. ―Kenya.‖
www.idasa.org.za/gbOutputFiles.asp?WriteContent=Y&RID=1120
184
Overseas Development Institute. Court, Julius. ―Extract From Bridging Research and Policy on HIV/AIDS in
Developing Countries—Country Study: Kenya.‖ 2005.
http://www.odi.org.uk/Rapid/Projects/R0166/Docs/AIDS_report_country_study_Kenya.pdf
185
The Nation Online. Kwama, Kenneth. ―Insecurity Threatens to Reverse Kenya‘s Economic Gains.‖ 20 February
2007. http://www.eastandard.net/mag/mag.php?id=1143965097&catid=49
186
United Nations Development Programme. ―The State of Human Development.‖ 2006.
http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/documents/thestateofhumandevelopment.pdf
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Numerous factors, some very difficult to address, affect Kenya‘s standard-of- living differences.
Most of the northern and eastern parts of the country are arid to semi-arid lands that are subject
to periodic droughts. In the much wetter Lake Victoria region, increasing population density,
poor health care, soil erosion, and low investment have made this area one of the poorest in all of
Kenya. Even within Nairobi, many citizens exist at the margins of the country‘s economy. This
financial insecurity contributes to increasing urban crime, which in turn inhibits outside
investment.187
Agriculture
Kenya‘s economy has always been a dominantly
agricultural one, although only 7 to 8% of the country is
considered highly valuable arable lands.188 Most nonpastoral agricultural activity occurs in the Highlands, the
Lake Victoria Basin, and parts of the Coast region, where
rainfall is more dependable. Approximately three-quarters
of all Kenyans make a living in the farming sector.189
Agriculture, including forestry and fishing, currently directly generates 26% of Kenya‘s GDP
and another 27% indirectly through other economic sectors.190
Agriculture is particularly important to Kenya‘s economy because of its large contribution to
foreign exports (generating 60% of Kenya‘s export earnings and 45% of all government
revenues). Kenya‘s largest cash crops for export are horticultural crops (primarily cut flowers)
and tea, producing 19.9% and 18%, respectively, of Kenya‘s total export revenue. Much smaller
export contributions come from coffee, tobacco (including manufactured tobacco), and fish
(primarily Nile perch from Lake Victoria).191 Other important food products, grown mostly for
domestic use, include corn, wheat, and sugarcane.
187
The Nation Online. Kwama, Kenneth. ―Insecurity Threatens to Reverse Kenya‘s Economic Gains.‖ 20 February
2007. http://www.eastandard.net/mag/mag.php?id=1143965097&catid=49
188
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Kenya. March 2005. ―Economy: Agriculture,
Forestry, and Fishing Demography.‖ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
189
Export Promotion Council. ―Agriculture.‖ 2005.
http://www.epckenya.org/page.asp?page=Agriculture&submenu=KEN_PROF&childmenu=KEY_ECON_SCTS&ki
did=Agriculture
190
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Profile: Kenya. March 2005. ―Economy: Agriculture,
Forestry, and Fishing Demography.‖ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
191
Export Promotion Council. ―Export Statistics.‖ 2006.
http://www.epckenya.org/page.asp?page=EXP_STATS&submenu=KEN_PROF&childmenu=EXP_STATS
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Tourism
On a balance-of-trade basis, tourism is the most important
segment of the Kenyan economy. In 2005, tourism
generated 20% of Kenya‘s foreign exchange revenues. Its
contribution exceeded tea and horticulture exports, the
next-highest contributors to foreign exchange earnings.192
In fiscal year 2005–06, Kenya tourism generated more
than USD 600 million in revenue.193 It is estimated that
Kenyan tourism generates 500,000 jobs both directly and
indirectly, and these workers, in turn, support another 850,000 dependents.194
There are two major components to African tourism. First, the one most widely associated with
Kenya is wildlife viewing in the national parks. This has become especially popular as ecotourism has developed into a major segment of the tourism industry. Some of these parks are far
from Nairobi or Mombasa, so many tourists to the remote parks depend on domestic flights from
Nairobi‘s Wilson Airport.195
Kenya‘s coastal areas provide beach resorts, the second most-important generator of tourism in
Kenya. Mombasa is the base for much of this tourism. In terms of overall visitors and revenue,
coastal tourism is more important to Kenya‘s economy than wildlife parks . Coastal
disturbances, therefore, arouse security concerns, such as local ethnic fighting that took place
before the 1997 national elections or the Mombasa terrorist bombing in 2002, can have an
extremely large impact on overall tourism in Kenya.196, 197
192
Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, Republic of Kenya.
―Statistical Analysis of Tourism Trends (Locally and Globally).‖ November 2006.
http://www.tourism.go.ke/ministry.nsf/doc/Tourism_Trends_OCT2006_Revised.pdf/$file/Tourism_Trends_OCT20
06_Revised.pdf
193
Central Bank of Kenya. ―Annual Report of the Central Bank of Kenya for the Financial Year 2005/06: Tourism.‖
17 October 2006. http://www.centralbank.go.ke/downloads/publications/annual/annual_2006L.pdf
194
African Pro-Poor Tourism Development Centre. ―Welcome to Our Site.‖ 2006. http://www.propoortourismkenya.org/
195
Air Kenya. ―About Air Kenya.‖ http://www.airkenya.com/about.asp
196
International Development Research Centre. Crawley, Mike. ―Investigating the Impact of Tourism on Kenya.‖ 29
September 2000. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-5332-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
197
BBC News, UK Version. Ryan, Orla. ―Kenya Struggles as Tourists Stay Away.‖ 26 April 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3648817.stm
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Transportation
On paper, Kenya would seem to have a good
transportation system. Railroad lines connect the country
to Uganda and Tanzania, its two largest neighboring trade
partners. They provide a link between the Indian Ocean
port of Mombasa and the Lake Victoria port of Kisumu.
Numerous highways run between all of the major cities
and provide routes to and from each of Kenya‘s
neighboring countries. The two largest cities, Mombasa
and Nairobi, have large international airports, and Wilson Airport in Nairobi, which handles
domestic flights, is one of the busiest in Africa.
Unfortunately, the Kenya transportation system has not been well maintained, particularly during
the last two decades as the country‘s economy underwent a long decline. The most dramatic
example of these problems is the national railway system.198
Railroads
Until November 2006, Kenya Railways, a corporation owned by the government, was in charge
of Kenya‘s rail transportation system. Services were gradually cut back as insufficient funding
and poor management led to inadequate maintenance and a shortage of working rolling stock.199
Several branch lines have ceased to be used as conditions worsened.200
In late 2006, the system was transferred to a concession arrangement. Rift Valley Railways
(RVR), a South African-led consortium, took over the railroad under the terms of a 25-year
operating license. However, promises by RVR of investments in the system and purchases of
new locomotives and other rolling stock have yet to be fulfilled. In the meantime, the Port of
Mombasa has been plagued by cargo pile-ups at the docks because of the crippled rail system
cannot move goods to Nairobi and other inland destinations.201
198
Cecila M. Briceño-Garmendia and Maria Shkaratan, ―Kenya‘s Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective‖ (Policy
Research Working Paper 5596, Africa Region, Sustainable Development Department, The World Bank, March
2011). http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2011/03/17/000158349_20110317132634/Render
ed/PDF/WPS5596.pdf
199
iAfrica.com. Agence France-Presse. ―SA Firm Gets ‗Lunatic Express‘‖ 2 November 2006.
http://business.iafrica.com/african_business/369303.htm
200
Horn of Africa Logistics Cluster, Inter-Agency Standing Committee. ―Surface TransportKenya: Rail
Assessment.‖ September 2004.
http://www.logisticscluster.org/page/?action=showItem&catID=9&ID=13#Rail%20Assessment
201
Creamer Media‘s Engineering News. Njiraini, John. ―Rail Concessionaire Criticised by Kenya Railways
Corporation.‖ 27 April 2007. http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article.php?a_id=107367
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Highways
Approximately 80% of Kenya‘s roads are unpaved,
including significant portions of the major routes to the
Ethiopian and Somali borders. Elsewhere, important
paved roads have fallen into disrepair in places. The poor
road conditions lead to higher transportation costs, which
make Kenyan products less competitive in the global
market.
However, there are some signs of improvement. For example, recent and ongoing work on
sections of the main road connecting Mombasa to Uganda via Nairobi has improved travel times
in parts of this key transportation corridor. Much of this road improvement was aided through
grants from the European Union.202 Another road being upgraded is the main highway from
Kenya to Ethiopia, whose mostly unpaved northern portion is notoriously bad.203
Air Transportation
In contrast to crumbling roadways and deteriorating ports, Kenya is a leader in air transportation.
It meets international safety standards, is an international gateway and a regional hub.204
There are 200 airports in Kenya, most of which have unpaved runways. By far the most
important ones in terms of international trade and tourism are Jomo Kenyatta International
Airport (JKIA) in Nairbobi and Moi International Airport in Mombasa. Presently JKIA is in the
first stages of an expansion project that will eventually add a fourth air passenger terminal,
upgrade security and safety standards, and renovate existing facilities, including cargo handling
operations. Malindi Airport, an important air connection for tourists traveling between Nairobi
and the Kenyan coast, is also earmarked for expansion, as is the airport at the Lake Victoria port
city of Kisumu.205
202
Delegation of the European Commission to the Republic of Kenya, European Union. ―EU and Kenya:
Cooperation: Infrastructure.‖ 2007.
http://www.delken.ec.europa.eu/en/information.asp?MenuID=2&SubMenuID=7&ThirdmenuID=6
203
State House, Republic of Kenya. ―Speech by His Excellency Hon. Mwai Kibaki, C.G.H., M.P., President and
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kenya on the Occasion of Meeting with the United
Kingdom Business Community and Investors at Malborough House, United Kingdom, 20 th September, 2005.‖ 20
September 2005. http://www.statehousekenya.go.ke/speeches/kibaki/sept05/2005200901.htm
204
Cecila M. Briceño-Garmendia and Maria Shkaratan, ―Kenya‘s Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective‖ (Policy
Research Working Paper 5596, Africa Region, Sustainable Development Department, The World Bank, March
2011). http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2011/03/17/000158349_20110317132634/Render
ed/PDF/WPS5596.pdf
205
State House, Republic of Kenya. ―Speech by His Excellency Hon. Mwai Kibaki, C.G.H., M.P., President and
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kenya, During the Ground Breaking Ceremony at
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Business Outlook
The overall climate for business in Kenya is improving,
although threats can also be seen. Since 2004, the
economy has shown steady growth, with GDP increases
in the 4.5%–6% range after many years in which the
economy seldom grew by more than 3%.206,207 Tourism
is rapidly increasing , as interest in eco-tourism grows
and terrorism fears abate. Transport infrastructure
remains a concern, but key road systems are being
upgraded. There is still hope that the newly privatized railway system can eventually institute
needed improvements. Tax administration changes have increased domestic revenues without
raising overall taxes. HIV/AIDS and education reforms demonstrate a governmental
commitment to societal concerns. Eventually these investments should create a more stable
society and improve the country‘s long-term prospects for increased prosperity. The
manufacturing sector has been growing steadily, spurred primarily by increased domestic
demand for goods and growth in a few local trade areas, such as cement exports to Uganda.208
All of these trends add to the feeling of cautious optimism about Kenya‘s medium-term
economic future and the overall business climate.209
However, there are numerous concerns as well. Kenya, with no fossil fuel of its own, a large
balance-of-trade deficit, and already high transport costs for its mostly inland-located businesses,
is particularly vulnerable to high oil prices. Although new geothermal and hydroelectric projects
are underway, but Kenya will likely continue to experience shortfalls in electricity generation,
until the projects are completed.210 Corruption, a relatively weak legal and judicial system,
burdensome regulatory requirements, and a high crime rate are problems that continue to dampen
the enthusiasm of outside investors. These hidden expenses of doing business plus Kenya‘s high
Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, on 29th September, 2006.‖ 29 September 2006.
http://www.statehousekenya.go.ke/speeches/kibaki/sept06/2006290901.htm
206
Central Bank of Kenya. ―Annual Report of the Central Bank of Kenya for the Financial Year 2005/06: Energy
Sector Developments.‖ 17 October 2006.
http://www.centralbank.go.ke/downloads/publications/annual/annual_2006L.pdf
207
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. ―Kenya.‖ 16 May 2006.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/34/31/36740590.pdf
208 International Trade Centre. ―Trade Profile: Kenya - 25 Salt, sulphur, earth, stone, plaster, lime and cement (2005, in USD thousands)”
http://www.intracen.org/appli1/TradeCom/TP_TP_CI_P.aspx?IN=25&RP=800&YR=2005&IL=25%20%20Salt,%2
0sulphur,%20earth,%20stone,%20plaster,%20lime%20and%20cement&TY=T
209
The World Bank Group. ―Kenya: Country Brief.‖ November 2006.
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/KENYAEXTN/0,,menuPK:356520~
pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:356509,00.html#WB_assistance
210
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)., ―Kenya.,‖ 16 May 2006.,
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/34/31/36740590.pdf
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transportation and energy costs continue to hamper the competitiveness of most Kenyan
manufactured products outside the region.211
211
The World Bank Group., ―Kenya: Country Brief.,‖ November 2006.,
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/KENYAEXTN/0,,menuPK:356520~
pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:356509,00.html#WB_assistance
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Chapter 3: Assessments
1. Kenya has plenty of raw materials due to its abundance of natural resources.
False
Kenya must import most of the raw materials used in the manufacturing industry because the
country is limited in its natural resources.
2. EPZs (Export Processing Zones) encourage export-oriented businesses to relocate to
Kenya.
True
Kenya has been promoting the development of Export Processing Zones (EPZs) since the early
1990s. More than 85% of these businesses are foreign-owned or joint ventures.
3. Kenya is able to generate 75% of its electricity from wind farms.
False
Kenya generates 55% of its electricity from hydropower dams and an additional 17% from
geothermal plants in the Great Rift Valley.
4. Kenya‘s wildlife parks are one component of Kenya‘s tourism industry.
True
Both the wildlife parks and the coast contribute to tourism, the most important segment of the
Kenyan economy.
5. Traveling by rail within Kenya is simple and worry-free.
False
The Kenyan transportation system has not been well maintained, and many sections of the
railroad have fallen into disrepair.
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Chapter 4: Society
Introduction
East Africa, where Kenya is located, is considered the
site of human origin. There is evidence that humans lived
in Tanzania‘s Olduvai Gorge at the edge of the Great
Rift Valley more than 2 million years ago.
In East Africa, Swahili is spoken by more than 50
million people. Basic greetings in Swahili are more
complicated and time-consuming than greetings in most
European languages. In this way, they reflect the
friendliness and politeness of the East African peoples. This complexity demonstrates the
importance of human interaction and mutual respect in Swahili-speaking societies.212
Ethnic Groups
There are more than 70 ethnic groups in Kenya. The population comprises 22% Kikuyu, 14%
Luhya, 13% Luo, 12% Kalenjin, 11% Kamba, 6% Kisii, 6% Meru, 15% other African groups,
and 1% non-African (Asian, European, and Arab).213 The ethnic groups can be divided into three
main groups: the Bantu, the Nilotic, and the Cushite.
Bantu
The Bantu people live mostly in Kenya‘s coastal areas. The Kikuyu is the largest ethnic group of
the Bantu people and resides mainly in northern Nairobi. Many of them are in the nation‘s
government and social establishment.214 The remainder of the Bantu people comprises the Embu,
Mbere, Kamba, Luhya, Guba, Kuria, Gusii, Mijikenda, Pokomo and Tharaka.215, 216
212
African Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, ―East Africa—An Overview,‖ n.d.,
http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/overview.html
213
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Kenya,‖ in The World Factbook, 15 March 2007,
https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ke.html
214
Encyclopedia of the Nations, ―Kenya, Ethnic Groups,‖ 2011,
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Kenya-ETHNIC-GROUPS.html
215
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Kenya,‖ 2011, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37530
216
Jambo Kenya, ―The Bantu,‖ 2004, http://www.jambokenya.com/jambo/kenya/people4.htm
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Nilotic
The Nilotic people comprises the Maasai, Luo, and
Kalenjin (who include the sub-tribes of the Kipsigis,
Nandi, Tugen, Marakwet, Keiyo, Pokot, Terik, and
Sabaot), and make up about one-quarter of Kenya‘s total
population.217 The rural Luo live in the lower areas of
Kenya‘s western plateau, while the Kalenjin-speaking
people live in the higher areas of the plateau. The Maasai
are rural itinerants in the southern region bordering
Tanzania.218
Cushite
The Cushites, who make up a small portion of Kenya‘s population, are mostly nomadic cattle
herders. Many of these people can be found at Lake Turkana and the remote coastal areas. The
Cushites include the Boni, Boran Burji, Dassenich, El-Molo, Gabbra, Orma, Sakuye, Galla,
Rendille, Wata, Yaaka, and Dahalo tribes.219
Other
Arab, Pakistani (or, by Kenyan standards, ―Asian‖), Indian, and European Kenyans make up the
remainder of the ethnic groups. Many Indians and Pakistani immigrated during colonial rule, and
many remained after Kenya‘s independence. European Kenyans are British in origin and
descended from the farming and colonial populations. Most of them live in cities such as Nairobi
and Mombasa. The Arabs, who are offspring of Arab and African marriages, live mainly on
Kenya‘s coast.220
217
Jambo Kenya, ―The Nilotic Tribes,‖ 2004, http://www.jambokenya.com/jambo/kenya/people3.htm
218
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Kenya,‖ 2011, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37530
219
Jambo Kenya, ―The Cushites,‖ 2011, http://www.jambokenya.com/jambo/kenya/people2.htm
220
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Kenya,‖ 2011, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37530
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Languages
English and Kiswahili, or Swahili, are the official
languages of Kenya. There are numerous indigenous
languages.
English
During colonization, Kenyas native languages were
replaced with English. There is some concern about this.
Historians have noted how native African-speaking students were demoted, humiliated, and
possibly beaten to learn the English language.
While some would have seen the transition to the English language as a practical way to enhance
international communication, one well-known Kenyan writer, Ngugi wa Thiong‘o, preferred to
move away from English. He felt that native peoples would better understand themselves by
speaking their native tongues. He felt that learning English was a ―cultural bomb‖ that continued
to erase any Kenyan memories of life before colonization.221 And he felt that African texts
should be written in their native languages. In 1969, he began to question the English language
and wanted the English Department at the University of Nairobi to be replaced with a Black
Literature Department. Thus began the activism toward returning to Kenya‘s native tongues.222
The African argument is that a black person cannot have a healthy self-concept while having an
Anglo Saxon image as a role model. Africans argue that learning English has disconnected them
from their culture and history, and forces them to become more dependent on foreign leaders.223
Swahili
Swahili is a language of the Bantu peoples. It is spoken by 35 million people and is the official
language of not only Kenya but Tanzania and Uganda. The name ―Swahili‖ is derived from the
word ―sawāhil‖ (coasts). This language contains derivatives from the Arabic, Persian, Malagasy,
English, German, and Portuguese languages.224
Once the Christian missionaries arrived in Africa, they taught Swahili in order to spread the
gospel. As a result, the first Swahili–English dictionary was written by a missionary. Swahili
spread into Zanzibar where its dialect is known as Kiunguja. Swahili is now spoken in many East
221
Jennifer Margulis and Peter Nowakoski, ―Language,‖ Emory University, 1996,
http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Language.html
222
Robtel Neajai Pailey and Melvin Kadiri Barrolle, Washington Informer, ―African Languages Refuse to Die,‖
Pambazuka News 271, 28 Sept 2006, http://pambazuka.org/en/category/books/37399
223
Ras Tyehimba, ―The Role of Christianity in Kenya,‖ Africa Speaks, 30 August 2006,
http://www.africaspeaks.com/kenya/30082006.html
224
Omniglot, ―Swahili,‖ 2007, http://www.omniglot.com/writing/swahili.htm
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African countries, and efforts continue to promote the language. Because Swahili is becoming
more widely spoken, radio stations such as the BBC, Radio Cairo, and the Voice of America
broadcast in Swahili. In the Disney movie The Lion King, the song ―Hakuna Matata‖ is Swahili
for ―no troubles, no problems.‖225
Indigenous
Kenya is home to 61 living languages, such as Borana,
Bukusu, Chonyi, Chuka, Digo, Embu, Garreh-Ajuran,
Gikuyu, Giryama, Gusii, Luo, and Luyia. They range
from having 152,000 speakers (Borana) to 5.3 million
speakers (Gikuyu), and are spread throughout the
country.226
Religion
The main religions and their proportions of adherents in Kenya are Protestant at 45%, Roman
Catholic at 33%, Muslim at 10%, indigenous beliefs at 10%, and other at 2%.227
Christianity and Islam
Christian missionaries began to arrive in Kenya at the end of the 19th century. Kenya‘s interior
opened after the completion of the railroad between Mombasa and Uganda. This allowed
missionaries easier access to the rest of the country. During the 1920s and 1930s, churches were
founded mostly in the regions where the Kikuyu, Luo, and Luyia resided. The intent was to
combine Christian and indigenous beliefs. When the missionaries settled, they became
responsible for a church in their territory.
A Christian follower, Johana Owalo, who had founded Kenya‘s largest Christian church, the
Nomiya Luo Church, became disenchanted with Christianity and converted to Islam. This began
the Islamic movement in Kenya. Today, more than half of Kenya‘s Muslim population is of
Somali background. Most of the remainder is on the coast. The Bajun, Mijikenda, and Pokomo
tribes are also Muslim.
Indigenous
Almost all the indigenous religions share characteristics. For one, they believe in an eternal,
omnipotent creator. For instance, in the Kikuyu tribe, their god is Murungu or Ngai, which is
225
Hassan O. Ali, ―A Brief History of the Swahili Language, ‖ Revised by Abdurahman Juma, Swahili Language
and Culture, n.d., http://www.glcom.com/hassan/swahili_history.html
226
Raymond G. Gordon, Jr., ―Languages of the World,‖ in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed., ed. M.
Paul Lewis (Dallas, SIL International, 2009), http://www.ethnologue.com
227
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Kenya,‖ in The World Factbook, 15 March 2007,
https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ke.html
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borrowed from the Maasai people. For another, they believe they will be successful if they please
their spirits; if not, evil or illness may happen. Believing in ghosts, sorcery, and witchcraft is
common to these indigenous belief systems. Many of these religions also recognize that spiritual
forces work together in all aspects of life.228
Holidays
Kenya recognizes the following holidays: New Year‘s
Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, and Labor Day, which
in Kenya falls on 1 May. Christmas is celebrated on the
25 December. On 26 December, Kenya celebrates Boxing
Day, which is a British holiday. Kenya also recognizes
Eid-al-Fitr, the Muslim festival that marks the end of
Ramadan.229 Dancing is part of any holiday or
celebration, and traditional dances are typically
performed on national holidays.230
Madaraka Day
Madaraka Day marks the anniversary of Kenya‘s self-government, and is celebrated on 1 June.
On this day, Kenya commemorates independence from the colonial British government.
Moi Day
In honor of former Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi—is celebrated on 10 October. On this date
in 1978, following the death of Jomo Kenyatta, Moi became President of Kenya.231
Kenyatta Day
Observed on 20 October to commemorate the arrest of Jomo Kenyatta in 1953. At that time, a
state of emergency was declared by the then-colonial governor, Sir Evelyn Berring, in response
to the fighting by Kenyatta and hundreds of others against colonial rule. Kenyatta was arrested
for conspiring with the outlawed Mau Mau resistance movement, which was accused of
murdering and terrorizing Europeans and Africans over a 5-year period. But Kenyatta had never
been a member of the Mau Mau movement; many speculated that his court trial was rigged.
Kenyatta completed his 7-year sentence and became president of the Kenyan African National
228
Volunteer Missionary Movement, ―Kenya, Religion in Kenya,‖ 2007,
http://www.vmm.ie/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=47
229
Government of Kenya, ―National Holidays,‖ 26 March 2007, http://www.kenya.go.ke/nationalhols.php
230
Kenya Cultural Profiles Project, ―Holidays,‖ http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/kenya/holidays.html
231
BBC News, On This Day, ―1978: The Light of Kenya,‖ n.d.,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/witness/august/22/newsid_4139000/4139078.stm
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Union (KANU) on 28 October 1961. In June 1963, he became the first prime minister of a selfgoverning Kenya.232
Jamhuri Day
Celebrated on 12 December; the name derives from the Swahili for ―republic.‖ This holiday
marks the day Kenya officially became a republic on 12 December 1964. Kenya had gained full
independence from Britain one year earlier.233 On 12 December 1963, Jomo Kenyatta had
become Kenya‘s first president.234
Social Customs
Kenyans are especially friendly and polite. They are
proud of their culture and national heritage. Whenever
their flag is ceremonially raised or lowered, they stop
and observe a moment of silence.
Family is the key to the Kenyans and is the most
important group in a Kenyan‘s life, followed by their
tribe. An example of the closeness of the family is that a
wealthier relative will be expected to help a less fortunate relative with expenses.
Kenyans are quite social and love to visit friends and neighbors. This is their most common
activity. Sunday is a popular day for visiting friends and family. Most visits are unannounced,
and this is accepted. The host is expected to serve the visitors tea, and will never ask the guests
to leave because that is considered impolite. When the guests are leaving, the host will walk with
them instead of saying goodbye at the door.235
232
BBC News, On This Day, ―1953: Seven Years‘ Hard Labour for Kenyatta,‖
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/8/newsid_2887000/2887641.stm
233
Answers.com, ―Jamhuri Day,‖ 2007, http://www.answers.com/topic/jamhuri-day
234
Jamaapoa, ―Jamhuri Day: Kaburi Bila Msalaba,‖ 12 December 2006,
http://jamaapoa.blogspot.com/2006/12/jamhuri-day-kaburi-bila-msalaba.html
235
Ruth Muthahi, ―An Introduction to Kenya,‖ West Virginia Community Educational Outreach Service, 2002,
http://www.wvu.edu/~exten/infores/pubs/WP515forweb.pdf
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Cuisine
When Kenyans dine, they eat together from a common
plate, or sinia. Extended families often eat together and
socialize. This is a time when stories are told and
communal eating is enjoyed. A favorite recipe is pilau, or
pilaf: rice with beef stew.236
Another favorite dish is nyama choma, or roasted meat.
This is meat that has been roasted over an open pit with
sukuma wiki, or greens, and ugali (corn porridge), one of Kenya‘s popular staples.237
Other dishes are chapatti, a pancake of flour and water, and githeri, a curried stew made from
beans, corn, and vegetables. Soup broth with spices is also popular.
The national drink is chai, or tea. It is prepared with sugar, tea, ginger, and milk added to cold
water, then boiled and served hot.
Because of the tropical climate, Kenya also has an array of tropical fruits such as mangoes
(maemb), papaya (paipai), passion fruit (pasheni), bananas (ndizi), and custard apples (stafeli).238
Over time, Kenyan cuisine has been influenced by Britain and East India. The British brought
tea, cereal, coffee, produce, and cattle. The British hired the East Indians to prepare the food, and
from them Kenyans developed their unique cooking techniques.239
Arts
Art as Ritual Decoration
Kenya is a country imbued with art, decoration, and sculpture. It has few art galleries but
invaluable artistic qualities. Kenyan culture exemplifies the art of adornment and tradition. Many
traditional cultures place great significance on the decoration of both ritual objects and the
human body.
The Kuria and the Samburu tribes used art as physical beauty and adornment. Hair styling and
body painting created an impression of delicacy. Many northern tribes such as the Boran and the
236
Jennifer Olds, ―Kenyan Cuisine Hospitality Student Pens African Cookbook,‖ Panorama, vol. 3, no. 3 (Spring
2002), http://www.csupomona.edu/~panorama/spring_02/html/taste.shtml
237
Magical Kenya, ―Dining in Kenya,‖ 2007,
http://www.magicalkenya.com/default.nsf/_fsafaris1/8?opendocument&s=8&l=1
238
Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), ―Eating the Kenyan Way,‖ n.d., http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/kenya/
239
Nancy Berkoff, ―Kenyan Cuisine,‖ n.d., http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FDE/is_4_21/ai_93305554/pg_1
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Ormo carved and decorated gourds to make stools and neck pillows. The Turkana decorated their
bodies and objects (such as knives and clubs) with ostrich eggshells.
The Maasai used decorative beadwork to emphasize social status and different stages in rites of
passage.240 They crafted shields from buffalo hide sewn onto wooden frames. The surface was
painted with crescents of red, white, and black. Red paint was created by mixing earth with
either blood or the red sap from the solanum campylae fruit. White was found in clay, and black
was made from burned gourds. The shield remains one of the Maasai‘s important tools. It was
used in warfare, hunting, and training. It was also considered as a rite of passage and was used
for identification. Spear markings and designs differentiate Maasai subgroups.241
Music and Dance
African music and dance plays an important role in
African society. Music from Kenya originated from its
various tribes. A child learns a musical instrument at
quite a young age as music becomes a communication
between people and art. This ―language‖ is shared by the
entire community. African music is almost always
combined with another art form, such as dance or
theatre.242 The Maasai sing a unique song, engilakinoto,
after a lion hunt. The Luhya of western Kenya have a dance called the Sikuti.
New Wave Kenyan musicians created a form of music that fuses traditional elements with
external influences. These musicians combined music such as reggae, rap, and rhythm and blues
with Swahili and Sheng (a combination of Swahili and English) rap. Rap has become
increasingly popular with young Kenyans. Although the music may be influenced by Western
rap artists, the lyrics describe life in Kenya today.243
Literature
Most of African literature is oral, not written. The Africans love to tell stories with riddles,
proverbs, and sayings. It is common for families to sit around the fire at night with the elders
telling stories to the children. These stories reflect real-life issues with the African people, so the
children are able to identify with the characters.
240
Magical Kenya, ―Art,‖ n.d., http://www.magicalkenya.com/default.nsf/info1/art?opendocument&l=1
241
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ―Shield Kenya or Tanzania; Masai
People,‖ 22 June 2011, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/10/sfe/hod_1978.412.644.htm
242
Teles.net, ―African Music in Social Context,‖ 2004, http://www3.telus.net/africanmusic/histmain.htm
243
Kenya.com, ―Music and Dance in Kenya,‖ 2007, http://www.kenya.com/music.html
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Once missionaries and colonization arrived in Africa, much of the African literature was
replaced by European languages. Language transmits its culture, so the culture was lost because
describing the African experience in another language was impossible.
Today, there is a hybrid called Afro-European literature. It is quite common to hear a Kenyan
speak in a combination of Swahili and English.244
Sports
With favorable weather, Kenyans are able to enjoy
watching and playing sports year-round. Although
football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Kenya,
Kenyans are known around the world for dominating
long-distance running and track events. Kenyans use
sporting events, such as the International Camel Derby
and Rhino Charge, to bring awareness to environmental
conservation. For example, the International Camel Derby is held in the northern region of
Kenya in August. Entrants from Australia, the United States, New Zealand, and Europe have
entered this race. The camel race is an opportunity to create awareness of the destruction of
Kenya‘s deserts, camel husbandry, and the people and region of Northern Kenya.245 Another
event is the Rhino Charge held in June. It is a fund-raising event to help protect its rhinoceros
population.246
Traditional Dress
Archeological findings have revealed woven fiber pieces
dating to the ninth century in West Africa. Evidence of
using a loom dates to the 11th century in Mauritania.
Early African clothing was made from animal hides, furs,
and feathers. Fibers that have been used to make clothing
include tree bark, camel hair, wool, raffia palm, jute, flax,
and silk.
These fibers were woven with looms into narrow strips, then the narrow strips were sewn
together. These fibers were often dyed using vegetable and animal dyes. Two of the most
popular dyeing techniques were tie-dye and resist dye.
244
Michelle Lieblein, ―Literature of Kenya,‖ Queens College/CUNY,
http://qcpages.qc.cuny.edu/ENGLISH/Projects/postcol/country/kenya/literatu.html
245
Kilroy Travels, ―International Camel Derby,‖ 2005,
http://travelmax.kilroytravels.no/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=55759
246
Kilroy Travels, ―Rhino Charge,‖ 2005,
http://travelmax.kilroytravels.no/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=32674
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Popular dyes were the indigo plant for its deep blues and cola nuts or redwood trees for their
reddish brown hues.
Kangas, or Headscarves
In the late 19th century, African women began sewing brightly colored handkerchiefs (imported
from Portugal) called lesos into larger pieces of fabric, which became known as kangas. Kangas
became symbolic of women‘s emancipation after the abolition of slavery in Zanzibar. Kangas
are worn widely in East Africa, specifically in Kenya and Tanzania.247 They can be worn as
headscarves or wrapped around the waist as a skirt, or used as a protective shawl for the mothers‘
infants.
In the tribal areas, such as with the Turkana, Samburu, and Maasai, traditional clothing is still
worn.248
Gender Issues
Male Circumcision
The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
(NIAID), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH),
has announced that circumcision of adult males in Kenya
would significantly reduce the risk of acquiring
HIV/AIDS. In Kisumu, 2,784 HIV-negative men who
were circumcised showed a 53% reduction in acquiring
HIV while a similar study of circumcised men in Uganda showed a 48% reduction. The
UNAIDS estimates that in Sub-Sahara Africa there are 2.6 million new cases of HIV/AIDS
every year.249 In March 2007, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended adult male
circumcision as an important factor in the prevention of HIV/AIDS in Kenya and other African
countries because it reduces the risk by 60%.
The WHO is sensitive to the cultural impacts of this finding and recommends that awareness,
education, and careful monitoring and evaluation of HIV/AIDS programs will be necessary in
order to minimize any stigma that might be associated with circumcision.250
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
247
Tekay Designs, ―Clothing in Africa,‖ n.d., http://www.tk-designs.com/clothing-in-africa.htm
248
Holbrook Travel, Customized Travel for Individuals and Families, ―About Kenya,‖ n.d.,
http://www.holbrooktravel.com/pages/naturetours/country_info/kenya.aspx
249
NIH News, ―Adult Male Circumcision Significantly Reduces Risk of Acquiring HIV,‖ 13 Dec. 2006,
http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2006/AMC12_06.htm
250
Africa Science News Service (ASNS News), ―HIV/AIDS: WHO Advocates for Male Circumcision,‖ 29 March
2007, http://www.africasciencenews.org/_disc1/00000056.htm
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Female Genital Mutilation, or FGM, is a circumcision, or a clitoridectomy, of young women that
is practiced by tribal Kenyans. A clitoridectomy involves removing the clitoral hood and all or
part of the clitoris. Complications that can arise from this are reduced sexual desire, severe
bleeding often resulting in death, infection, risk of HIV transmission due to unsanitary knives,
and later complications in childbirth.
Rural Kenyans have been doing this procedure for hundreds of years. They believe that this
practice not only keeps a young woman from straying from her marriage, but also helps in the
prevention of HIV/AIDS.
Though this practice is outlawed in Kenya, the 12- to 14-year-old girls of the Maasai tribe still
undergo this procedure. Kenya is struggling with teaching the Maasai to discontinue this practice
without undermining the richness of their culture.251
Sexual Assault
In Kenya, there are two cases of sexual assault reported every day. Nairobi politicians claim that
a woman is raped every 30 minutes. Parliament wants more involvement from politicians to
enforce stricter laws combating gender violence.252
The theme of International Women‘s Day in March 2007, ―Ending Impunity for Violence against
Women and Girls,‖ highlighted the concern in Kenya that ending sexual assault will not happen
soon. There is also concern that the current sentences for rapists are too lenient. Organizers argue
that unless Parliament and politicians severely punish rapists, the crime will continue to
increase.253
251
Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), ―Razor‘s Edge—The Controversy of Female Genital
Mutilation: Kenya—FGM among the Masai Community of Kenya,‖ 1 March 2005,
http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=15&ReportId=62470&Country=Yes
54
Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), ―Kenya: ‗Women Are Silent Victims of Gender Violence,‘‖ 8
March 2007, http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=70583
253
Joyce Mulama, ―Int‘l Women‘s Day-Kenya: Courts Far From a Safe Haven,‖ Inter Press Service News Agency
(IPS), 7 March 2007, http://www.ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=36828
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Chapter 4: Assessment
1. The Kikuyu people are Kenya‘s largest ethnic group.
True
As the largest ethnic group in Kenya, the Kikuyu make up 22% of the population and originate
from the Bantu people. They reside mainly in northern Nairobi.
2. Kenya has two official languages: English and Kiswahili.
True
English and Kiswahili are Kenya‘s official languages. Kiswahili is the Swahili word for the
Swahili language.
3. The tribe is the most important social group in a Kenyan‘s life.
False
The family is the most important social group to a Kenyan, followed by the tribe.
4. When visiting a friend in Kenya, one is expected to call in advance to make
arrangements.
False
Kenyans are known to drop in unannounced. This practice is acceptable in Kenya.
5. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is outlawed in Kenya.
True
Although FGM has been outlawed, it is still practiced among the Maasai tribe. It is difficult to
crack down on this practice because of secrecy within the tribal unit.
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Chapter 5: Security
United States–Kenya Relations
Since Kenya‘s independence, the United States and
Kenya have maintained a good relationship. More than
5,000 Americans live in Kenya, and in 2010, more than
100,000 Americans visited Kenya as tourists. The United
States has stepped forward to help Kenya with aid in
healthcare, including family planning and AIDS
prevention. The Peace Corps has around 150 volunteers
in Kenya at any time.254
The United States and Kenya also have an established military partnership. In the 1990s, the
United States utilized Kenyan facilities to support its mission in Somalia. These facilities are still
used by the U.S. in regional counterterrorism. These and similar facilities in other friendly
African countries are referred to as Cooperative Security Locations (CSLs).255 Kenya has
partnered with the United States Africa Command (AFRICOM), engaging in joint exercises and
training missions.256
Relations with Neighboring Countries
Somalia
The regional instability created by the failed Somali state
has produced considerable animosity between the two
nations. Somalia has long claimed a tract of Kenyan
territory with a predominantly Somali population.
Frequent cross-border conflicts have troubled the Kenyan
government, especially because of the presence of alQaeda elements and their allied groups in chaotic Somalia. Arms smuggling across the border
has also been an issue. All these factors have led Kenya to actively partner with the United States
and the West in seeking a solution to Somalia‘s situation.257
In early 2011, army units deployed to the Somali border to prevent al-Shabab terrorists who were
fleeing attacks in Somalia from crossing into Kenya. Subsequently, Kenyan forces established a
new, semi-autonomous state in Somalia along the Kenyan border. This state, Jubaland/Azania, is
intended to be a buffer between Kenya and the ongoing warfare in Somalia. Although the new
254
Bureau of African Affairs, U. S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Kenya,‖ 27 April 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2962.htm
255
Lauren Ploch, Africa Command: U.S. Strategic Interests and the Role of the U.S. Military in Africa (Washington,
DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 2010), 9.
256
Ronald Lafosse, ―Eastern African Forces Practice Emergency Response During Field Training Exercise,‖ U.S.
Africa Command (website), 3 December 2009, http://www.africom.mil/printStory.asp?art=3778
257
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs: Kenya: Relations with Somalia,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—
Central Asia, 25 February 2010.
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state has not received international recognition, leaked intelligence documents have indicated
that its creation was given Western approval and material support.258, 259
Ethiopia
Relations between Kenya and Ethiopia have become
strained, because Ethiopia has claimed that forces of the
secessionist Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) took refuge
in northern Kenya. (Since its founding in July 1973, OLF
has been fighting for independence from the Ethiopian
government and has used terrorist tactics.260) Border
skirmishes have occurred as a result of these tensions. In
2000 and 2001, Ethiopian cross-border attacks left scores
of Kenyan civilians and law enforcement officials dead, and exacerbated the nations‘ hostility. 261
But the two nations have worked together to stabilize the situation in Somalia. Kenya has even
allowed Ethiopian troops to use Kenyan territory as a staging area for operations inside Somalia.
Sudan
With Nairobi having hosted peace talks between the warring factions in Sudan, Kenya is hopeful
that an independent South Sudan may view Kenya as an ally.262 This would help lessen the
tensions that simmer along the border, where cross-border cattle raids and related violence have
led to the deaths of dozens in the last several years. An independent southern Sudan will likely
be economically dependent upon its neighbors, because it would be a landlocked country with no
means except good relations to export its oil.263
Tanzania
As fellow members of the resurrected East African Community, a multinational organization
aimed at strengthening economic, political, defense, and social relationships in the region, Kenya
and Tanzania enjoy a warm relationship.264, 265
258
Alex Thurston, ―New Semiautonomous Region in Somalia Vows to Fight Al Shabab,‖ Christian Science
Monitor, 6 April 2011, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/Africa-Monitor/2011/0406/New-semiautonomousregion-in-Somalia-vows-to-fight-Al-Shabab
259
Jonathan Manthorpe, ―Kenya Creates New State to Act as Military, Political Buffer,‖ Vancouver Sun, 6 April
2011, http://www.vancouversun.com/Kenya+creates+state+military+political+buffer/4567013/story.html
260
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs: Kenya: Relations with Ethiopia,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—
Central Asia, 25 February 2010.
261
Günther Schlee and Elizabeth E. Watson, Changing Identifications and Alliances in North-East Africa, Volume 1
(New York: Berghahn Books, 2009), 222.
262
The Republic of South Sudan became an independent country 9 July 2011, following a referendum earlier in
2011 that overwhelmingly favored the division of Sudan.
263
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs: Kenya: Relations with Sudan,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Central
Asia, 25 February 2010.
264
Calestous Juma, The New Harvest: Agricultural Innovation in Africa (New York: Oxford University Press,
2011), 221–222.
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Uganda
For some time, relations between Kenya and Uganda have been extremely tenuous, although
they have publicly tried to downplay their problems. The border area has been the scene of
armed hostilities as nomads and militias have repeatedly crossed the demarcation.266
Furthermore, each country has accused the other of harboring militants and dissidents, such as
the Lord‘s Resistance Army (LRA), a militant, Christian millennial organization seeking to oust
the Ugandan government since the 1980s.267 The Kenyan government briefly sheltered the LRA
before a mutual exchange of such groups took place between the two governments. Still, analysts
credit membership in the East African Community for fostering better relations between the two
countries.268
Police Force
Kenya has a civilian police force that is highly trained
and specialized. It includes the port police, a Criminal
Investigation Department (CID), and a paramilitary
internal security force known as the General Service Unit
(GSU).269
Military
Military service is voluntary and open to male and female recruits ages 18–26. Enlistees sign on
for a 9-year obligation for army and air force personnel and 7 years for naval personnel. Recruits
must present a valid Kenyan national identity card proving their citizenship and must possess a
school-leaving certificate.270
Unlike the other military forces of the region, the Kenyan armed forces have resisted becoming
involved in the politics of the nation. They are considered far better trained, equipped, and
combat ready than other forces in the region. Total force strength is approximately 24,500. 271
265
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs: Kenya: Relations with Tanzania,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—
Central Asia, 25 February 2010.
266
Michael Bollig and Matthias Österle, ―‗We Turned Our Enemies into Baboons‘: Warfare, Ritual and Pastoral
Identity among the Pokot of Northern Kenya,‖ in The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and
Communication of Armed Violence, eds. Aparna Rao, Michael Bollig, and Monika B ck (New York: Berghahn
Books, 2007), 23–52.
267
Jane‘s Defence, ―Groups—Africa—Active, Uganda: Lord‘s Resistance Army (LRA),‖ Jane’s World Insurgency
and Terrorism, 28 February 2011.
268
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs: Kenya: Relations with Uganda,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—
Central Asia, 25 February 2010.
269
Jane‘s Defence, ―Amphibious and Special Forces, Kenya,‖ Jane’s Amphibious and Special Forces, 25 November
2010.
270
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Kenya: Military,‖ in The World Factbook, 14 June 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke.html
271
Jane‘s Defence, ―Armed Forces, Kenya,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa, 11 March 2011.
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Army
The Kenyan Army has around 20,000 troops and comprises two infantry brigades, one armored
brigade, one artillery brigade, and one air defense battalion. There is one airborne battalion,
which serves as the country‘s only special forces unit.272 The United States and the United
Kingdom have provided substantial training to Kenyan troops. Kenyan units have served in
numerous international peacekeeping assignments, which have provided valuable practical
experience. The Kenyan Army is headquartered in Nairobi and has additional bases in Eldoret,
Gilgil, Nakuru, and Nanyuki.273
Air Force
Approximately 3,000 strong, the Kenyan Air Force is one
of the largest in the region. But their equipment is dated
and in dire need of replacement. Most aircraft are 25 or
more years old. Attempts to acquire second-hand aircraft
have failed, and procuring new aircraft is cost
prohibitive. The bulk of the Air Force‘s assets are
stationed in the Nairobi suburbs of Moi and Jomo
Kenyatta. The other major facility is in the north of the
country in Laikipia.274
Navy
The Kenyan Navy is a small but powerful force with approximately 1,400 personnel, including
120 marines. The Navy frequently trains alongside Western forces, and protects the country‘s
536 km (333 mi) coastline.275 Its headquarters are at Mtongwe Port in Mombasa, and other bases
are in Kisumu, Lamu, Malindi, and Manda.276
The Kenyan Navy has contributed to the international antipiracy efforts in the Indian Ocean, and
Kenya has taken custody of suspected pirates apprehended by other countries operating in the
effort.277 In June 2011, the French Navy donated a patrol vessel to the Kenyan Navy to aid in its
efforts against Somali pirates.278
272
Jane‘s Defence, ―Amphibious and Special Forces, Kenya,‖ Jane’s Amphibious and Special Forces, 25 November
2010.
273
Jane‘s Defence, ―World Armies, Kenya,‖ Jane’s World Armies, 25 March 2011.
274
Jane‘s Defence, ―World Air Forces, Kenya,‖ Jane’s World Air Forces, 3 June 2011.
275
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Kenya: Geography,‖ in The World Factbook, 5 July 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke.html
276
Jane‘s Defence, ―World Navies, Kenya,‖ Jane’s World Navies, 20 June 2011.
277
Kunal Dutta, Jonathan Owen, and Brian Brady, ―Merchant Ships Could be Armed to Tackle Pirate Threat,‖
Independent (UK), 19 June 2011.
278
Guy Martin, ―France Donates Patrol Vessel to Kenya to Facilitate Fight Against Piracy,‖ defenceWeb, 10 June
2011, http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=16134:france-donatespatrol-vessel-to-kenya-to-facilitate-fight-against-piracy&catid=51:Sea&Itemid=106
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Issues Affecting Stability
Radical Groups
Kenya is a relatively stable country in that it does not
produce extremist or radical groups; however, it has been
vulnerable to Islamic terrorists operating under al-Qaeda.
Kenya took action against these extremists in 2003. It
held its first-ever terrorism trial in which four Kenyans
were charged with involvement in the suicide-bombing of
the Paradise Hotel in 2002.279
al-Qaeda in Africa
A report circulated in February 2007 to the Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center raised
concern about al-Qaeda spreading throughout Africa, including Kenya. The article states that the
Mujahidin have had a prominent role in North and East Africa. The article continues that because
of Africa‘s many weak nations, this is the perfect soil for the Mujahidin to plant its roots. The
study revealed an interesting caveat: where the Muslims are the minority in a country, that
minority tends to belong to those who want to make political and social change. This is
especially true in both the western and eastern parts of Africa, notably Kenya. Kenya‘s slums
and borders are zones operating outside of the state‘s control. With the level of poverty and
―insufficient security forces,‖ Kenya could become a fertile breeding ground for terrorists.280
Harakat al-Shabab al-Mujahideen (al-Shabab)
Al-Shabab is a Somali jihadist group. It recruits foreign fighters, including Western-born
citizens, to conduct its war against Somalia‘s Transitional Federal Government (TFG), a
provisional government established with the support of the African Union, the United Nations,
and the United States.281, 282 The group has threatened to attack Kenya over its support for the
TFG. Kenya has trained forces loyal to the TFG and allowed Ethiopian troops operating in the
theater to use Kenyan territory as a staging point.283 If al-Shabab established a foothold in
Kenya, it could create significant security issues and could open a new front in the regional
conflict.
279
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, ―Country Profile: Kenya,‖ June 2007,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Kenya.pdf
280
Moshe Terdman, ―Factors Facilitating the Rise of Radical Islamism and Terrorism in Sub-Sahara Africa,‖ (paper,
The Project for the Research of Islamist Movements [PRISM] 1, no.1 (March 2007), http://www.terrorisminfo.org.il/malam_multimedia/English/eng_n/pdf/prism0307.pdf
281
Stewart Patrick, Weak Links: Fragile States, Global Threats, and International Security (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2011), 96.
282
Jane‘s Defence, ―Terrorism & Insurgency: Youth Movement—Somalia‘s Foreign Fighters,‖ Jane’s Intelligence
Review, 9 February 2011.
283
Ibrahim Mohamed, ―Somalia‘s al Shabaab Threatens to Attack Kenya,‖ Reuters, 27 February 2011,
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalias-al-shabaab-threatens-to-attack-kenya/
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Private Military Companies (PMCs)
Kenyan veterans and service members are being actively recruited by private military companies
operating in the region. Many of the active-duty personnel being recruited have specialized skills
or leadership experience. The loss of such personnel reduces the force readiness of the Kenyan
armed forces. Furthermore, such companies may prove to be a destabilizing force in a region
already gripped by violence in Sudan and Somalia.284
Water Security
The only water security threat facing Kenya is posed by
Somali pirates operating in the area. The pirates‘ attacks
on merchant shipping have detracted from business at
Kenyan ports and have stretched the capabilities of the
small Kenyan Navy.285, 286
Outlook
Kenya‘s integration into African and global transnational organizations has clearly benefited it as
well as its partners. As a stable state in an otherwise tumultuous region, Kenya serves as an
example of a functioning multiethnic democracy.
As Kenya struggles against al-Shabab, the Somali pirates, and other terrorist organizations in the
area, it is likely to continue to foster close relations with the United States and Western allies,
who can provide expertise and resources to aid in the fight. Africa is likely a new front in
counterterrorism, and Kenya is likely to serve as a point of operation. There has been some
speculation that the United States Army African Command might relocate from Germany to
Kenya.287, 288
In the meantime, the Somali refugees flooding across the border create a possible destabilizing
agent in Kenya. The Dadaab refugee camp, supported by the United Nations in the northeastern
Garissa District, was built to accommodate 90,000 people. It currently hosts around 360,000, and
in the early weeks of June 2011 another 20,000 Somalis arrived. With approximately 1.5 million
more Somalis displaced in their country, more will arrive in Kenya.289 Not only does this present
logistical problems, but it serves as a potential point of entry for militant elements and a
284
Jane‘s Defence, ―Armed Forces, Kenya,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa, 11 March 2011,
14 June 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke.html
285
Abdi Guled, ―Somali Pirates Hijack Two Ships over Weekend,‖ Reuters, 24 October 2010,
http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somali-pirates-hijack-two-ships-over-weekend/
286
BBC News, ―Kenyan Sailors Welcomed after Somali Pirate Release,‖ 15 February 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12463951
287
John Vandiver, ―AFRICOM Leaders to Mull Headquarters Location,‖ Stars and Stripes, 6 January 2011,
http://www.stripes.com/news/africom-leaders-to-mull-headquarters-location-1.130831
288
Lauren Ploch, Africa Command: U.S. Strategic Interests and the Role of the U.S. Military in Africa (Washington,
DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 2010).
289
Agence France-Presse, ―Big Rise in Somali Refugees in Kenya: UNHCR,‖ 24 June 2011,
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gEQdqnAzfqc4B8FXkA1cxlArcScQ?docId=CNG.574982f
f69898756afc5eb901ce6fc49.521
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recruiting ground for terrorist organizations. It remains to be seen if Kenya‘s creation of the
Jubaland/Azania buffer state will succeed in stemming the tide of Somali refugees or thwart the
threatened al-Shabab invasion of Kenya.
To maintain its military strength, Kenya must update its outmoded air force. Because Kenya is a
vital regional partner to the United States and the West, it is likely that these countries will assist
this effort, as the recent French donation to the Kenyan navy demonstrates.
With the independence of South Sudan, the prospect of a new wave of violence on the Kenya–
Sudan border looms. This is one contingency that private military companies appear to be
preparing for; however, they are sapping the strength of the Kenyan armed forces by siphoning
its best and brightest.
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Chapter 5: Assessment
1. The United States military has a close working relationship with the Kenyan armed
forces.
True
The United States and Kenya have an established military partnership. Kenya has partnered with
the United States Africa Command (AFRICOM), engaging in joint exercises and training
missions.
2. The unrest in neighboring Somalia has posed little concern for Kenya.
False
The chaos in Somalia has resulted in hundreds of thousands of Somali refugees pouring across
the border into Kenya.
3. Kenya and Ethiopia have a history of tense relations that occasionally caused border
skirmishes, but they have cooperated to stabilize Somalia.
True
Border skirmishes have occurred as a result of these tensions. In 2000 and 2001, Ethiopian crossborder attacks left scores of Kenyan civilians and law enforcement officials dead, and
exacerbated the nations‘ hostility. But the two nations have worked together to stabilize the
situation in Somalia. Kenya has even allowed Ethiopian troops to use Kenyan territory as a
staging area for operations inside Somalia.
4. Relations between Kenya and Uganda are friendly and cooperative at nearly all levels.
False
For some time, relations between Kenya and Uganda have been extremely tenuous. Each country
has accused the other of harboring militants and dissidents, and cross-border violence is
common. Yet analysts credit membership in the East African Community for fostering better
relations between the two.
5. The Kenyan armed forces have frequently overthrown civilian governments in bloody
coups.
False
Unlike the other military forces of the region, the Kenyan armed forces have resisted becoming
involved in the politics of the nation. They are considered far better disciplined, trained,
equipped, and combat ready than other forces in the region.
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Final Assessments
1. Only 8% of the land in Kenya is farmed to support the majority of the population.
True or False?
2. Kenya has abundant oil and natural gas resources. True or False?
3. Earthquakes and volcanic activity are the most common natural hazards in Kenya.
True or False?
4. Eldoret benefited from the presidency of Daniel arap Moi. True or False?
5. The transportation infrastructure in Kenya is modern. True or False?
6. The Nilotes are the largest tribe in Kenya. True or False?
7. The slave trade began as a result of Arab exploration of interior East Africa.
True or False?
8. The British built a railroad from Mombasa to the Uganda Protectorate that made it
possible for European settlers to move into the highlands of East Africa. True or False?
9. Prior to Kenyan independence in 1963, Jomo Kenyatta was exiled for his alleged
involvement in a nationalist attack on white settlers. True or False?
10. The parties of the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) and Orange Democratic
Movement (ODM) are currently sharing power in Kenya. True or False?
11. Kenya is the largest industrial producer in East Africa. True or False?
12. Germany and China own 70% of Kenyan industries. True or False?
13. The Kenyan economy is one of the least competitive internationally. True or False?
14. The Lake Victoria region has a higher standard of living than most other parts of Kenya.
True or False?
15. Kenya is one of the world‘s largest producers of tea. True or False?
16. Beadwork is used by the Maasai tribe to designate social status. True or False?
17. Moi Day, Kenyatta Day, and Jamhuri Day are recognized by Kenyans as important and
distinct national holidays in Kenya. True or False?
18. Christianity, spread by missionaries beginning in the late 19th century, is the dominant
religion in Kenya. True or False?
19. Some Africans view the English language as a tool of colonialism. True or False?
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20. Kenyans eat off of separate plates. True or False?
21. The Kenyan Army has no practical experience in the field. True or False?
22. The Kenyan Air Force is well-trained and equipped with state-of-the-art aircraft.
True or False?
23. The Kenyan Navy is a small yet powerful force. True or False?
24. Terrorist organizations and other militants pose a threat to stability in Kenya.
True or False?
25. Private military companies (PMC) are actively recruiting Kenyan veterans and active
duty personnel. True or False?
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Further Reading
Akhahenda, Elijah F. When Blood and Tears United a Country: The Bombing of the American
Embassy in Kenya. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2002.
Anderson, David. History of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire. New
York: W.W. Norton, 2005.
Barsby, Jane. Kenya—Culture Smart: A Quick Guide to Customs and Etiquette. London:
Kuperard, 2007.
Branch, Daniel. Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and
Decolonization. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Halperin, Helena. I Laugh So I Won’t Cry: Kenya’s Women Tell the Story of Their Lives.
Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2005.
Iarossi, Giuseppe. An Assessment of the Investment Climate in Kenya: Directions in
Development. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications, 2009.
Khamisi, Joe. The Politics of Betrayal: Diary of a Kenyan Legislator. Bloomington, IN: Trafford
Publishing, 2011.
McIntosh, Janet. The Edge of Islam: Power, Personhood, and Ethnoreligious Boundaries on the
Kenya Coast. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009.
Wangila, Mary N. Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Religion in
Kenya. New York: Orbis Books, 2007.
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