Ottoman Empire up to 1900
Background:




Ottoman Turks were one of the tribes of Central Asia, converted to Islam
arrived in Asia Minor, Anatolia, during the 13th century
founder Osman – one of ghazis attacking Byzantine territories in order to spread Islam
specific art, culture – Arab and Byzantine influences
Expansion:






1354 Gallipoli - crossed the Dardanelles, entered Europe
1359/1361 Thrace
Murad I
o Conquered Asia Minor
o Title of Sultan – absolute ruler, supreme executive and religious authority (since 1517 Caliphs)
 Grand Vizier – kind of prime minister
 Strong position of the army
 Elite force Janisseri (Yeni Ceri – new army) recruited from Christian boys reeducated to the
most loyal Muslim warriors
 Devshirme system recruiting young boys from the conquered areas, top education and
training – high offices in the administration
 All land belongs to the Sultan – appoints local governors (beys, pashas), can be replaced
anytime – no traditional aristocracy
 Ruling class Osmanli – holds the most important offices, international thanks to the
devshirme system
o 1389 battle at Kosovo, Serbs defeated but Murad killed
1439 Florentine Union – Byzantine Orthodox church union with the Catholic church
1444 Crusade against the
Turks organized by
cardinal Cesarini, broke
the peace treaty with the
Turks, battle at Varna,
crusaders including Czech
Hussite troops defeated
1453 Mehmed II
conquered
Constantinople, end of
the Byzantine Empire, city
not destroyed, rebuilt into
Ottoman capital







1517 Middle East and Egypt – Sultans became Caliphs, top Muslim religious authorities
Suleiman II Magnificent (1520-1566)
o 1526 battle at Mohacs
o 1529 siege of Vienna
o Most of Hungary under Ottoman control
1571 Cyprus
1571 Holy Union against the Turks (the Pope, Venice, Spain, Florence…) naval battle at Lepanto, Ottoman
advance on Europe stopped
First half of the 17th century, series of Turkish defeats (Habsburgs, Persians)
1683 the second siege of Vienna, help of the Polish king Jan III Sobiesky
By the end of the 17th century most of Hungary liberated, military frontier established, inhabitants freed of
taxes, free citizens, no lords but they had the duty of guarding the border, military service. Area settled by
refugees from the Ottoman Empire, mainly Serbs (550 00)– ethnic minorities within Bosnia, Croatia
Decline of Ottoman power – ‘Sick Man on the Bosporus’








Russian interference
o Peter the Great failed
o Catherine the Great (1762-1796)
 1774 Kainardzi Treaty, Turkey defeated, Crimea to Russia, Russia as the protector of
Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire
o Russian main interest – to get control over Bosporus and Dardanelles
Greece, uprising 1822, 1827-1829 war Russia x Ottoman Empire, 1830 independence of Greece
Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt (1805-1848)
o Viceroy of Egypt, but independent policy, modernization
o 1840 open conflict with the Ottoman Empire
o European powers supported Ottoman Empire, compromise reached, Egypt formally part of the
Ottoman Empire but in practice Muhammad’s dynasty rules under British influence till 1953
Crimean War (1853-1856) Russia tried to get control over the Balkans, Straights x interest of Britain,
France, Russia defeated, backward economy, need of reforms
Need of reforms in the Ottoman Empire – Young Turks movement
Uprising in Bosnia 1875, Bulgaria 1876 – suppressed by Ottoman paramilitary forces bashibazouks
1876 war with Serbia and Montenegro
1876 constitution – only minimal reforms, but the first constitution in the Muslim world, 1878
suspended



1876-1878 war with Russia
1878 San Stefano peace treaty
o Great Bulgaria including Macedonia
o independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro confirmed
1878 Berlin Congress
o Russia forced to change the treaty
o Bulgaria much smaller, divided
o independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro confirmed,
o 1878 Bosnia given under Austrian supervision