Chapter – 5
SOCIETY AND WOMEN
The concept of society is very vast. Society always has been a combination of
people of different nature and temperament. It is made up of many families, religion,
caste, customs and practices. Every custom and practice has its own relevance and
none of the customs and practices takes place without the intervention of women.
From birth to marriage and till death the females form an integral part of all these.
This chapter is an attempt to deal with all those customs and practices of the Sultanate
period in which women played a significant role. These were marriage, divorce,
polygamy, customs related with marriage, education of girl child, position of widows
in society, sati, jauhar and purdah .A description of the dress, ornaments and
cosmetics is also dealt with.
The sources studied for exploring such practices related to women are Tarikhi-Firozshahi of Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi of Shams Siraj Afif, Rehla of
Ibn Battuta, Tarikh-i-Shahi of Ahmad Yadgar, Masalik-ul-Absar-fi-Mumalik-ulAmsar of Shihab-al-Din-al Umari, Khair-ul-Majalis of Hamid Qalandar, Fawaid-ulFuad of Amir Hasan Sijzi, Akhbar-ul-Akhyar of Abdul Haq Muhaddis, Hasht Bihisht,
Matlaul Anwar, Nuh Siphir and Ijaz-i-Khusravi of Amir Khusrau, Waqiat-eMushtaqui of Rizquallah Mushtaqui and Tarikh-i-Daudi of Abdullah Khan Daudi.
Education
The followers of Islam are guided by the Quranic injunctions. Quran contains
the God’s words which were revealed to the Prophet (PBUH). Quran lays much
emphasis on acquiring ilm or knowledge. Incidentally, the first Revelation begins with
the verse Iqra Bismi rabika lazi khalaq which means read in the name of Thy Lord,
who has created. Similarly, another verse of the same chapter tells that is ‘He who
taught the use of pen’-Allazi allama bil qalam. And also, ‘He who teacheth man what
he knowth not’-allamal insana malam yalam. Thus, by the means of these verses it is
enjoined upon the believers to acquire, disseminate, and transmit all knowledge to
others.1
1
S. Z. H. Jafri, ‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval India’ in S. Z. H. Jafri, ed.,
Recording the Progress of Indian History, Primus books, Delhi, 2012, p. 134.
143
God recommends to his followers acquisition of knowledge. “Acquire
knowledge because he who acquires it in the way of the Lord, perform an act of
piety; who speaks of it praises the Lord; who seeks it adores God; who dispenses
instruction in it, bestows alms; and who imparts it to its fitting objects performs an act
of piety. The acquisition of knowledge enables its possessor to distinguish what is
forbidden from the allowed. It is our friend in the desert, our society in solitude, our
companion when bereft of friends; it guides us in misery; it is our ornament; it serves
as armour against our enemies. With knowledge the servant of God rises to the
heights of goodness and to a noble position, associates with sovereigns in this world,
and attains to the perfection of happiness in the next.”2
The Prophet (PBUH) has also laid same emphasis by the means of his sayings.
He is reported to have said for every Muslim whether male or female, that it is a duty
to acquire knowledge. We could say that no discrimination is placed between men and
women on the matter of acquiring knowledge. Knowledge was considered as
important for mankind as the Prophet (PBUH) suggest them to travel as far as
possible in order to gain knowledge. Seek knowledge though if it is in China.3
Dispensation of knowledge started at the time of Prophet (PBUH) and
continued onwards. At the time of second khalifa a number of learned men were
allowed to give lecture in mosque. They were called Qass 4which means narrator. The
subject of their recitation was the verses of Quran and traditions of the Prophet. In
this way, the mosque became not only the place for worship but also a centre for
education. Later on these mosques developed along with them a building where
education was imparted to the pupils. These structures were called madrasas, a more
institutionalized form of higher education.
Beside tradition, philosophy, theology, history, geography, astronomy was also
the subjects taught before the end of the Umayyad. The Abbasid rule was the Golden
period of the Muslim learning. The women in Islamic Arab were no less inferior to
their male counter parts. The ladies of the Prophet’s family were noted for their
2
3
4
Ameer Ali, Ethics of Islam, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, Delhi, 2009, p. 47.
A. M. A. Shustery, Outlines of Islamic Culture, Banglore Press, Banglore city, 1938, Vol. I,
p.162.
Ibid., Vol. I, p. 163.
144
learning, their virtues and their strength of character.5 Bibi Fatimah, the beloved
daughter of the Prophet (PBUH) was attributed with immense intellectual attainments
that she could participate in the controversial discussions like that of succession.
Other examples were of Zainab, Darimiyya, a poetess and a propagandist in the cause
of Ali against Moaviya.6
In India the Muslim women during the Sultanate period could not attain the
standard of perfection as their preceptors had in other Islamic world. Later on, in
Mughal period there were a number of royal ladies gifted with the wealth of
knowledge. Some examples are Gulbadan Bano Begum, the daughter of Babur who
wrote Humayunnamah, Salima Sultan the niece of Humayun , Maham Anga, the wet
nurse of Akbar, was well educated and founded a college at Delhi.
There were institutions for the education of boys and girls. These were maktabs
and madrasas. Maktabs were the centers which imparted primary education to boys
and girls. These were a kind of primary schools where elementary instruction was
imparted in reading and writing Arabic and Persian.7 The girls in India received their
primary education in primary schools called maktabs. The emergence of makhtabs in
various parts of India was the result of the arrival of people from the various central
Asian cities and towns. They brought Islamic culture with them. The master taught
the children there to read and write.8
Madrasas were the institution meant for higher education. The author of
Masalikul Absar, Shihabuddin Al Umari has written that in Delhi there are 1000
madrasas. He praises the Sultans of Delhi for their generous support to these
institutions of learning and states that thousands of faqih are appointed in makhtabs
whose allowances are paid by the diwans. The main subject was qirat and the pupils
were taught writing skills. Most of the children there were orphans.9
5
6
7
8
9
Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, University Paperbacks, London, 1965, p. 255.
Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 772.
A. L. Srivastava, Medieval Indian Culture, Shiva Lal Agarwal and Co., Agra, 1964, p. 98.
Irfan Habib, Medieval India- The Study of A Civilization, National Book Trust, New Delhi, 2007,
op. cit., p. 78.
Shahabuddin Al Umri, Masalikul Absar Fi Mumalik ul Amsar, Eng.Tr., Ottospies, A. Rashid and
S. Moinul Haque, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1943, p. 24.
145
Important information given by Al-Umari is, there were maktabs (primary
schools) exclusively for girls and in the coastal western regions of India, and even the
women memorized the Quran.10
Another traveller Ibn Battuta specifically tells us about the women of the
township of Honawar (an old seaport, now destroyed, on the western coast of India)
and says that in the city I saw thirteen schools for girls and twenty three for boys.11
S.Z. H. Jafri opines that perhaps it was extraordinary large Muslim population and to
fulfill the need of male and female education.12 Ibn Battuta praises the extraordinary
quality of women folk to memorize the Quran.13
According to a Sufi saint Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud; the act of teaching in a
maktab was a noble and virtuous act. He states that, it is a sinless act as the teacher is
associated with the teaching of Quran and one who teaches Quran always remains
with ablution14 which is considered good in Islam and same is applicable to the ladies
who teach the holy book. The women of a village named Salahi are appreciated by
Sheikh Nasiruddin Chirag Delhvi in Khair-ul-Majalis.15
Teaching and acquiring knowledge both the activities were considered noble.
We find reference of the Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji’s reign, where women were
engaged in receiving higher education. Ghiyasuddin Khilji established madrasa
exclusively for women because he considered their education essential for the
progress of the country.16
Not only Mohammad bin Tughlaq but his predecessor Mohammad Ghori was
the first Muslim King of India who deemed his duty to impart education in India.
Some schools and seminaries were set up first in Ajmer for the spread of Islamic
education by him.17
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Masalikul Absar Fi Mumalik ul Amsar, Eng.Tr., Ottospies, A. Rashid and S. Moinul Haque, op.
cit., p. 24
Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husian, op. cit., p.179; see also The Travels of Ibn Battuta, op. cit., pp.
230-231.
‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval India’, op. cit., p. 137.
Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, p. 179.
Hamid Qalandar, Khair-ul-Majalis, ed., K. A. Nizami, Aligarh, 1959, Majlis no- 32, p. 107.
Ibid., p. 107.
S. M. Ziauddin Alavi, Muslim Educational Thought in the Middle Ages, Atlantic Publishers and
Distributers, Delhi,1988, p. 8.
S. M. Jaffar, Education in Muslim India, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delhi, New Delhi, 1972, p. 38.
146
Iltutmish was very much inclined towards providing education and interested
in imparting education to his children. Raziya was well versed in Quran and she could
read and write it with correct pronunciation.18 The royal ladies who acquired
knowledge were interested in imparting it. The women of the harem were also
interested in patronizing men of letters and huge amount of money was given to them
as grant. An early example of an educated lady is of Mah Malik, the granddaughter of
Alauddin Jahansoz. Minhaj speaks highly of her in his Tabaqat.19 Her handwriting is
praised by Minhaj, he says that her hand writing was like “Royal Pearls.”20 The chief
queen of Iltutmish, Shah Turkan patronized men of letters and huge amount of money
was given to them as grant.21
The Muizzi College at Delhi was one of the best centers of learning in the reign
of Razia. The college was so rich and magnificent that it gave the impression of Jama
Masjid and was once attacked by the Karamathians.22 The Quran and Islamic
teaching were the basis for everything. The pattern of education in India was similar
to the pattern in the other Islamic countries. The study of religion with respect to
Hadith (traditions of the Prophet) and its allied branches were the first to attract the
attention of Muslim scholars in India.23
The most important ruler of the Sultanate period who worked for the sake of
education was Firozshah Tughlaq. He was an eminent educationist who appointed
teachers in various parts of India. He renovated and reconstructed the old madrasas.
Not only he ordered the reconstruction of old madrasas but also attain the credit of
establishing the new schools and colleges with residential facility for the students.24
It is asserted that Sikandar Lodi appointed teachers in Makhtabs and Madrasas
in various cities throughout his dominion presumably making provision for them
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Mohammad Qasim Ferishta, Tarikh-i-Ferishta, Naval Kishore, Lucknow, 1865, Vol. I, p. 68.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Eng. Tr., H. G. Raverty, Oriental Books, Reprint 1970,Vol. I, p.
392; N. N. Law, Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammadan Rule, Longmans, London,
1916, p.xxvii; see also Education in Muslim India, p. 192.
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Eng. Tr., H. G. Raverty, Vol. I, p. 392; see also, Education in Muslim India, op.
cit., p.192.
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Eng. Tr., H. G. Raverty, Vol. I, p. 630.
Education in Muslim India, op. cit., p. 41.
‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in India’, op. cit., p. 135.
Medieval India-The Study of Civilization, op. cit, p. 79.
147
through land or cash grant.25 During his reign huge amount of money was distributed
from the royal treasury two times a year for the scholars, learned men, widows and
other deserving people.
However, education was in practice an activity which was mostly confined to
the elite, the masses had limited access to it.
26
There were no madrasas for the girls
of the masses. In the very early age some girls did go to madrasas meant for the
boys.27 The fifteenth century Persian dictionary pictures a girl at a primary school at
Malwa region. We can clearly notice that the girls used to get primary education
together with boys.
Fig. From Mifitah u’l Fuzala; See also, Irfan Habib, Medieval India the Study of a
Civilization. The picture confirms the presence of girl education in maktabs (primary
schools) in India.
The regional kingdoms also provided an impetus to the process of education.
The practice of educating girls did not remain confined to the Sultanate of Delhi but
most of the regional kingdoms were ahead of each other in imparting education to
girls.
25
26
27
Rizquallah Mushtaqui, Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, ed., I. H. Siddiqui, Rampur, 2002, p. 18; see also
Medieval India-The Study of Civilization, op. cit., p. 79.
‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval India’, op. cit., p. 135.
Talat Aziz, ‘Education of Muslim Girls in India’ in S. M. Azizuddin Husain, ed., Madrasa
Education In India -Eleventh to Twenty First Century, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 2005, p.
111.
148
Among the list of the learned ladies of the regional kingdoms one was Chand
Sultana, the most favourite queen of Deccan. She was a woman of excellent education
and extra ordinary talent. She was skilled in arts of warfare. She spoke Arabic,
Persian, Turkish, Kanarese and Marathi and her hobbies included painting flowers.28
Bibi Raji, the wife of Mahmud Sharqi of Jaunpur had also contributed a lot in
the field of education. She got constructed a Jami Masjid, a monastery and a madrasa
in Jaunpur and gave structure the name of namazgah.29 She also assigned some
scholarship to professors and stipends to students.
The princesses of the royal families were educated by learned teachers. What
was the mode of education is not exactly clear. Later on, when the girl grew up her
education was greatly restricted by the purdah system. The females when reached the
age of puberty were avoided co-education. Sources are silent on this matter it is
assumed that may be because of purdah they were exempted from higher education.
Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji of Malwa is known for his outstanding efforts for
girl education. He established a madrasa (secondary school) exclusively for girl
education because he considered their education essential for the progress of the
country. He had three schools within his harem. The harem of the Sultan had fifteen
thousand women; these women acted as school mistress who used to teach the ladies
present inside the palace.30
Great Bahmani king Firoz (1397-1422) was a good linguist and Ferishta
records that in his harem there were ladies of various races, such as Arabians,
Circassians, Georgians, Turks, Europeans, Chinese, Afghans, Rajputs, Bengalis,
Gujratis, Telinganese, Marhattas and others with each of whom he could converse in
her own language.31
28
29
30
31
Education in Muslim India, op. cit., pp. 192-193.
Ibid., p. 128.
Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammaden Rule, op. cit., p. 201.
Tarikh-i-Ferishta, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 376-370; see also Promotion of Learning in India During
Muhammaden Rule, op. cit., p. 84.
149
There were certain highly educated royal ladies who were capable of teaching
the children in the harem such example are of the aunt of Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur
(1510-1534). His aunt named Dilshad provided guidance and was his tutor.32
Qanun-i-Islam, a book by Jafar Sharif is an interesting piece of work on
education. We learn from the source that there were schools for girls. After a boy or
girl initiated his or her education a maktab ceremony was performed. The pupils were
given Eidi by their teacher. It was a written document on a colored or Zarafshani
(illuminated) paper which was read by the child to the parents who made rich presents
to the teacher.33
We have references in the sources that the tazkir meetings were also attended
by women. In the tazkir meeting of Malik-ul-Muzzakkrin Khwaja Afzal the audience
along with learned and pious men were also Indian women (jewari-i-Hindi) veiled
ladies and those of seraglio assembled to hear the tazkir (admonition). The women
due to observing purdah were kept separate. At the same time the process of learning
did not reach beyond the ladies of respectable families. We come to know that in that
tazkir meeting among other women there was present Shamsa Khatoon, the
songstress; after she was detected she was asked to leave the meeting by the learned
speaker of the tazkir meeting.34
Education to girls was given according to their requirements. Most of the time
they were given better moral, intellectual, and practical training within the walls of
their houses than the women of today who receive education in proper schools.35
Before the advent of Islam in India, knowledge was the monopoly of the upper
class viz; the Brahmins. Whatever may be the reason they refused to impart education
to the low-caste.36 By the coming of the followers of Islam in India, education was
imparted in schools to all the children in society irrespective of religion, caste, sex,
and financial condition. Now, the Hindus who had been deprived from the attainment
of knowledge received education side by side with their Muslim classmates, and there
32
33
34
35
36
Tarikh-i-Ferishta, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 72; Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammaden
Rule, p. 93.
Ibid., pp. 200-201.
Society and Culture in Medieval In India, op. cit., p. 140.
Education in Muslim India, op. cit., p. 8.
Ibid., p. 14.
150
existed no ill feeling like caste discrimination and enmity between the people of two
religions. Thus, this was the important aspect of the primary schools which flourished
in almost all the parts of Indian subcontinent.
Contrary to this assertion of Jaffer, Altekar states that the percentage of literacy
among the Hindu women declined during the Muslim rule.37 Altekar calls the advent
of Muslim rule in India as a political revolution which affected the education of Hindu
girls of respectable families. Though, at the same time he holds the view that raising
of the marriageable age of girls helped in the increase of female education to a
remarkable strength.38
Blaming purdah practice as an obstacle in the attainment of higher education
cannot be regarded correct, as purdah was an integral part of all the Muslim societies
mainly Arab, but still the women like Fatima, Zainab, Sakina, Darimiyya, Queen
Zubaida attained high merits in the field of education.
There must be other reasons which would have discouraged the women in the
Sultanate from acquiring higher education. No doubt, the nobility and other higher
classes of Muslims in India imparted their daughters religious education and
sometimes military too. It seems that contemporary historians refrain from providing
information on female education.
Although in India, education existed after and before the Sultanate period but
we do not find references of royal ladies or princess who attained high degree of
literary education as Muslim ladies in other parts of Islamized world.
Yet we can conclude that the education of the Muslim princesses in India was
not neglected sometimes they did show some progress which was creditable
Marriages in the Sultanate
Men and women both are important part of society and their union results in
the growth of population. The common means of union of a man and a woman is by
37
38
A. S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization from Prehistoric Times to the Present
Day, Motilal Banarsi Das, Banaras, 1956, p. 23.
Ibid., p. 24.
151
the means of marriage in this way marriage forms an important part of the society.
When marriage is solemnized it constitutes of various aspects. We shall try to
examine what were the types of marriages that took place in society during the
Sultanate rule and problems related with them.
The nature of companion or the selection of proper match for a boy or girl has
been always a problem and the same was the circumstances in the Sultanate period.
Eleventh century Sufi saint Ali Hujwiri speaks on companionship with women and
mentions the following tradition of the Prophet, Four qualities must be sought in a
woman i.e. beauty, nobility, wealth and religion.39 The Prophet (PBUH) also stated
that, a married man perfects half of his religion.40
In Islam, marriage is a civil contract made by mutual consent between a man
and a woman.41 “Marriage” says the Ashbah w’an Nazair,42 “is an institution ordained
for the protection of society, and in order that human beings may guard themselves
from foulness and unchastity” “Marriage is a sacrament, in so much that in this world
it is an act of ‘ibadat’ or worship for it preserve mankind free from pollution.”……”it
is instituted by divine command among members of the human species.” “Marriage
when treated as a contract is a permanent relationship based on mutual consent on the
part of a man and woman between whom there is no ban to a lawful union.43
As our Prophet (PBUH) states beauty, nobility, wealth and religion as criteria
for selecting a suitable match there are specified degree of prohibition on the grounds
of consanguinity and affinity, fosterage. Persons who come within these prohibited
degrees are called Mahrams i.e; for forbidden to each other. All those are called namahrams or those with whom marriage is not forbidden.44 Thus marriage can take
place between na-mahrams.
39
40
41
42
43
44
Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit.,Vol. II, p. 503, see also Syed Maqbool Hussain, The Sayings of
The Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Adam Publishers, New Delhi, 2002, p. 270.
Outlines of Islamic Culture, p. 503.
Ibid.
There exist books and chapters named Ashbah wa n Nazair in Islamic jurisprudence meaning
similarities and example.
The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., pp. 246-247.
K. M. Ashraf, Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, Munshiram Manoharlal, New
Delhi, 1969, p.174.
152
During our period of study permanent marriages as well as temporary
marriages were found. Although we have rare reference of temporary marriages in the
medieval period but we have its references in the history of Islam. Later on according
to Badauni this type of marriage was considered unlawful by Imam Abu Hanifa and
Imam Shafai but Imam Malik and Shias considered them as legal. Later on Malik Qazi
issued a fatwa considering muta marriage valid for both Hanafis and Shafities.45
Reuben Levy is of the view that the object of muta marriage was not the
establishment of a household or begetting of children, but simply to provide a man
with a wife when he was away from home on military service or for other reasons.
The system obviously left itself to abuses and it differed so little from prostitution that
the traditions declare that the Mohammad made it unlawful.46
The types of marriages is not a matter of much importance, how far the royalty
and society during the Sultanate period helped in arranging marriages of poor girls is
dealt with in this chapter. Sultan, the head of the state considered his prime duty to
arrange the necessities for the marriage of poor girls. There had an increase in the
worries of the poor parents of when their daughters attained puberty
47
as they could
hardly arrange for their marriages. May be this was the reason the birth of a daughter
in a family was not welcomed. It is evident from the writings of Afif that early
marriages were encouraged.48 The custom of early marriage was already prevalent in
Hindu society. There was no fixed age of marriage. Both Hindu and Muslims
favoured an early marriageable age for boys and girls.49
We come to know from the source that the poor Muslims and the widows came
from all sides and got the names of their daughters registered in the Diwan-i-Khairat
and received large provisions from the side of the Sultan at the time of marriage of
their daughters.50 A department known as diwan-i-Khairat was established by Firoz
45
46
47
48
49
50
S. A. A. Rizvi, The Wonder That Was India, Vol. II, London, 1987, p.200.
Reuben Levy, Social Structure of Islam, Cambridge University press, Second Edition, 1957, p.
115.
Ibid., p.106, No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage and quite young children may be
legally married although a girl is not handed over to her husband until she is fit for marital
congress.
A. Rashid, Society and Culture in Medieval India, Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta, 1969, p.
131.
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 179.
J. M. Banerjee, History of Firozshah Tughalq, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1967, p. 83.
153
Tughalq which fulfilled the needs of the poor people in the Sultanate especially for
arranging marriage of poor girls. This was set up under the supervision of Sayyid
Amiri Miyan, he was entrusted with the task of providing relief to the needy persons,
by the means of this department of diwan-i-khairat. As the name itself suggest the
money was given in charity to the poor and needy.51 Whenever any petitioner came
for financial help he was interrogated in order to check the genuineness of the petition
after which the provisions were granted to the needy. For the purpose of charity three
degree of grants was available, first, second and third. These were fifty, thirty or
twenty five tankas.52 Sultan Sikandar Lodi was in practice of giving his sleeping dress
and bed every day to orphan girls for dowry.53
One of the wives of Sultan Alauddin Khilji who was the daughter of
Muizuddin gave huge amount in charity to a person who was worried about the
marriage of his daughter, when she came to know that the poor man was associated
with Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.54
In the same way we find many references in the Sufi text where Sufis helped in
arranging marriages of poor girls. The nobility was also not left behind in this
generous act of helping the poor parents and providing those means and money in
order to arrange the marriages of their daughters. We see that they helped by making
collection of useful articles like garments, bed sheets and other articles from their
houses for the dowry of the daughters of the poor parents.55
Malik-ul-Umara, Fakhruddin, the Kotwal during the reign of Sultan Balban
made arrangements for the dowry of poor girls. It is said that he appointed twelve
thousand men who were only to recite the Quran every time. He used to change his
dress each day and the same discarded dress was given to poor and needy people
every day. Same was done with the bed sheets. Each year he gave dowries to
thousands of poor girls.56
51
52
53
54
55
56
History of Firozshah Tughalq, op. cit., p.83; see also Agha Mahdi Husain, Tughlaq Dynasty,
S.Chand and Co, New Delhi, 1976, pp.422-423; see also Society and Culture in Medieval India, p.
131.
Tughalq Dynasty, op. cit., p. 423.
K. A. Nizami, Royalty in Medieval India, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1997, p. 68.
K. A. Nizami, The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, 1991,
p. 109.
Mohammad Wahid Mirza, The Life and Works of Amir Khusrau, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i- Delli, Delhi,
1974, p. 28.
Ibid.
154
Mian Zainuddin one such noble at the court of Sultan Sikandar Lodi provided
the necessary things to the father of the daughter, everything he needed for the
marriage.57 Masnadi Ali Zainuddin was in service of Khan-i-Jahan Lodi and was
allowed by Sikandar Lodi to succeed him. He used to give the poor parents the items
required for the marriage; the items given were garments and other household
requirements like cots, besides the dowry.58
The dowry for marriage was arranged when the marriage was fixed but the
search of a suitable match for marriage was a question in itself. The search for
suitable match was the primary concern of the parents. In context a hadith of Prophet
(PBUH) has been quoted in the beginning of the chapter. Marriage was fixed by the
consent of parents when we talk about the common folk but in case of the Sultans
there were various reasons. The Sultans usually had more than one wife.
Most of the time wars of conquests ended in capture of a large number of
women, some of whom were of respectable families and had to be taken as wives and
supported by the conquerors.59 In this case the Sultan sometimes conquered Hindu
territories and took Hindu princess in his harem. Usually, we find the Sultan
respectfully marrying these princesses. We know how Alauddin Khilji conquered
Gujrat and Kamala Devi, the queen of Karen Vagela was honourably brought to Delhi
and Alauddin took her into his harem.60
Shams Siraj Afif mentions about the matrimonial alliance between the father of
Firoz Tughlag and his mother who was a Hindu girl, daughter of Ranamal Bhatti. Afif
narrates an interesting story behind the marriage61 of this Hindu princess with Rajab,
the father of Firoz Tughlaq.62
Prince Khizr Khan Son of Alauddin Khilji, after a prolonged love affair with
Deval Rani, a Hindu princess married her. This love affair was not accepted by his
mother and she not allowed him to marry her, instead she married Khizr Khan with
57
58
59
60
61
62
Rizquallah Mushtaqui, Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, ICHR, New Delhi, 1993, p.
75.
I. H. Siddiqui, ,‘ Life and Culture under the Lodi Sultans’ in I. H. Siddiqui, Composite Culture
Under the Sultanate of Delhi, Primus Books, Delhi, 2012, p. 82.
Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 503.
Mohd. Habib, K. A. Nizami, A Comprehensive History of India- The Delhi Sultanate, Vol. V, part1, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, reprint, Nov.2006, p. 334.
Narrated in the second chapter of the thesis.
Shams Siraj Afif, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, ed., Maulvi Vilayat Husain, Calcutta, 1891, p. 45.
155
one of her niece. Later, noticing intensity of the affair she was compelled to marry
Khizr Khan with Deval Rani. Haji Dabir in Zafar- ul- Walih gives an account of an
extra-marital affair of Sultan Alauddin Khilji with one of his cousin.
As told earlier there were various reasons behind the marriages that took place
in the Sultanate. We notice that there was a matrimonial relationship of every Sultan
with his predecessor family.63 K.A. Nizami opines that ‘Matrimonial relations with
the ruling house had great value for the aspirant to the throne. When the supporters of
Sayyidi Maula planned a coup to place Sayyidi Maula on the throne, they arranged
his marriage with the daughter of Nasiruddin Mahmud.64
An example of marriage of Razia with her rebellious chief Altunia is an example
of a marriage where political intensions were involved.
During the days when Sultan Razia was struggling to save her empire by the
rebellious nobles there held the successful rebellion of Ikhtiyaruddin Altuniah. The
rebellion was such planned that Aitgin, another noble of Razia and Ikhtiyaaruddin
Altunia secretly planned the revolt against Razia Sultan. Her faithful slave and noble,
Jamaluddin Yaqut was killed and Razia was imprisoned by them. Now, the nobles
who collectively but secretly helped each other in rebellion against Razia raised
Muizuddin Bahram Shah on the throne. But the new Sultan had Aitgin assassinated
within a month and Altunia could expect no reward for his rebellion.65
Razia took advantage of this situation and married Altunia expecting that this
marital contract will be of advantage for both. Razia expected to win back her
freedom through this alliance, and Altunia saw in it an opportunity to enhance his
status. Thus we can see that often marriages were solemnized for the benefit of each
other. Sometimes Sultans married the women of the conquered territories with whom
often they fell in a jovial relationship. Rare were the cases where marriages were
arranged forcefully by the parents like that of prince Khizr Khan with his mother’s
niece (daughter of Alp Khan). Last but not the least the history of Muslim rule in
63
64
65
Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 85.
K.A Nizami, Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2002, footnote, p. 144.
A Comprehensive History of India, op. cit., p. 242.
156
India is full of references of such marriages which were the result of a love affair
between a prince and a princess.
The sources of the Sultanate period beautifully depict these royal marriages.
Amir Khusrau in his masnavi Deval Rani Khizr Khan, beautifully describes the
marriage ceremony of Khizr Khan with Deval Rani.
Similarly, Ibn Battuta in his work Rehla provides a description of the marriage
of Amir Saifuddin Gada. The description of the marriage ceremonies in both the text,
Deval Rani Khizr Khan and Rehla shows that the atmosphere of the marriage
ceremonies was dominated by the women. These lines from the Rehla help in
describing the marriage ceremony.
The two days before the marriage of Amir Saifuddin the palace was decorated
by the ladies, they applied henna to his hands and feet. Some entertained him with
dance and music.
Contrary to the nature of marriages in royalty there were a common group of
people which married in their same class. Ibn Battuta informs us that the Samira
people marry among their own clan and avoid marrying among other than their own.66
Consideration was given to the lineage of the family and purity of blood was
considered the primary necessary feature in a match.
Syed Wajihuddin Mashedi, the darogha of Tamil, did not marry his daughter at
the proper age because he could not find a boy belonging to a family with purity of
blood. Lastly, she was married to Moinuddin Sanjari with a great disparity of age
between the two.67 This show how considerate the people of those days towards the
purity of blood that they accepted their daughter to remain unmarried or marrying
with someone with a more difference of age rather than marrying the girl with the one
who does not belong to a respectable family with any purity of blood.
The Afghans usually married within their own tribe and also considered the
purity of blood. When Sikandar Lodi proposed Miyan Khwaja Ismail Jalwani for the
marriage of his daughter with himself, Jalwani reminded the Sultan that he was the
66
67
Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 6.
Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p.132.
157
son of a goldsmith’s daughter.68 Bibi Ambha, also known as Hema, the Hindu wife of
Sultan Bahlol Lodi was a goldsmith’s daughter. Bahlol Lodi got attracted with her
beauty, fell in love and married her. The son born to them was Sikandar Lodi.69 The
history of Muslim rule in India has abundant references of Muslim rulers who married
a Hindu woman. Alauddin Khilji married the mother of Deval Rani, and kept her
respectfully in his harem. Hoshang Shah of Ghori dynasty married a Hindu girl
Ambika.70
We have references where Sultans have made matrimonial relations with the
Sufi families. Sultan Mohammad Bin Tughlaq married his daughter, Bibi Rasti with
grandson of Shaikh Fariduddin. The proposal of marriage was sent from the side of
the Sultan.71
Shaikh Yusuf was the descendent of Bahauddin Zakariya at Multan. There the
people had declared him the Sultan after which the Rai Sirah drove him away. Shaikh
Yusuf moved to Delhi where Sultan Bahlol Lodi cemented his tie with Shaikh Yusuf
by arranging a matrimonial alliance between his daughter and Shaikh Yusuf’s son
named Shaikh Abdullah Qureshi.72 Sultan Sikandar Lodi became disciple of Sufi
Sayyid Mohammad Gawas, the founder of Qadiri order in India and gave one of his
daughters in marriage to him. He said to have done this in obedience to the command
of Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani who was the original founder of this order, who
appeared to him in a dream and ordered him to give his daughter to Muhammad
Gawas in marriage.73
Customs and ceremonies related to marriage
A stage was reached in marriage negotiations when the parties agreed to the
wedding of their son and daughter. The agreement was finalized by a small ceremony
called ‘mangni’ that is betrothal ceremony. After this formal recognition a date was
fixed for the marriage and elaborate preparations began.
68
69
70
71
72
73
Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p.132.
Yadgar Ahmad, Tarikh-i-Shahi, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, 1939, p. 17.
Pushpa Prasad, Sanskrit Inscriptions of Delhi Sultanate, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1990,
introduction, p. xix.
Syed Athar Abbas Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1975,
Vol. I, p. 134.
‘Life and Culture under the Lodi Sultans’, op. cit., p. 72.
John S. Subhan, Sufism its Saints and Shrines, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1999, p. 264.
158
After all the members had gathered and all necessary preparations were
finished, the barat comprising of bridegroom, his family members and relatives head
towards the house of the bride. Reaching there, amidst various ceremonies like Nikah,
marriage takes place in cordial atmosphere. After these ceremonies and songs bride
departs from her house along with the bridegroom. If the bride was too young for the
marriage she returned to her parents after a short time and the final ruksat was fixed at
a later date.74
K. M. Ashraf is of the view that Muslims borrowed almost all ceremonies and
customs from Hindus.75 But there were many reasons behind the matrimonial
alliances made by the Kings. Nobles also married with great pomp and show.
Common man at the Sultanate had no substantial means to involve in a lavish
wedding.
Divorce
Divorce was very common in the Pre-Muslim Arab and though a lawful act
was condemned by the Prophet (PBUH) who looked upon the custom of divorce with
extreme disapproval and considered it the thing most disliked by God.76 He repeatedly
declared that nothing pleased God more than the emancipation of slaves, and nothing
more displeased Him than divorce.77
A revelation came from God to Moses saying you have parted My servant
from Me. You have been sent (as messenger) to unite and not separate (my lovers)
from Me. Do not sever my creatures from Me, because the most hated deed is to cause
divorce (separation).78
In spite of this there are rare examples where the followers of Islam followed it
without any valid reason. References of divorce in the Sultanate period especially
among royalty and aristocracy are rare. We have an example where Prince
Muhammad, the eldest son of Sultan Balban in drunken condition divorced his
beloved wife. When he regained his senses he repented for his misdeed and wished
74
75
76
77
78
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p.182.
Ibid., pp. 181-182, footnote.1.
Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit., p. 675.
The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 243.
Outlines of Islamic Culture, p. 526.
159
for the re-union.79 The ulema advised him that in such case his ex-wife should be
married with another person and when that person would willingly divorce her she
would be able to remarry her former husband.80 Shaikh Sadruddin Arif married the
divorced wife of Prince Muhammad. Shaikh Sadruddin Arif readily agreed to marry
her. This shows that a Sufi saint did not hesitate to accept a divorced wife and
considered it as a virtuous deed to reunite the separated couple. Although the lady
refused to leave the saint and prince was killed in a Mongol raid.
The prince in the above incident divorced his wife in anger and intoxicated
condition but there was a Sufi who divorced his wife because she was hindrance in his
worship. Husbands had their own reasons behind the divorce.
Usually, unpleasant relationship of the couple became the reason behind the
divorce. Once, Qazi Muhiuddin, came to Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya because his
relation with his wife became so unpleasant that he decided to divorce her. Shaikh
Nizamuddin Auliya did not approve it resulting which the relations between the
husband and wife were restored.81
Beside the reasons mentioned in Quran for a husband to divorce his wife,
people had their own individual reasons behind divorcing their wives. Famous Sufi
Saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiyaar Kaki divorced one of his wives soon after marriage, as
according to him her presence had disturbed his daily program of prayers.82
We can say that the practice of divorce was the most detestable and
undesirable act in the verses of Quran and considered unlawful by the Prophet
(PBUH) unless the husband had genuine reason (like adultery of wife),83 behind the
demand of divorce. In spite of it, we find few references of divorce in Sultanate
period for which reasons varied from person to person.
79
80
81
82
83
Shaikh Jamali, Siyar-ul-Arifin, MS, Habibganj Collection, 22/11, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, folio. 84(a) - 84(b).
Ibid.
The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, op. cit., p. 72.
Amir Hasan Sijzi, Fawaid-ul-Fuad, ed., Khwaja Hasan Sani Nizami Dehlavi, Urdu Academy,
Delhi, 1992, part-III, Majlis-10, p. 552-554; Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during
the Thirteenth Century , op. cit., p. 219.
The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 244.
160
Polygamy
The union of a man with several women by the means of marriage is called
polygamy. The concept of polygamy was not only prevalent amongst the Arabian
society but also in neighboring countries of Arabia. The institution of polygamy
existed in the other neighboring countries like Persia, even the western parts of
Europe were not an exception.
The passage or the verse of the Quran which deals with the polygamy is you
may marry two, three or four wives but not more. The subsequent line declares but if
you cannot deal equitably and justly with all, you shall marry only one. The word
equity (adl) is not merely equality of treatment but in other important and necessary
matters like lodging, clothing and other domestic requisites but also complete equity
in love, affection and esteem.84
Syed Ameer Ali asserts that polygamy was an unavoidable practice in early
Muslim society as there were frequent tribal wars, constant decimation of male
population, and numerical superiority of women, combined with the absolute power
possessed by the chiefs originated the custom.85
Among upper caste Hindus polygamy in both its aspects prevailed from the
earliest times.86 He further adds that, certain times, certain conditions of society make
this practice absolutely needful for the preservation of women from starvation or utter
destitution.87
When we talk about polygamy in Sultanate era we find that beside the chief
queen i.e. the first married wife of the Sultan there were many other wives of the
Sultan. Monarchs both Hindus and Muslims had one chief queen whose children
succeeded to the throne. She also had other privileges like right of guardianship of a
minor son who had to succeed to the throne. There was no fixed rule of choice among
other queens, mistresses or concubines.88
84
85
86
87
88
The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 229.
Ibid., p. 222.
Ibid.; see also Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., introduction, p.xix.
The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 230.
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 54.
161
We have a clear picture that how the Sultans were polygamous. Even princes
also had many wives. Prince Khizr Khan, the son of Alauddin Khilji being already
married, was involved in an unending affair with Deval Rani a Hindu princess and
ultimately married her.
Sources describe the harem of different nobles. One of the vivid descriptions is
of the harem of a noble during the reign of Sultan Sikandar Lodi.89 This signifies that
the nobles also indulged in a polygamous life. Ibn Battuta a noble and a traveller
indulged in polygamy.
Extremely strange the Sufis who spent their lives in extreme unfavorable
conditions sometimes also married more than one wife. Shaikh Moinuddin Chisti had
two wives
90
and a big family. Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag is reported to have stated
that Sheikh Farid had many wives and treated them all justly and equitably so far as
the marital relationship was concerned.91
Sultans could be ignored for leading a polygamous life. There may be various
reasons for marrying a number of wives may be they were highly sensuous and most
of the time marrying princess from different regions was a part of their appeasement
or subjugation policy. But it is difficult to say what the reasons were for Sufis behind
leading a polygamous life.
Sources of the Sultanate period lack the information regarding the marital
conditions of the common man. Once in Fawaid-ul-fuad we find that there is a freed
slave, Atiq of Amir Hasan Sijzi,( the author) who had four wives.92
Observing the references of the Sultanate period we can conclude that
polygamy prevailed in the royalty and aristocratic class in medieval India. About
common man it cannot be asserted that they definitely practiced polygamy. The
masses especially the poor peasants enjoyed a monogamous, healthy and free life as
89
90
91
92
Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, op. cit., p. 92.
Shaikh Abdul Haq Muhaddis, Akhbar-ul-Akhyar, Matba-i- Mohammadi, Delhi, 1283 A. H.,
pp.112-113.
Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century, op. cit., p. 219.
Fawaid-ul-Fuad, Naval Kishore, op. cit., p. 184.
162
he could not afford to marry many wives.93 Although polygamy was not encouraged
in Islam but Sultans and nobles followed it.
Position of Widows in Society
The position of the widows in society is one of the most important topics
which the historian of the woman has to discuss and elucidate opines A.S Altekar.94
One who takes a widow as his wife, in the household everything will be
desired and wanted by the woman is the view of Amir Khusrau.95 Nizamuddin Auliya
fixed allowances for the widows. The above view of Amir Khusrau is helpful in
describing the position of widows in society as well as the kind of mindset the poet
had for widows.
Unlike the Hindu widows, the Islam does not permit a Muslim widow to
embrace death by burning herself in fire. Though a Muslim widow too lived a
desperate life but never allowed to adopt death.
Hindu widows dedicated their lives to the worship of idols at Rajgir. When
such women came to the temples surrounded by the thorny trees with no food, they
kept themselves standing with folded hands for at least ten days and ultimately
embraced death.96
Widows were considered as a weaker section of society and because of this
reason the Sultans of the Sultanate took measures to help them financially. To begin
with the mighty Iltutmish, he allowed the widows to hold iqtas allotted to their
husbands.97 Sultan Balban found the holding of iqtas unsuitable for women and the
iqtas were withdrawn from them and allowances were fixed instead of it.98 Sultan
Balban deprived widows from the iqtas but he was kind enough towards them as he
fixed allowances to them.
93
94
95
96
97
98
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 172.
The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, op. cit., p. 115.
S. H. Askari, Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, Khuda Bakh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 1992, p.
38.
Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 88.
Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Eng. Tr., Elliot and Dowson, Low Price Publication, Delhi,
2008, Vol. III, pp. 107-108.
R. P. Tripathi, Some Aspects of Muslim Administration, Central Book Depot, Allahabad, 1959, pp.
249-250.
163
Mohammad Bin Tughlaq did not lack this quality of taking care of the widows.
He established alms houses for widows and orphans on a very liberal scale.99 Sultan
Firozshah Tughlaq was deeply concerned about the welfare of his subjects especially
the poor girls and widows.100
The office of muhtasib was made to keep an eye on the immoral acts if
prevailed in the Sultanate. His duty was to keep an eye on the acts which were not
according to the Shariat. Among his other duties like to see that prayers were offered,
to prevent the use of wine and demolish the gambling houses, during the Lodi period
muhtasib was also entrusted with the task of finding suitable match for the widows.101
Sultan Sikandar Lodi had great reverence for the widow of Qutb Khan Lodi, she was
Niamat khatoon and was supported by Sultan Sikandar Lodi after Qutb Khan’s death.
Niamat Khatoon had a foster son Prince Jalal Khan. He was assigned the jagir of
Kalpi with one hundred and twenty horses and fifteen elephant in order to take care of
his mother. He was asked to take Niamat Khatoon to Kalpi where she was to be given
all comforts. This was all because the Sultan had kind attitude, full of sympathy
towards the widow of Qutb Khan Lodi.102
Sultan is reported to have sent money from the royal treasury twice a year to
every city and town to be distributed among the ulema and widows.103
Following the Sultans their nobles also indulged themselves in the noble act of
helping the widows. Mian Sultan Farmuli a noble of Sultan Sikandar Lodi used to
distribute clothes and blankets to the poor in winter and rainy seasons and provided
widows with sheets of cloths.104
One of the nobles of Lodi period is known for a benevolent act towards the
widows of the soldiers who died in fighting. The Khan paid the salary and allowances
of the man who died in his service to the relatives of the widow of the deceased and if
99
100
101
102
103
104
Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammadan Rule, op. cit., p. 45.
R. C. Jauhari, Firoz Tughlaq, Shiv Lal Agarwal, Agra, 1968, p. 30.
Abdul Halim, History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra, Idarah-i-Adabiyat -i Delli, Delhi, reprint,
1974, p. 227.
Abdullah Khan Daudi, Tarikh-i-Daudi, ed., Sheikh Abdur Rashid, Dept of History, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, 1957, p. 62.
‘Life and Culture under the Lodi Sultans,’ op. cit., p. 75.
Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng .Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., p. 86.
164
she did not have any relative, he asked her to adopt a boy from amongst the children
of her husband’s relation or in his absence any free born, and appoint one of the
competent slaves owned by his husband as his peshwa (custodian). She was also
enjoined to send the adopted boy to a guide or a tutor. This was a generous act of the
nobles by which the widows of the deceased soldiers or any other employee was
benefitted.
After marriage husband is the natural custodian of a woman and if
unfortunately he dies then the elder son acts as her custodian. Once during the reign of
Sultan Balban, in an incident, Haibat Khan a slave of Balban in a state of utter fury
murdered a son of a widow. The weeping mother pleaded the Sultan for justice.105
Balban implying justice to the mother of the murdered son remarked ‘this murderer
was my slave, I give him to you, with your hand stab him with a knife.’106 Haibat
Khan, the murderer after subjected to five hundred lashes for this murder was handed
over to the widow for final punishment. The accused was pardoned by the widow
when pleaded for mercy although widow was given the full rights from the Sultan to
punish the man who had killed her son. Thus by allowing her to inflict the murderer
with whatever punishment she wished the Sultan did justice with her and did not
merely neglect her because she was a widow and a weak person.
Hence, the Sultans of Delhi considered their prime duty to render support and
help to the widows in their rule. The nobles also considered helping the widows as an
act of virtue. They discovered various ways of helping such kind of people among
which the widows were helped the most.
Moral Values and women
Deterioration in moral values has been a part of society in every era. Both men
and women involve themselves in the immoral activities. Amir Khusrau is of the view
that women when indulges herself in immoral activities brings dishonor to herself and
her family and also undermines her prestige. Women were supposed to be pure in
thoughts, words and deeds.107 This signifies that women in those days also had some
105
106
107
Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 48; see also The History of India as told
by its Own Historians, Elliot and Dowson, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 101.
Ibid.
Hasht Bihisht, op. cit., pp. 208-209.
165
inclination towards immoral activities and sinful acts, for which Amir Khusrau is seen
concerned in his work Matlaul Anwar and Hasht Bihisht
Amir Khusrau has laid down certain ethical code in his Matlaul Anwar and by
the means of his daughter; conveys these codes to the other females and wants them
to follow these codes. He considered eyes the chief cause of all evils. Thus, he advices
women to adopt a low gaze and preserve their images like pearls which lie safe in the
shells and advices that the women should not stare at unknown persons.
S. H. Askari is of the view that ‘judged from modern standards, Amir
Khusrau’s view about females of his time may be taken to be very conservative and
preservative of old traditional principles and practices.’108 His conservative views
give us one more reason to believe that society was observing certain immoral norms
and evils penetrated in society.
Amir Khusrau advices his daughter never to indulge in peeping activities
behind the doors or the curtains, or casts her looks in different directions never to
neglect the use of veil or concealing sheet of cloth and always to keep her face
towards the wall and her back towards the door. According to Amir Khusrau ‘the
woman who walks or runs in streets is not a woman but a bitch’.109
He did not like women’s extreme fondness for embellishment of her body and
too much beautification of face for it may become the reason of mischief, disgrace
and ignominy.110
Amir Khusrau enjoins upon the wives to keep them within the limits of the
homes and have watchful eyes on all the resources of their houses and the most
important to have privacy with none except husband.111
Among the immoral activities, adultery is considered most detestable and
sinful act so that a husband can have his relation broken with his wife by the means of
divorce, if the adultery of the wife was proved.112 Ibn Battuta has described how
108
109
110
111
112
Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, op. cit., p. 34.
Ibid., p. 35.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 63.
The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 244.
166
mother of Prince Mahmud was ordered by Qazi Kamaluddin to be stoned to death
when her charge of adultery was proved.113 In the same way when the charge of
adultery was confirmed, for a non-Muslim, he was ordered to leave the country.114
Once during a conversation with Barani, Sultan Mohammad bin Tughlaq
enquired by him that among apostasy, murder, adultery, conspiracy, rebellion, helping
the king’s enemies and disobedience for which sins capital punishment is permitted
by Prophet (PBUH). Barani replied that only for apostasy, murder and adultery. Thus
a person involved in adultery deserved the capital punishment as a murderer.115
Many social evils prevailed among the women of the Sultanate. Among such
evils one was wine drinking, an evil which is forbidden for men but women were also
found indulged in it at became a popular drink among a section of women. Mostly
dancers used to take wine. The reference of which has been given in chapter three.
During the Lodi period the women were also found involved as member of the
gang of robbers and thugs. Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui narrates an anecdote about a beautiful
woman who belonged to the party of robbers during the reign of Sikandar Lodi.
Hussain Khan Sarwani, once while passing by the vilayet of Lucknow found on
his way a young woman in attractive garments, who was weeping.116 Hussain Khan
inquired the reason and he was told that she has lost the way to her house. The noble
asked her to walk along with him, she told her incapability to walk and asked him to
ride his horse. After a while she offered a betel leaf to the Khan to chew. The Khan
was unwilling to eat it and kept it under his armpit. No sooner had he kept it under his
armpit he lost his senses. There upon the woman held bridle of the horse and reached
the place where rest of the robbers untied his belt, resulting which the betel leaves fell
down from his armpit on ground and he regain his senses. The robbers ran away and
Hussain Khan Sarwani rode his horse and having tied the woman with the tail of the
horse dragged her.
113
114
115
116
Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 86.
Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century, op. cit., p. 77.
Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 176.
Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., pp. 255-256.
167
The woman was kept in his harem according to the author of Waqiat-iMushtaqi she was a beautiful woman, he did not kill her.117
Such gangs were active those days and women were also a part of it. Men alone
could not be able to perform these sorts of crime so they took help of women. May be
these women were a part of their families.
Once more a man named Sikandar was betrayed by an old woman who
belonged to a gang of highway robbers. These robbers looted the travelers while they
were in the journey. An old woman asked Sikandar to bow down his head as she
would remove the grass blades from his turban. As he bowed his head she placed
something on his head and as a result of it he lost his senses. She took him in the
forest where rest of her companions waited. He regained his senses when his turban
fell on the ground.
The men fled away and he arrested the woman, took her to the town and
having left her in the custody of darogha, restarted on his journey.
These kinds of women involved themselves in immoral acts of betraying
travelers only for the purpose of earning money. The amount collected by this means
would help them in providing their livelihood. Thus, we can notice that there were
various ways by which women earned their livelihood. Some found it suitable to work
in fields, some worked as maids and salves in houses and on the other hands there
were presence of such women who indulged in unwanted activities for their
livelihood. This also shows that administration of the Sultanate was running weak and
unwanted elements whether men or women were active.
Ornaments, Cosmetics and Dresses of Women
Ornaments and women are inseparable, ornaments and cosmetics have been
used by women to beautify themselves. There were ornaments to decorate various
parts of body. K.M. Ashraf is of the opinion that leisured classes had special facilities
for cultivating attractiveness among both sexes.118 Physical beauty can be acquired by
117
118
Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., pp. 255-256.
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 214.
168
the help of both the things i.e. ornaments and cosmetics. Women of all class are fond
of wearing it.
Ornaments were used by the ladies since times immemorial and were quite an
important item for the decoration of the body, whether masculine or feminine. The
ornaments used by the females were necklace, earring, ankle let, bracelets (worn
round forearms and legs), and nose pendent and broad ornamented bracelet. The
perforation of the ears of one’s daughter is mentioned.119
According to a Chinese traveler ‘the women of Bengal wore earrings of
precious stones set in gold; they had pendants on their neck, gold bracelets on their
wrists and ankles.120 Yadgar Ahmad narrated an incident where mang tika (placed on
forehead) were made by a goldsmith using precious diamonds of various valuations
i.e. five lacks, three lacks and two lack tankas for sale.121
Such remarkable and precious items of jewelry were made during those days.
Mian Taha Farmuli a noble and a scholarly man during the reign of Sultan Sikandar
Lodi is found of making a special kind of earring as a gift for the wife of Ahmad
Khan. Beside other things he knew the art of making objects of ivory. He had carved
out an earring out of ivory for the wife of a noble, Ahmad Khan. The earring
resembled a bud of water lily.122 He placed an artificial black bee made of ebony (a
hard black wood), inside the bud. When that earring was put on the lady’s ear, it
remained in the form of a bud as long as she did not move her head, but as soon as she
moved it, it opened into a flower and the bee came out and began to fly near her
eye.123
This shows that how much fondness of unique jewellery existed among the ladies
of the Sultanate, the goldsmiths and various other people indulged in the art of
making ornaments and earned a handsome amount.
119
120
121
122
123
Amir Khusrau, Nuh Siphir, MS, Habibganj Collection, 50/16, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, Part VII, folio. 45-46; Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit,
p. 56.
Ibid.
Tarikh-i-Shahi, op. cit., pp. 60-61; see also Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 57.
Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., p. 194.
Ibid.
169
Cosmetics
Cosmetics have been used by women for adding charm to their personality. For
the works of Amir Khusrau especially Ijaz-i-Khusravi, Matlaul Anwar and Nuh Siphir
we come to know how the middle aged women used cosmetics to retain their
diminishing charm. Amir Khusrau, ridicule of the dying of hair by the people of the
Sultanate age.124 This shows that there were colors found to paint the hair in medieval
times, this was called wasma and Khizaab in Ijaz-i-Khuaravi.125 Beside these we find
the mention of gulguna and ghaza, (red color which women used to apply on their
face) and supaida. Women used collyrium on their eyelids to enhance their grace and
beauty and also painted the eyebrows. Powdered their face and put antimony in eyes.
The body was adorned with cosmetics and scented lotion.126
Ubtan, a paste made of various aromatic powders was rubbed on the skin in
order to cleanse it. Decoration of hairs with flowers and application of red color in the
feet were popular aids of beautification in those days.127 Betel leaves were chewed to
redden the lips.128 They put black dot on their cheeks as a protection against evil eyes.
Henna was used to give red color to hand and feet.129
Amir Khusrau also talks of the Solah Singar or the sixteen forms of
embellishment or ornaments of the Hindu ladies and address to his daughter that the
preference must be given to chastity rather than applying of cosmetics and false
beautification of face and body.130 These names of the sixteen articles of
embellishment given by the historian and poet are these- Henna, Wasma, Surma
(collyrium), Surkhi (red color), ghaza (face rouge), safidab( white paint), ghalia
(civet), sar-aweza (head dress or veil), gushwara (ear-ring), Silsila (chain), halqa-ibindi (nose ring), galuband (necklace) and bazuband (armlet), dastana (bracelet),
Khalkhal (ankle ornament), angushtar (ring)131 etc.
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
Amir Khusrau, Matlaul Anwar, Naval Kishore, Lucknow, 1302 A.H, p. 173.
Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 56.
Malik Mohammad Jaisi, Padmavati, Eng. Tr., A. G. Shirreff, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Calcutta, 1944, p. 182; Society and Culture in Medieval India, p. 56.
Society and Culture in Medieval India, p. 56.
Amir Khusrau, Nuhsiphir, MS, op. cit., part VII, Folio. 45-46.
Ibid.,, folio 45-46; Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 56; Life and Conditions of the
People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 217.
Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, op. cit., p. 30.
Ibid.
170
Dress
Religious literature gives a description of poor people especially farmers who
had hardly enough clothes to cover their whole body. The laborers did not have
enough clothes to cover their whole body.132 Shaikh Hamiddudin Nagori had a piece
of loin cloth to cover his body where as his wife had a tattered dupatta.
The average costume of the Muslim women constituted of a sheet of cloth
called chadar, veil called naqab, trousers called izar, pairahan a kind of loose waistshirt or shift called shalwar, maqna was a garment worn over the head reaching the
ground. Garments like trousers and shirts were common for both male and females.133
Amir Khusrau has mentioned about the various types of garments in his Ijaz-iKhusravi. Paicha-i-Shalwar, Khastak-i-izar, niganda, dotah, barani, Kulah and
dastar, durrah (upper garment)134 Poor or non-aristocratic women probably went
about wrapped up in long sheet of cloth covering their heads with a garment known as
burqa.135
Color also mattered for the people and they were superstitious regarding the
blue color of the fabric. This color was avoided in daily use as it was considered the
colour of mourning. Women were fond of bright colors and preferred clothes having
prints or drawings on them.136
132
133
134
135
136
Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 54.
Ibid.; Life and conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 213.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 172.
Ibid., p. 213.
171
Sati
Being an important section of society many social practices are related with
women. Some enforced practices like sati and jauhar were very traumatic. The
practice of sati is attached to the society from ancient times till the middle ages. This
social practice was one of the most traumatic and inhumane practice related to
women. By the means of this social evil a widow was forced to immolate herself in
the pyre of her husband.
It is important as well as interesting to explore where and how the practice of
sati emerged. The origin of sati had its roots from the character of a woman who was
named ‘Sati’ she was the wife of Lord Shiva and daughter of Daksha. She was the
first to consume her in the fire.137 The word ‘sati’ is derivate from the word ‘Satya’
(truth) or Godliness. Sati literally means a virtuous wife, but practically it was the
practice of burning the widows on the funeral pyre of their husband. This custom was
prevalent among upper class Indians, for at least two thousand years.138 This can be
exemplified by the examples from Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Ramayana
describes a Brahmin woman who committed Sati when molested by Ravana. In
Mahabharata, among several examples two are worthy to be mentioned here. A
woman Sairandhri is ordered to be burnt with Kicaka and eight queens of Krishna
entered fire on his death.139 From the ancient times till the medieval age the cruel
practice continued. When Alberuni visited India he found the practice of Sati
prevalent in India. It was common though not compulsory. According to Alberuni if a
woman became widow she could not remarry. She had only to select between two
things, either to remain widow for rest of her life or to burn herself along with the
pyre of her husband.
Unwillingly, the second was selected because living a life of a widow was
extremely painful as widows were ill-treated and lived a life of extreme pain and
137
138
139
Nirmala Gupta, ‘Sati System in Medieval India’, p. 1. Annoted Quotation.
Ibid.
K. Krishna Murthy, Social and Cultural Life in Ancient India, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, 1982, p.
82.
172
torture.140 Nirmala Gupta is of the opinion that the life of the Hindu widow became
miserable if she selected to survive the rest of her life.141
The widows were forbidden the use of ornaments and good dresses. They
could not enjoy good food and have long hairs. Being widow was considered as a
punishment for the sins of the previous life.142
Ibn Battuta, when came to India too found at many occasions widows burning
themselves on the pyre of their husbands. On one such occasion while hearing the
cries of the woman he fainted.143 He gives a detailed description of how a woman was
prepared for being a ‘sati’. The description is very poignant.144
Amir Khusrau describes the burning of women in medieval India through the
practice of sati and writes that Islam does not permit such kind of merciless and cruel
practice for the mankind. But he praises the spirit of the Hindu widow who burns
herself. He also asserts that if this practice becomes lawful among the followers of the
Islam, pious devotees might surrender their lives.145
Malik Mohammad Jaisi also had praise for the sati women and writes that, the
sati burns herself for the truth and for her husband and the same truth has the power to
cool the fire.146
The Sultanate period had a mixed population of Hindus and Muslims. With
exception of Mohammad bin Tughlaq none of the Sultan made efforts to stop this
inhumane practice. Ibn Battuta informs us that the Sultan enacted a law, through
which it was necessary to procure Sultan’s permission before burning a widow.
Probably, the law was designed to discourage the use of compulsion or forcefully
burning a woman on pyre.
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
Abu Al Raihan Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Alberuni , Alberuni’s India, Eng.Tr., Dr. Edward C.
Sachau, Oriental Books, reprint 1983, Vol. II, pp. 155-157.
‘Sati System in Medieval India’, op. cit., p. 4.
Ibid.
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 188.
The Travels of Ibn Battuta, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 614.
Nuh Siphir, MS, op. cit., folio. 22.
Padmavati, Eng. Tr., A. G. Shireff, op. cit., p. 112.
173
It is important to mention that the people who encourage the practice were the
Brahmins of that age, as when the woman had to be sati she used to take bath in river
and give all her ornaments and garments to the Brahmins in alms.147
We have one single reference of burning of a widow in Muslim society, by the
wife of Ain-ul-Mulk Mahru. Ain-ul-Mulk Mahru revolted during the reign of
Mohammad bin Tughlaq, his revolt was crushed and he was defeated, when this news
of his defeat reached to his wife and subsequently not any other information reached
she decided to be a sati.148
Thus, we see that women out of love for their husband and most of the time
because they were compelled by the society, embraced death by burning them in the
pyre of their dead husbands. The practice of sati became prevalent because of two
reasons, one is that in the society of those days women were completely subordinate
to men. Secondly, the male dominant society had no respect for the widow women
even if she was a childhood widow, religious beliefs had overpowered the society
because of this no one dared to oppose this painful treatment given to widow women.
Jauhar
When we analyze or think over the practices like sati and jauhar we are
compelled to think that what the real position of Hindu women was in the medieval
society. No doubt the men had complete control over the women.
We have evidences in the sources that women collectively burnt themselves
when the army was defeated by the hand of enemy. The practice of jauhar was
prevalent among the ladies of the harem of rajput rajas. Such a terrible death was
accepted by the women of the defeated rajput army in order to save their integrity and
chastity and avoid getting in to the clutches of victorious conqueror. Most of the times
the victorious army was of the Muslim invaders but there are also references when
brave rajputs preferred jauhar while losing in inter tribal wars, which frequently took
place.
147
148
Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 22.
Ibid., p. 109.
174
Jauhar was adopted under two forms and under two circumstances. The
situation when the rajput army was completely defeated and the other when they were
apprehensive of being captured alive.
The two forms of the Jauhar were when the females threw themselves in the
fire, in order to avoid themselves falling in the hands of the victor. In the second form,
the males when found difficult to win the battle forced their females to jump into the
fire. The purpose of both the forms of jauhar was to preserve the chastity of the
females of the defeated army.149
The siege of Chittor by Alauddin Khilji and the women performing jauhar has
been a famous incident in the history. Another event of jauhar during the reign of
Alauddin Khilji was the siege of Ranthambor.150 The upheaval at Ranthambor fort
compelled the queen of Raja Hammir, Ranga Devi to plunge herself into the fire
along with other ladies of the fort.
The jauhar was committed by the raja of Kampilla when his fortress was
besieged by Mohammad Bin Tughalq to punish him for sheltering a rebel named
Bahauddin Gurshasp. The raja tried his best to avert the crisis but apprehensive of
being captured alive decided to embraced death by throwing themselves in fire.
The description of this incident is found in Ibn Battuta’s Rehla. He describes
that all the ladies washed themselves, rubbed their bodies with sandal wood paste, and
then made their solemn obeisance to their master and quietly threw themselves in the
fire.151 It was the brutality and humiliation given to the defeated army and their
women which compelled them to accept such a painful death.
Not only Hindu rulers embraced death by performing jauhar but references of
such death are found by Muslims, when Timur invaded India. Timur’s invasion
resulted in brutal slaughter which persuaded the warriors to adopt the course of Rajput
jauhar.152 Kamaluddin the governor of Bhaitnair and his retainer burned their women
and their property and then proceeded to fight Timur like ‘blood thirsty devils’.153
149
150
151
152
153
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 193.
The Campaigns of Alauddin Khilji, op. cit., p. 40; Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan,
p.192.
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, p. 193.
Ibid., p. 194.
Ibid., footnote.
175
Again in the year 1739, we find Mussalmans in a very difficult situation and
decided to perform jauhar. This was the year when Nadir Shah invaded India.
Thus, we can conclude regarding this practice that it was not only barbarity and
brutality of the Muslim invaders which compelled rajput women to embrace death but
the practice also took place when there was a conflict between various rajput tribes.
It is noteworthy that Muslims also embraced death by burning themselves out
of fear of brutal treatment by the invaders likes Timur and Nadir Shah, thus
safeguarding the integrity and chastity of Muslim women.
Purdah
It is held by B.N. Sharma154 that the Muslims are responsible for the growth of
custom of purdah and that before Islam the women of Hindustan went freely. Indeed
the elaborate and institutionalized form of purdah dates from the time of the Muslim
rule in India.155
Purdah, when applied to women means concealing oneself from the gaze of
males who are not related to blood. This can be further justified by the translation of a
surah of the holy Quran.
O, Prophet! Speak to the wives and to the daughters of the faithful that they let
their wrappers fall low. And speak to the believing women that they refrain their looks
and observe continuance; and that they display not their ornaments except those
which are external, and that they draw their kerchief over their bosoms. (Surah. XXIV,
31)156
The Quran instruct the women to unveil themselves only in the presence of
their fathers, husbands and brothers.157 Those men relatives of a woman with whom
Islam prohibits to marry are called mahrams and persons beyond this prohibited
degree are called Na-mahram. The underlying idea behind the institution of purdah is
the seclusion of Na-mahrams. It may be noted that much emphasis was placed on the
154
155
156
157
B.N.Sharma, Social Life in Northern India 600-1000, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1966, p. 25.
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 171.
Imtiyaz Ali, Ameer Ali on Islam, Amar prakashan, Delhi, 1982, p.11.
Ibid., p. 12.
176
purity of moral character of a woman and most important was the public reputation of
woman for chastity.
Strict observance of purdah is advocated by the medieval historians especially
Isami and Amir Khusrau. They are strong supporters of purdah. Isami advocated that
women should be completely secluded from the males. The women those who
observe purdah are characterized as chaste and of high moral values.158 About purdah
Amir Khusrau is also of the same view. By the means of his daughter, he advices
women not to indulge in peeping from behind the door or the curtain, or caste her
look in different directions.159 Amir Khusrau suggests the females to remain inside
their houses so that they remain unnoticed by any male. He says that women should
not roam here and there and it does not suit a girl of respectable family160. It is purdah
which protects the chastity and elevates the moral level of women. He gives an
example of shell and water drop inside it; unless and until the shell is removed the
water drop inside it remains pure and unnoticed. Women who come out of their house
soon fall in the eyes of men. In order to live a pious life by women he emphasizes the
observation of purdah.161
Amir Khusrau disapproves Raziya of unveiling herself in front of courtiers
and common public.162
When women came out of their houses they used palanquin as a means of
transport. These palanquins had silken curtains to protect the woman inside it from the
looks of other people.163 Ibn Battuta describes the palanquin of Makhduma-i-Jahan,
the mother of Mohammad bin Tughlaq.164
To respect the lady who observes the purdah is the quality of a virtuous man.
The mighty Tughlaq Sultan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq considered its duty to respect
the pardanashin women and not to unnecessary gaze at them. Whenever, the Sultan
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
Abdul Malik Isami, Futuh-us-Salatin, Eng. Tr., Agha Mahdi Husain, Asia Publishing house, Dept
of History , Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1976, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 254.
Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, op. cit., p. 35.
Amir Khusrau, Hasht Bihisht, Sulaiman Ashraf Institute Press, Aligarh, 1918, p. 209.
Matlaul Anwar, op. cit., p.199.
Amir Khusrau, Deval Rani Khizr Khan, Silsilah Kulliyat-i-Khusrau, Aligarh, 1916, p. 49.
Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 122.
Ibid.
177
had to enter the harem he used to send information of his arrival through eunuchs. The
purpose was to inform the pardanashin women to hide themselves from the sight of
the emperor.165
Afif mentions women who resided in seclusion in the palace.166 Tatar Khan
carried his slave girls in a closed cart for the sake of purdah. Firozshah Tughlaq
insisted upon the observance of purdah by the women. Women visited to the shrines
of the saints in palanquin which was later prohibited by Sultan Firozshah Tughlaq.167
The purpose was to stop free mingling of both the sexes as it was contrary to the
Islamic code of conduct and gave liberty to unruly men to molest women.
Visiting shrines was not only prohibited for Muslim women but the Hindu
ladies too were stopped from visiting temples during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq
because such visit led to promiscuous mixing of men and women.168
Contrary to this, the common lower class women folk went around unveiled.
They did not live a secluded life. We find references of women who came out of their
house for work, devoid of purdah. Some women came out of the house for the
purpose of bath and filling water.169 There were many more household jobs the
common women had to do. Thus purdah seemed to be a barrier in performing day to
day duties of household. Common women only covered their head with the lapel of
their dupatta or sari.
Architecture
We do not have ample evidences where royal ladies provided patronage in the
field of architecture. Usually wells were constructed as a matter of work of pity and
welfare. Rich merchants used to get the wells built. One well was constructed at the
behest of a princess of a royal family; she is named as Ayesha, a sister of Sikandar
Lodi.170 Beside Ayesha, Bibi Raji of Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur is known for her
outstanding contribution in the field of architecture.
165
166
167
168
169
170
Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 66.
Shams Siraj Afif, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, op. cit., pp. 69-70.
Ibid., pp. 373-74; see also Firoz Tughlaq, op. cit., p. 139.
Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 38.
Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 47-48.
Sanskrit Inscriptions of Delhi Sultanate, op. cit., introduction, p. xxix, p. xxxi-xxxii.
178
After the study of the social conditions of the society during the Sultanate
period; I found that there was an inevitable line of demarcation between the royal
ladies and the common women. The position of royal ladies was an exception. Poor
women had to work hard for their livelihood. We see royal ladies busy in formation of
cliques and intrigues for the benefit of their sons.
Polygamy strongly existed. The Sultans were polygamist due to various
reasons may be because of their sensuous nature or due to the appeasement policies
for various other states. Divorce is rare in Sultanate. Royalty spends a huge amount on
marriage ceremonies of their kith and kin. Female slavery was an integral part of the
society without the study of which the research is incomplete. Purdah is also followed
by the royal ladies and common woman only covered her head with lapel of her
dupatta or sari. Practices like sati and jauhar had its roots deep penetrated in the
Hindu society. Cosmetics and ornaments were also a part of life of royal ladies and
poor women were devoid of it.
In this way by the study of the sources of the Sultanate we find that there was
a strong line of demarcation between the elite class of ladies and common women.
179