HUB
HUB RESEARCH PAPER
The Effectiveness of Product
Placements: The Influence of the
Likeability of the programme
Irene Roozen
HUB RESEARCH PAPER 2008/08.
JANUARI 2008
Hogeschool – Universiteit Brussel
Stormstraat 2, 1000 Brussel, Belgium
T: +32 2 210 12 11
F: + 32 2 217 64 64
The Effectiveness of Product Placements:
The Influence of the Likeability of the programme
IRENE ROOZEN
Abstract
The objective of this research is to analyse the influence of likeability of the programme on
the effectiveness of product-placements and TV-commercials. Four different experimental
groups were exposed to different TV-soap-series, with combinations of commercials and
product-placements. Results indicate that a more appreciated programme can significantly
enhance the effectiveness of product-placements but no commercials. The effectiveness of
TV-commercials is significantly higher than for product-placements. No differences are
found for attitude toward the brand between commercials and product-placements after
watching the programmes. More generally, the attitude toward the well known brands studied
seems not to be affected by different viewing experiences.
Keywords:
Product placements, TV commercials, Likeability of Programme
0
1. Introduction and overview of the literature
Research has shown that the mood the context of the programming engenders might have
strong effects on the processing of advertisements (Aylesworth and MacKenzie, 1998;
Gardner, 1985). An individual mood can have significant effects on the responses to
persuasive communications and can have an important impact on the thoughts (cognitions) an
individual generates about an advertisement. Aylesworth and MacKenzie (1998) have found
that ads placed in programmes that induce negative moods are processed less systematically
than those placed in programmes that put the viewer in a positive mood. They have found that
mood can influence the attitude towards advertisements by affecting both the number of
cognitions the audience generates about an advertisement and by modifying the effect of
those cognitions.
Research indicates that for TV commercials there is an effect of the mood induced by the
television programme’s content on viewers’ responses to the TV commercials (Kamins et al.
2001; Axelrod 1963; Goldberg and Gorn 1987; Srull 1983). Goldberg and Gorn (1987) found
that a happy programme induced (1) a happier mood as viewers watched both programme and
commercials and (2) greater perceived commercial effectiveness (3) more affectively positive
cognitive responses and (4) a higher score on the aided recall questions put to subjects
viewing the programme However, no significant differences where found for the recall and
purchase intentions questions.
Murry et al. (1992) also found a relation between the influence of programmes on viewers’
perceptions of television commercials. The research results showed that viewers’ liking of
programmes positively influenced the attitude toward the advertisement and the attitude
1
toward the brand. Broach et al. (2002) have found “pleasantness of the program” and “arousal
caused by the program” as determinants of viewers’ perception of commercial pleasantness.
Kamins et al. (1991) found that subjects viewing a happy commercial evaluated it more
positively on various measures of advertising effectiveness in the context of programme
content designed and observed to induce a happy mood. However, those subjects who viewed
a sad commercial evaluated it significantly more favourably in the context of sad relative to
happy mood inducing programme content. This suggests that congruence between the mood
of a programme and a commercial is important. However, some studies have found the
opposite: positive advertising effects are found if the message style of the ads is in contrast
with the nature of the context (no congruency, Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1997).
Research on the influence of the mood induced by a programme on the effectiveness of
product placements is scarce in the literature but one would expect the research results to be
in the same direction. Since the use of product placements on television has gained new
urgency (Karrh, 1998; Karrh et al. 2003; La Ferla and Edwards, 2006) research on the
influence of the mood of the respondents on the effectiveness of product placements is
potentially promising1.
Research has shown that prominent placements - placements where the product (or other
brand identifier) is central to the action in the scene or where the product is made highly
visible by size or virtue and/or position on the screen - are more effective than subtle
placements (Gupta and Lord, 1998; La Ferle and Edwards, 2006; Blondé and Roozen, 2007).
Product placements in movies are considered as an interested communication strategy (Brée,
1996; Russell, 2002). Watching movies or watching television soap series is however not the
same experience. This therefore leaves the question whether product placements in television
programmes are an effective communication strategy compared to 30 second commercials.
1
I)This is linked to the declining effectiveness of commercials (Fennis& Bakker 2001;Aacker& Bruzzone 1985)
2
The traditional 30 second commercials and product placements differ greatly in terms of their
execution requirements. Whereas in TV commercials the advertising plot is built around the
brand, product placement generally involves placing the brand inside an already existing plot.
Consequently, Russell (1998) claims that it cannot be expected that prominent product
(screen) placements will outperform TV commercials in terms of their impact on brand
awareness. There is, however, little evidence corroborating this thesis.
The objective of this research is to analyse the influence of the likeability of the programme
on the recall and recognition of the names of brands presented in TV programmes, in the form
of prominent screen product placements, and of brands presented in TV commercials shown
during the commercial break of the programme.
2. Research Design
Four different groups of viewers were exposed to two TV- soap series (humorous and crime
related). In each case three commercials were shown in the break of the programme and one
product placement was used, thereby producing four different viewing experiences (see
Figure 1). In the experiment, the brand of the product placements used in one of the soap
series was broadcasted as 30-second commercials in the other viewing experience involving
this soap series. By using the same brand/products, we have tried to control for brand
preferences, knowledge of brand/product and other possible distortions because of
experiences of the subjects with the exhibited brand/product. According to La Ferle and
Edwards (2006) both placements were primary brand placements – the brand name was on
the actual product - the length of time that each branded product was on screen was almost
identical in all cases (range from 4.2 seconds - 4.5 seconds). In Figure 1 the research design is
given.
3
Figure 1
Research Design
Group I Humorous Programme (N=50)
Group III Crime Programme (N=52)
Progr. I (10 min) - commercials - Progr. I (10 min)
Progr. II (10 min) - commercials - Progr. II (10 min)
Product placement-prominent
Product placement-prominent
Jupiler (Belgian beer)
Commercials:
Jupiler (Belgian beer)
Coca-Cola
Commercials:
Mercedes
Coca-Cola
Mercedes
Maes (Belgian beer)
Maes (Belgian beer)
Group II Humorous Programme (N=42)
Group IV Crime Programme (N=43)
Progr. I (10 min) - commercials - Progr. I (10 min)
Progr. II (10 min) - commercials - Progr. II (10 min)
Product placement-prominent
Product placement-prominent
Mercedes
Commercials:
Mercedes
Sony
Commercials:
Sony
Jupiler (Belgian beer)
Jupiler (Belgian beer)
Het Nieuwsblad (newspaper)
Nieuwsblad (newspaper)
As indicated in Figure 1, four experimental groups are exposed to 2 different soap series with
in total 2 different prominent screen product placements and to 3 different 30-second
commercials in the break of the TV-soap series. We have used existing TV-soap series to
maximize external validity. The soap series are both transmitted by the same (non
commercial public) broadcasting station. Both soap series are in the top three of the most
famous soap series in Belgium. Soap series I is humorous and funny and soap series II
concerns a detective (crime) story2. The commercial spots which were used in the experiment
have never or have not been transmitted since January 2005 on the Belgian TV channels and
the transmission of the soap series was in period January-March year 2006.
Based on the above literature, the main hypotheses are concerned with the effectiveness of the
prominent screen product placement and the 30-second TV commercials by taking the
likeability of the programme into account.
2
De title of soap series I is ‘F.C. De Kampioenen’ and of soap series II is ‘Witse’.
4
H1:
The likeability of the programme has a significantly positive influence on the
effectiveness (in terms of recall and recognition) of both prominent product
placements and 30-second commercials.
H2:
The likeability of the programme affects the relative effectiveness of 30-second
commercials vis-a-vis product placements: the more likeable the programme the
higher the relative effectiveness of a prominent screen product placement.
H3:
The attitude towards the brand is higher after watching a 30-second commercial than
after a prominent product placement of the same brand.
Hundred eighty seven postgraduates from Modern Languages Studies at a large University in
Belgium participated in this experiment in April 2007. The participants had not previously
participated in any study analysing effectiveness of advertisements or product placements.
They were randomly assigned to one of the four groups. Each group was told that the project
was designed to assess people’s reactions to both the TV programmes and the commercials.
3. Research Instrument and Research Results
Immediately after exposure to the total transmission (about 22 minutes), the subjects were
asked to fill in the questionnaire (extra personnel was in the classroom to ensure
confidentiality). The following items were measured: knowledge of the shown TV-soap
series, programme liking (7 points Likert scale consisting of 6-items assessing viewers’ liking
of the programme Murry et al. 1992; Cronbach alpha =.900) and, because a humorous
programme was used, the ‘pleasure’ mood of the viewers (7 items semantic differential,
5
Mehrabian and Russell, 1974; α .886). Thereafter, recall and recognition was measured. The
attitude towards four different brands which were shown in the product placements or 30second commercials was measured on a seven-point semantic differential with five-items (α
Coca Cola
‘newspaper’
= .944; α
Mercedes=
.943; α
Maes
= .951; α
Sony
= .922; α
Jupiler
= .959; α
Het nieuwsblad
= .936). Finally, watching behaviour, stated switching behaviour of 30-second
commercials, gender and age were measured. In Table 1 a description of the sample is given.
Table 1
Description of the Sample
Group I&II (N=92) 1)
Group III&IV (N=95) 2)
X² (p-value)
84.6%
81.7%
0.28 (0.695)
47.3%; 33.0%; 19.8%
60.6%; 26.05%; 19.5%
4.38 (0.112)
25.3%; 44.0%; 30.8%
22.6%; 47.8%; 28.3%
1.10 (0.576)
Average score (sd)
Average score (sd)
T-test (p)
20.48 (1.62)
20.23 (2.55)
0.81 (0.420)
139.25 (78.07)
146.13 (61.17)
0.66 (0.505)
Programme liking (Likert 7 point)
4.35 (1.06)
3.85 (1.18)
3.05 (0.003)
Pleasure score after viewing the programme
4.88 (0.88)
4.55 (1.09)
2.25 (0.026)
Gender Female (%)
Watching TV:
Every day ; 3-6 days a week; Less 2 days
Zap when commercial starts:
Less than 50% of the time; 50%-75%; 100%
Age
Watching TV a day (min)
1)
Humorous programme ; 2) Crime programme
As is shown in Table 1 the experimental groups for the different programmes are sufficiently
comparable in terms of their watching behaviour - the amount of hours of regular television
watching and zapping behaviour as well as in terms of gender. On average more than 75% of
the respondents indicated that most of the time they switch to another channel when a TV
commercial starts. This is consistent with the literature (Stumpel and Levi 2005). Also,
almost 60% of the respondents in both groups indicated that they normally watch television
for more than one hour. The humorous programme is significantly liked more and generated a
significantly higher pleasure score than the crime programme.
In order to investigate the first hypothesis, the recall and recognition scores of the brands
6
‘Jupiler’ and ‘Mercedes’ shown in the TV commercials and in the prominent screen product
placements were first analysed (see Table 2).
Table 2 Effectiveness (recall and recognition) of the prominent product placements and
commercials in the two different programmes for the different brands separately
Programme I
Brandname:
Programme II
GROUP I
GROUP II
GROUP III
GROUP IV
(%) (N=50)
(%) (N=42)
(%) (N=52)
(%) (N=43)
PP-prom:
Test-value
(p-value)
Chi-square
Jupiler
Recall
64.0
25.0
Recognition
78.0
Mercedes
Recall
61.9
Recognition
73.8
15.73 (<.001)
40.4
14.89 (<.001)
1
3
20.9
14.73 (<.001)
34.9
12.97 (<.001)
Chi-square
Commercials:
Coca Cola
Recall
90.0
Recognition
88.0
88.5
Recall
74.0
76.9
0.12 (.732)
Recognition
88.0
75.0
2.84 (.092)
Maes
Recall
70.0
57.7
1.67 (.196)
Recognition
84.0
Sony
Recall
69.0
65.1
0.15 (.700)
Recognition
66.7
51.2
2.11 (.146)
Recall
85.7
76.7
1.12 (.290)
Recognition
81.0
81.4
0.00 (.958)
Recall
78.6
69.8
086 (.354)
Recognition
85.7
86.0
0.00 (.965)
Mercedes
Jupiler
Het Nieuwsblad
94.2
2
0.631 (.427)
4
0.01 (.942)
76.9
.810 (.368)
Attitude towards the brand:
Coca Cola
Mercedes
F-value
4.76
4.54(1a)
Maes
3.03
Sony
4.81
Jupiler
Het Nieuwsblad
3.56(2a)
4.38
4.97
1)
2)
4.48 (1a)
5.50
4.84 (1b)
3.22
3.29
5.23
5.08
4.02(2a)
4.79
3.73(2b)
4.49
1)
2)
4.84
2.55 (.057)
4.68 (1b)
0.57 (.633)
3.23
0.27 (.846)
5.24
2.03 (.110)
4.12(2b)
1.00 (.393)
4.65
0.90 (.442)
1) (1a) and (1b) No significant differences are found for 1a (t-value 0.21, p-value =.832) and 1b (t-value 0.54; p-value .588)
2) (2a) and (2b) No significant differences are found for 2a (t-value 1.28; p-value .205) and 2b (t-value 1.06; p-value .292)
The research results in Table 2 show that for both prominent product placements the recall
7
and recognition scores are significantly higher for the most liked programme (programme I).
This means that hypothesis I is accepted for the prominent screen product placements.
However, hypothesis I is not accepted for TV-commercials. In none of the cases is the recall
and recognition scores of the brands shown in the commercials significantly higher for the
more liked programme.
For hypothesis II, the relative effectiveness of the commercials and prominent screen product
placements are investigated (for the same brand for the same program), see the arrows 1
through 4 in Table 2. For programme I (group I and II, arrow ‘1’ and ‘2’), the recall score for
Jupiler is significantly higher for the TV commercials but for Mercedes no significant
differences between the recall of a prominent product placement and the TV commercial are
found (chi-squareJupiler 2.45 p-value .018; X²-Mercedes 1.23 p-value .222). For programme II (the
less liked programme, arrow ‘3’ and ‘4’), the recall of the brand is in both cases significantly
higher after watching a TV commercial than after watching the prominent screen product
placement (X²Jupiler 5.80 p-value<.001; X²Mercedes 6.48; p-value <.001).
For group I and II, the recognition scores of Jupiler and Mercedes are not significantly
different between viewing a prominent screen product placement and a 30 second commercial
(X²Jupiler 0.35 p-value .731; X²Mercedes 1.76 p-value .082). However, for group III and IV
significant differences for recognition are found (X²Jupiler 4.40 p-value <.001; X²Mercedes 4.25 pvalue <.001). The results suggest that in a less liked programme the TV commercials score
significantly higher on recall and recognition than prominent screen product placements
whereas if the programme is more liked the differences are generally less significant.
As indicated above, the respondents indicated that, in reality, they display significant
switching behaviour. In this experiment they could however not switch. This suggests that the
results reported above underestimate the effectiveness of product placements compared to 30second commercials. If a correction could be made for ‘normal’ switching behaviour (which
8
the participants have indicated in the questionnaire) then the recall and recognition of the 30second commercials would be significantly lower. This suggests that in reality for the liked
TV programme the effectiveness of the prominent screen product placements could even be
higher than of the TV commercials. However, this should be investigated further on the basis
of another research design in which respondents are able to switch between channels and the
researcher is able to analyse their viewing behaviour on the basis of, for example, an
audiometric measurement or eye camera.
The relative impact on the attitude towards the brand of commercials and product placements
has subsequently been analysed by comparing the scores for the two brands (Jupiler and
Mercedes) for which product placements and commercials were shown in combinations with
both programmes. The footnotes of Table 2 indicate that there are no significant differences
between the attitude towards the brand in the four cases. However, it should be pointed out
that the research results suggest a very limited influence of viewing a commercial or a
product placement. For the four other brands, the attitude towards the brand was only for one
out of four times significantly higher after watching a commercial compared with not
watching a commercial (t-value
value
Sony
Coca Cola
2.03 p-value .044; t-value
1,07 p-value .287; t-value
Nieuwsblad
Maes
0.29 p value .772; t-
1.51 p-value .133). In contrast with the
literature, for all six brands for which commercials were viewed, there was no positive effect
of watching the more liked programme on the attitude towards the brand. Given that the six
brands are very well known in Belgium, the results may mean that consumers attitude
towards well known brands are not significantly affected by an additional viewing
experience. This caveat should be borne in mind when interpreting the above results i.e. no
differences in the relative impact of commercials and product placements on attitude towards
the brand.
9
4. Summary and Conclusions
The research results indicate that the likeability of the programme significantly influences the
effectiveness of product placements while this relationship is weaker for 30-second
commercials. This suggests that the selection of the appropriate programme can significantly
enhance the effectiveness of product placements. While (in the absence of switching
behaviour) commercials are generally more effective than prominent screen product
placements. The research results suggest that a careful prominent product placement and
programme “match” could neutralise the difference. Moreover, the research results indicate
that in realty respondents do not watch commercials on a regular basis. Therefore in a future
research design switching behaviour of the respondents should be taken into account.
For the well known brands analysed in the research, the attitude towards the brands after
watching a commercial or a prominent screen product placement is not significantly different
and also the liking of the TV programme does not influence the attitude towards the brands
significantly. This suggest that the attitude towards well known brands is not significantly
affected by one or two additional viewing experiences.
In evaluation these results, it should be added that they relate to a limited number of brands in
the Belgian market as assessed by university students. This research should therefore be
repeated for different product placements (e.g. visual, audio, plot, secondary placements)
across product categories and markets whereby the order effects of product placements
should also have to be taken into account.
10
References
Aylesworth, Andrew B. and Scott B. MacKenzie, (1998), Context Is Key: The Effect of
Program-Induced Mood on Thoughts about the Ad, journal of Advertising, 27 (2), 17-27.
Aacker, D. A. and Bruzzone, D. E. (1985), “Causes of Irritation in Advertising”, Journal of
Marketing, 49 (Spring), 47-57.
Axelrod, Joel N. (1963) “Induced Moods and Attitudes Towards Products”, Journal of
Advertising Research, 3 (June) 19-24.
Blondé, Kristin and Irene Roozen (2007), An Explorative Study of Testing the Effectiveness
of Product Placement compared to 30-second TV-Commercials” for the 6th International
Marketing Trends Congress, Paris 26-27 January 2007.
Brée Laurie and Sheri T. Carder (1996) Le placement de produit dans les films: une
communication originale, Décisions Marketing, 8 (May-August), 65-74.
Broach Jr., V. Carter; Page Jr., Thomas J.(1995), “Television programming and its influence
on viewers' Perceptions of Commercials: The Role of Program Arousal and Pleasantness”,
Journal of Advertising, Vol. 24 (Winter) Issue 4, p.45-54.
Fennis, B.M. and Bakker, A.B. (2001), ”Stay Tuned - We Will Be Back Right After These
Messages: Need to Evaluate Moderates the Transfer of Irritation in Advertising”, Journal
of Advertising, Vol..30, 3, p.15-25.
Gardner, Meryl, P. (1985), Mood States and Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review, Journal
of Consumer Research, 12 (December), 281-300.
Goldberg, Marvin. E. and Gerald J. Gorn (1987), “Happy and Sad TV Programs: How They
Affect Reactions to Commercials”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14, 387- 403.
Gupta, P. B. and K.R Lord (1998), “Product Placement in Movies: the Effect of Prominence
and Mode on Audience Recall”, Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 20,
nr. 1, 47-59.
Holbrook Morris B. and John O’Shaughnessy (1984), The Role of Emotion in Advertising,
Psychology and Marketing, 1, (Summer), 45-64.
Kamins, M.A.; Marks, L.J. and Skinner, D. (1991) “Television commercial evaluation in the
context of program induced mood: Congruency versus Consistency Effects”, Journal of
Advertising, Vol. 20 Issue 2, p.1-14.
Karrh, J.A. (1998), “Brand Placement: A Review, Journal of Current and Research in
Advertising”, 20, nr. 2, 31-49.
11
Karrh, J.A., K.B. Mckee en C. J. Pardun (2003), “Practitioners’ evolving views on product
placement effectiveness”, Journal of Advertising Research, 43, nr. 2, June, 138-149.
La Ferla, Carrie and Steven M. Edwards (2006), Product Placement, How Brands Appear on
Television, Journal of Advertising, vol. 35, no. 4 (Winter) 65-86.
Mehrabian, S.A. and J. Russell, (1974), An Approach to Environmental Psychology,
Cambridge, MIT, Press.
Meyers-Levy, Joan and Alice M. Tybout (1997) Context Effects at Encoding and Judgement
in Consumption Settings. The Role of Cognitive Resources, Journal of Consumer
Research, 24, June, 1-14.
Murry, John, P. JR., John L. Lastovicka and Surendra N. Singh (1992), Feeling and Liking
Responses to Television Programs: A Examination of Two Explanations for MediaContext Effects, Journal of Consumer Research, vol; 18, March, 441-451.
Perry Stephen, D. Stefan A. Jenzowsky and Cynthia M. King and Huiuk Yi (1997), Using
Humorous
Programs
as
a
Vehicle
for
Humorous
Commercials,
Journal
of
Communications 47, 20-39.
Russell, C. A (1998), “Toward a Framework of Product Placement: Theoretical Propositions”
Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 25, Issue 1, p.357-362.
Russell, C. A. (2002), “Investigating the Effectiveness of Product Placements in Television
Shows: The Role of Modality and Plot Connection Congruence on Brand Memory and
Attitude” Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 29, December, 306-318.
Srull, Thomas.K. (1983) “Affect and memory: the Impact of Affective Reactions in
Advertising on the Representation of Product Information in Memory, Advances in
Consumer Research, Vol. 10 Issue 1, p.520-525.
Stumpel, I and Levi, A, (2005), “Schokkend nieuws voor de buis, registratie van feitelijk
kijkgedrag van consumenten”, 12 januari 2005, MM&MO Consultancy, www.mmmo.nl/schokkend_nieuws.html.
12