o
MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE DURING TETHERED
SWIMMING AND TREADMILL RUNNING IN SWIMMERS
OF VARYING SKILL LEVELS
by
Kathleen Marie Creighton
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty o f the
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
In P a r t i a l
F u l f il lm e n t o f the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER J3F SCIENCE
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
19
8 1
STATEMENT BY.AUTHOR
This th esis has been submitted in p a r t i a l f u l m i 1Iment o f re­
quirements f o r an advanced degree a t The U n iv e rs ity of Arizona and is
deposited in the U n iv e rs ity L ib rary to be made a v a ila b le to borrowers
under rules o f the L ib ra ry .
B r ie f quotations from t h is thesis are allo w able without spe­
c ia l permission, provided th a t accurate acknowledgment o f source is
made. Requests f o r permission fo r extended quotation from or repro­
duction o f t h is manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the
head o f the major department or the Dean o f the Graduate College when
in his judgment the proposed use o f the m aterial is. in the in te re s t
of scholarship.
in a l l other instances, however, permission must be
obtained from the author.
SIGNED:
_
■
“ 7?
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
J. H, WILMORE
ProfW sor o f Physical Education
DATE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are extended to Linda Schulz and Wen Yuan Tsao
fo r t h e i r invaluable help in the c o lle c t io n o f d a t a .
I would also l i k e
to thank my Committee Members, Dr. Richard M. Jochums and Dr. Fred B.
Roby, f o r t h e i r time and assistance.
c i a t io n
My most sincere thanks and appre­
is extended to Dr. Jack H. Wilmore f o r his help and support in
advising and d ir e c t in g the w r it in g o f th is th e s is .
The p r i v il e g e o f
being one o f his students and the honor o f having him as my advisor
has made the la s t two years an e x tra o rd in a ry and. most memorable learning
experience.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................................
LIST OF TABLES
............................................................................... ..............................
v?
vi i
ABSTRACT............................................................................................ .............................. vi i i
CHAPTER
1
2
THE PROBLEM . . .
........................................................................................
1
Introduction
. ...................... .... .........................................................
Statement o f the Problem ..................................................................
1
3
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
.........................................................
4
S p e c i f i c i t y o f Testing
......................................................................
S p e c i f i c i t y o f T r a i n i n g ......................................................... . . .
4
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ...................................................................................
11
S u b j e c t s ....................................................................................................
P r o c e d u r e s ........................................................................................,. .
Physiological Monitoring
..................................................................
S t a t i s t i c a l Methodology ............................... ...................................
11
11
15
17
4
RESULTS .. .........................................................................................................
18
5
DISCUSSION
...................................................................................
30
Maximum Oxygen Uptake , . , .............................................................
Maximum Heart R a t e ................................................................. . . .
Maximum Minute V e n t ila t io n
..........................
Maximum Respiratory Exchange Ratio ............................................
Regression Analysis of TM Versus. T S ...........................................
P red ic tio n Equations f o r TS Values from TM Values . . . .
Exercise P r e s c r i p t i o n ...................... ..................... ..................... .... .
31
34
35
35
36
36
37
SUMMARY .............................................................................................................
38
3
6
. . *
..................
Conclusions . . . . .
...........................................................................
iv
8
39
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued
Page
APPENDIX A:
SUBJECTS CONSENT . . . . . .
APPENDIX B:
MEDICAL HISTORY QUESTIONNAIRE
APPENDIX C:
APPENDIX D:
APPENDIX E:
.....................................
41
................................
5
METHOD USED TO CALCULATE STANDARD LOAD;
PROGRESSIONS FOR ESTIMATED MAXIMUM LOADS =
4.00 K G ...............................................................................
47
CONVERSION OF THE TIME FOR 30 PULSE BEATS
TO PULSE RATE PER MINUTE ............................................
49
INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT VO^ MAX VALUES
........................
51
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ...............................................................................
56
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
Page
1
Tethered Swimming Apparatus . . . .
2
Breathing A p p a r a t u s ...................................................................................
16
R elationship o f Maximum Oxygen Uptake (L/min) during
Tethered Swimming and Treadmill Running ..........................
* . .
21
R elationship o f Maximum Oxygen Uptake (ml/kg•min ^) during
Tethered Swimming and Treadm ill Running ......................................
22
Relationship o f Minute V e n t ila t io n s during Tethered
Swimming and Treadmill Running ..........................................................
24
Relationship o f Maximum Heart Rate during Tethered
Swimming and Treadmill Running ...................
25
R elationship o f Maximum Respiratory Exchange Ratio
during Tethered Swimming and Treadm ill Running ......................
26
•3
h
5
6
7
vi
...................................
. . .
14
LIST.OF TABLES
Table
Page
1.
Subject C h a r a c te r is tic s
2.
T es t-R etes t R e l i a b i l i t y f o r a l l
3.
Mean Subject Data fo r Group A, Group B and the Total
G r o u p ................................................
..................
12
Subjects (N = 2 6 ) ....................... 19
20
4.
Mean Slopes, In te r c e p t s , and C o rrelatio n s f o r Group A
and Group B on A ll V a r ia b le s :
TS versus TM
................................27
5.
Dependent " t " Test:
6.
Independent " t " T e s t :
E ffe c t of Mode on G r o u p ..................' . .
28
E f f e c t o f Group on M o d e ........................... 29
.. v.
vii
-Jt-rt
ABSTRACT
Tw enty-six female and male swimmers w ith a wide range of
swimming s k i l l s and level of t r a in in g were divided into two groups:
A-the higher s k i l l e d , higher tra in e d swimmers; B-the lower s k i l l e d ,
less tra in e d swimmers.
tre a d m ill
Each subject performed two.maximum tests of
running (TM) and tethered swimming (T S ).
HR max (bpm],
VC^ max (L /m in ),
max (L/min) and R max were determined.
T e s t-re te s t
r e l i a b i l i t y fo r VO^ max during TS and TM was high; r = .97 and r = .9 9 ,
r e s p e c tiv e ly .
TS
max fo r Group A was 13%, and f o r Group B 18%,
less than corresponding TM VO^ max values.
TS HR max f o r Groups A and
B were 8 and 9% less than TM HR max values, re s p e c tiv e ly .
MANOVA with
repeated measures evaluated the e f f e c t o f exercise mode and was found
to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y
(P < ,05) d i f f e r e n t f o r a l l v a ria b le s f o r a l l
subjects, except fo r R max values f o r Group A.
f ic a n t
TM.
ANOVA revealed a s i g n i ­
(P < ,05) d iff e r e n c e in VO^ max between A and B on both TS and
Regression a n a ly s is fo r Group A gave the equation y = 0 . 8 9 ( x ) - 0 .1
( r = ,97) to p r e d ic t TS V0^ max from TM VO^ max.
The equation y =
0 . 7 1 (x)+ 0.28 (r = ,97) was derived to p re d ic t TS VO^ max from TM VO^
max fo r Group B,
This data supports the theory o f s p e c i f i c i t y o f
t e s t in g , p a r t i c u l a r l y In regard to the level and mode o f t r a in i n g .
viii
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM
Introd uction
Today,
in the United S ta te s ,
i t has been estimated that twenty-
s ix m illio n people are involved in some form of swimming a c t i v i t y .
The
P e r r i e r study (1979) found swimming to be the second la rg e s t p a r t i c i p a ­
to ry sport in the United S ta te s , which includes swimming fo r re c re a tio n ,
physical co n ditio nin g and com petition.
Swi®ming-• isr":^j|i e x c e lle n t physi­
cal a c t i v i t y f o r people o f a l l ages, as well as f o r those who have
physical d i s a b i l i t i e s .
Vigorous, rhythmic a c t i v i t y performed in the
water has been shown to r e s u lt in s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n s
strength and c a rd io r e s p ir a to r y endurance (Andrew e t a 1.
in f l e x i b i l i t y ,
1972; Clarke
1973; Stewart and Gut in 1976).
Local adaptations w ith in the s k e le ta l muscle and general c a rd io ­
vascular. adaptations consequent to endurance t r a in i n g can s i g n i f i c a n t l y
improve the e f f i c i e n c y o f . t h e cardiovascular system.
This improvement
is r e fle c te d by an increase in maximal oxygen uptake (VO^ max) and
changes' in heart r a t e .
The heart r a te changes include a decrease in
restin g heart r a t e , a decrease in submaxima 1 heart ra te a t a s p e c ific
standardized workload, and a f a s t e r return to re stin g levels a f t e r work.
Changes in these two v a r ia b le s ,
i.e .
VC^ max and heart r a t e , are
common 1y used as c r i t e r i a fo r eva lu a tin g the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of physical
t r a in in g programs.
1
2
Changes in VC^ max w ith t r a in in g are dependent upon the p a r t ic u ­
l a r mode o f exercise employed during t r a i n i n g , and are also dependent
on the mode o f te s tin g as w e l l .
The c lo s e r the t e s tin g mode approximates
the t r a in in g mode the more a c c u ra te ly the changes in VC^ max w i l l
r e f l e c t the local and general physio logical changes.
A number o f in ­
v e s tig a tio n s have indicated th a t lab o rato ry determ inations o f VO^ max
are highly dependent on the mode o f te s t in g
(Carey, S tensland, and
H a rtle y 1974; Cunningham, Goode, and C r i t z 1975: Secher and Oddershede
1975; Stromme,
Inger and Mein 1977; Wi1mo re 1979)•
T ra d itio n a lly ,
t e s tin g has been conducted on tre a d m ills and s ta tio n a r y b ic y c le s .
However, from the above i t would appear th a t swimmers should be tested
in the water using f r e e , tethered or flume under conditions most s i m il a r
to actual t r a in in g and competition i f v a l i d and useful data are to be
obtained.
There is a need to f u r t h e r in v e s tig a te the e x te n t of the in­
fluence o f the above fa cto rs
be assessed more a c c u ra te ly .
max fo r the J e s s -tr a in e d ,
in order th a t t h e i r physio logical e f fe c ts
Accurate assessment o f VO^ max and HR
lo w e re d -s k i1led individu al
developing a v a lid and safe exercise p r e s c r ip tio n .
is e ss en tial fo r
it
is the responsi­
b i l i t y of a program d ir e c t o r to know which a c t i v i t i e s provide s im ila r
t r a in in g s tim u li and how to e s ta b lis h proper ta rg e t heart ra te levels
fo r the various a c t i v i t i e s .
Exercise leaders are also responsible f o r
knowing how to properly evaluate the e f f e c t s of various t r a in in g pro­
grams.
test?
Can swimming t r a in in g be properly evaluated by a tre a d m ill
run
Statement o f the Problem
The purpose o f t h is study was to determine the d iff e r e n c e ,
any,
if
in maximal oxygen uptake and maximal heart rate between tethered
swimming and tre a d m ill
running of swimmers varying in s k i l l
level o f swim co n d itio n in g .
level and
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The fo llo w in g is a review o f the l i t e r a t u r e concerned with the
concept o f the s p e c i f i c i t y o f t e s tin g f o r aerobic cap a c ity .
past, nearly a l l
b ic y c le s .
In the
te s tin g was conducted on tre a d m ills and s ta tio n a ry
The development and use o f s p e c ia lize d t e s t in g devices, such
as the rowing ergometer and the swimming flume, have demonstrated th a t
VO^ max is highly s p e c if ic to the musculature employed during maximal
e x e rc is e , and thus VO- max values are s p e c if ic to the te s tin g device
i
as w ell as the method o f t r a i n i n g .
S p e c i f i c i t y o f Testing
Hermansen et al . (1970) measured oxygen uptake, heart r a t e , and
cardiac output in 13 males on a tre a d m ill and on a b ic y c le ergometer.
Already defined VO^ max and cardiac output (Q) were s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher
in u p h ill tre a d m ill
rates
running than during c y c lin g , w h ile maximal heart
(HR max) were e s s e n t ia l l y the same.
Stromme, et a l . (1977)
s p e c ific ity
^
in vestig ated the problem o f te s tin g
1C
in 14 female and 10 male cross country s k ie r s , eight e l i t e
male rowers, and eig h t e l i t e male c y c l i s t s .
to exhaustion during u p h ill
Each subject was tested
running on the t r e a d m il l , and during maximal
performance of t h e i r s p e c if ic sp o rt.
The VO^ max values were higher
in almost every in d iv id u al case when t e s tin g with the s p e c if ic s p o rt,
w ith an average o f 3 .0 , 4 . 2 , and 5 .6 percent higher VO^ max values
4
5
w hile s k iin g ,
rowing and b ic y c lin g ,
re s p e c tiv e ly , compared to u p h ill
running.
Hartung (1973) studied the heart r a te responses o f ten highly
tra in e d distance runners, ten highly tra in e d swimmers and a control
group o f untrained in d iv id u a ls a t r e s t , during a standard tre a d m ill
walk, and during the recovery period fo llo w in g the w alk.
The runners
reached s i g n i f i c a n t l y longer mean endurance times (time to preselected
heart rates 110, 130, 150, and 170 bpm) th a t the swimmers, even though
both groups were considered to be e q u ally t r a in e d .
The swimmers
performed b e t t e r than the control group only at the heart ra te o f 130
bpm.
T h e re fo re, th is mode o f te s tin g did not d i f f e r e n t i a t e the tra in e d
swimmers from the untrained control group.
V rije n s et a l . (1975) studied VO^ max and c ir c u l a t o r y adapta­
tions to work w ith arms and w ith legs in f i v e members of the Belgian
national kayak team and in a control group o f nine students who were
considered to be in good physical c o n d itio n , but untrained in paddling.
In the group o f kayakers VO^ max during arm exercise averaged 88.6% o f
the scores obtained w ith leg exe rc is e .
In the control group the arm
••exercise averaged 81.2% of the leg e x e rc is e .
The authors concluded
th a t arm work is the p re fe rre d mode o f te s tin g when e v a lu a tin g the
t r a in i n g status o f a th le te s whose sport involves predominantly the
upper e x t r e m itie s .
The fo llo w in g studies have been conducted comparing aerobic
capacity determined w hile running and swimming.
The extent o f t r a in in g
o f the subjects varied from e l i t e swimmers to those untrained in
6
swimming.
Swim te s tin g methodologies varied from f r e e swimming and
tethered swimming to the use o f the swimming flume.
Magel and Faulkner (.1967) found approximately the same VO^ max
values f o r running (4.20 L/min) and tethered swimming (4.1 4 L/min)
26 highly tra in e d swimmers.
in
in a d d itio n they found a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
higher VO^ max fo r " fr e e " swimming (4.3 9 L/min) as compared to th at
of tethered swimming.
I t must be noted, however, th a t the v a l i d i t y
o f the data fo r the f r e e swim is questionable due to the bag c o lle c t io n
procedures and to the use of 50-yard s p rin ts as the work loads to
assess aerobic c a p a c ity .
The authors also stated th a t the tre a d m ill
run values may not have been t r u e ly maximal due to a reluctance on
the p art of the swimmers to give the same a l l - o u t e f f o r t
in running
th a t they gave in swimming.
Ho1mer e t a l . (1974a) evaluated e l i t e male and female swimmers
running on a tre a d m ill and swimming in a swimming flume.
Mean VO^ max
during swimming (4.27 L/min) was 6% less than the mean V0^ max fo r
running (4.55 L /m in ) .
The mean HR max was 15 bpm lower in swimming
(185 bpm) than in running (200 bpm).
^
In a second study, Ho1mer et a l .
(1974b), using f i v e highly
tra in e d subjects, compared \IQ^ max and HR max during tre a d m ill
and w h ile swimming breaststroke in a swimming flume.
running
max was 15%
lower swimming (3-79 L/min) than running (4.45 L /m in ), and HR max was
7% lower in swimming (174 bpm versus 186 bpm), despite the fa c t th a t
most of the subjects were swim t r a in e d .
Dixon and Faulkner (1971) compared s ix highly s k i l l e d swimmers
with s ix re c re a tio n a l swimmers on both a tethered swim te s t and a
7
tre a d m ill
run t e s t .
For the s ix s k i l l e d swimmers there was no s i g n i ­
f ic a n t d iffe r e n c e in Q max or VO^ max between the swimming and running
te s ts .
ming.
HR max decreased from 184 bpm in running to 172 bpm in swim­
The rec re a tio n a l
swimmers were not able to reach the same VO^ max
swimming (2 .7 L/min) as they did running (3 .6 L /m in ), and both values
were lower than fo r the s k i l l e d swimmers (4 .3 and 4.1 L /m in ) ; nor was
t h e i r Q max on HR max as high, swimming as in running.
From th is data i t
would appear th a t only tra in e d swimmers are capable o f a t t a in i n g com­
parable VO^ max values swimming and running.
Holmer (1972) used female and male subjects w ith a wide range of
swimming s k i l l
(untrained through e l i t e swimmers) to study physiological
responses to maximal work rates on the t r e a d m il l , b ic y c le ergometer and
w h ile swimming three d i f f e r e n t s ty le s
a second group o f 12 s k i l l e d g i r l
in the swimming flume.
He studied
swimmers during maximal running on a
tre a d m ill and swimming to exhaustion in a flume.
For a l l
subjects in
the f i r s t group the highest VO^ max was obtained during running.
The
VO^ max, regardless of the swimming s t y l e , averaged 89% o f the max value
in running and 97% o f the cycling value.
among the d i f f e r e n t categories o f s k i l l
These re la tio n s h ip s d if f e r e d
and t r a in i n g .
For the untrained
group, V0o max in swimming was 80% of the value obtained in running.
Trained subjects reached 95% o f the running value, and the two e l i t e
swimmers reached 100% and 95%•
The mean value f o r . V0^ max during swim-
ming in the second group o f s k i l l e d swimmers was 93% o f the value
obtained during running.
Six of the subjects achieved 3k% in the
breaststroke and f i v e achieved 92% in the fro n t craw l, o f t h e i r VO^
max values in running.
Swimming HR max values fo r both groups were
8
s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower on the average than in cycling and running.
This
study confirmed th a t oxygen uptake and heart ra te during maximal
swimming did not reach the same level
during maximal
in most of these subjects as
running.
Bonen et a l .
(1980)
in vestig ated the degree o f s p e c i f i c i t y
among swimmers associated with teth ered swimming, f r e e swimming and,
flume swimming, and compared these three d i f f e r e n t modes fo r e l i c i t i n g
VO^ max in the water w ith a lab o ra to ry arm-ergometer t e s t .
They found
tethered swimming and flume swimming to be e s s e n t ia l l y the same and
highly c o rre la te d ( r = 0 . 9 9 ) .
The VO^ max fo r arm ergometry was
s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower (2.36 L/min) than th a t f o r teth ered swimming (2.67
L/min) and flume swimming (2.62 L /m in ) .
Tethered swimming and fre e
swimming were also s i m il a r and h ig h ly c o rre la te d
res u lts
(r = 0 . 9 9 ) .
These
in d ic a te th a t flume swimming, f r e e swimming, and tethered swim­
ming y i e l d e s s e n t ia l l y id e n tic a l V.O^ max r e s u lts .
S p e c i f i c i t y o f T rain in g
T h e - s p e c i f i c i t y o f cardiovascular and metabolic adapatations to
endurance t r a in in g have been demonstrated w ith various modes o f exei—
c is e .
Pechar et a l . (1974) observed the c a r d io r e s p ir a to r y adaptation
to t r a in in g fo llo w in g e ig h t weeks o f b ic y c le ergdmeteT^training (N = 2 0 ) ,
and tre a d m ill t r a in i n g (N = 2 0 ).
The VO^ max of the tre a d m ill tra in e d
subjects improved by 6.8% and 6.9% on the tre a d m ill and b ic y c le t e s t s ,
re s p e c tiv e ly , as compared with corresponding improvements o f 2.6% and
7.8% In the bic y c le tra in e d group.
Maximum heart rates decreased
approximately the same in both groups f o r both modes o f exe rcis e.
The
9
maximum v e n t i l a t i o n values increased s i g n i f i c a n t l y on both te s t modes
fo r the tre a d m ill t r a in i n g group, w h ile the b ic y c le tra in e d group
improved only in the b ic y c le mode.
Roberts and Alspaugh (1972) tra in e d two groups o f subjects fo r
s ix weeks on a tre a d m ill or b ic y c le ergometer.
Following t r a i n i n g ,
the tre a d m ill group made s i g n i f i c a n t improvements on both, the b ic y c le
and tre a d m ill te s ts w h ile the b ic y c le ergometer group improved s i g n i ­
f i c a n t l y only on the b ic y c le t e s t .
Davies and Sargeant (1975) studied the cardiovascular and meta­
b o lic e f f e c t s o f s ix weeks o f t r a in i n g both legs on a b ic y c le ergometer,
w hile exe rcis in g only a s in g le leg a t one time (the other remaining
in a c tiv e ).
VO^ max values increased approximately 1k% in both legs f o r
s in g le leg te s tin g w h ile simultaneous t e s tin g of both legs indicated an
increase in VO^ max o f only 4.7%.
The authors concluded th a t tr a in in g
is highly s p e c if ic and th a t changes in peripheral fa c to rs are mainly
involved in one-leg work, w hile the l i m i t a t i o n to maximal exercise in
two-leg work is due to the capacity o f the cen tral cardiovascular
system.
Mage! et a l .
(1978) studied cardiovascular and metabolic
adjustments to ten weeks o f in te rv a l arm t r a in i n g .
max improved 16.3% fo llo w in g t r a i n i n g .
Arm ergometer VO^
Treadmill VO^ max values
remained unchanged fo llo w in g the arm t r a in in g in d ic a tin g that there was
a s p e c if ic c e l l u l a r metabolic adaptation to arm t r a i n i n g .
Several studies have been conducted examining the e f f e c t o f
swim t r a in in g on the cardiovascular system and the accompanying meta­
b o lic adaptations.
Hoimer and Astrand (1972) studied two female
10
id e n tic a l
twins w h ile running on a t r e a d m il l , arm and leg cycling on an
ergometer, and swimming in a flume.
but only one p a r t ic ip a te d
Both twins were p h y s ic a lly a c t i v e ,
in hard swim t r a i n i n g .
id e n tic a l VO^ max values when tested by tre a d m ill
The g i r l s had nearly
running (3.61
L/mln
fo r the tra in e d swimmer and 3-65 L/min fo r ‘the untrained swimmer), by
arm c y c lin g , or by arm plus leg c y c lin g .
The tra in e d swimmer had sign!
f i c a n t l y higher VO^ max values when swimming and was able to match her
running VO^ max w h ile swimming.
HR max was highest in cycling (191 and
187 bpm), lowest in swimming (182 and 176 bpm), and s i m il a r in running
fo r the tra in e d swimmer and untrained swimmer, re s p e c tiv e ly .
These
re s u lts in d ic a te th a t only the tra in e d swimmer could u t i l i z e a high
percentage o f her running VO^ max during swimming, probably because by
t r a in in g she adapted both cen tra l and peripheral
functions to th is spe­
c i f i c type o f work.
Magel e t a l . (1975) evaluated the s p e c i f i c i t y - g e n e r a l i t y o f
the c a r d io r e s p ir a to r y adaptation to 10 weeks of swim t r a i n i n g .
physiological measures were determined during tre a d m ill
tethered swimming.
Maximum
running and
P r io r to t r a in i n g the swimming VO^ max values o f
subjects averaged 15% below t h e i r running VO^ max values.
o f t r a i n i n g , swimming VO^ max increased s i g n i f i c a n t l y
max decreased s i g n i f i c a n t l y
(3 .5 bpm).
As a re s u lt
(11.2%) w h ile HR
There were in s i g n if i c a n t
improvements in VO^ max (1.5%) when the same group was evaluated by
tre a d m ill
running.
These res u lts support the findings o f Ho1mer (1972)
and Ho1mer et a l . (1974a) that the e f f e c t s o f swim t r a in i n g on the
oxygen tra nsport system are s p e c if ic to swim performance, and can only
be demonstrated when tested in a swimming mode.
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Subjects
The subjects were 26 health a d u lt volunteers
females) between the ages of 18 and 30 y e a r s .
(10 males and 16
Individual values fo r
h e ig h t , w eight, and age are presented in Table 1.
Subjects had to be
able to swim the fr o n t crawl fo r a minimum of 5 minutes non-stop to be
e l i g i b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in the study.
Group A consisted of the b e t t e r
s k i l l e d , more h ighly tra in e d swimmers (N = 13).
le s s -s k ille d ,
le s s - tr a in e d swimmers (N = 13).
Group B consisted o f
The purpose and design
o f the study were explained to each subject and informed consent
(Appendix A) and medical h is to ry (Appendix B) was o b ta in e d .
The e x p e r i­
mental protocol and informed consent form had been previo u s ly reviewed
and approved by the U n iv e rs ity o f Arizona Human Subjects Committee.
Procedures
Acquaintance w ith the tre a d m ill and the procedures used in the
tre a d m ill t e s t were done j u s t p r io r to t e s t in g .
Subjects were given a
demonstration o f the te s tin g procedures and allowed to p r a c tic e .
The
te s t i t s e l f began with, a two minute warm-up, walking a t 3 m.p.h. and
at a grade o f 0%.
This was followed by two minutes o f b ris k walking a t
a speed o f 4 m.p.h. and a grade o f 2%.
speed was 6 m.p.h. and the grade 4%.
For the next two minutes, the
The speed was then maintained at
6 m.p.h. f o r the remainder o f the t e s t , and the grade increased 2%
12
Table 1.
Subject
Subject C h a r a c t e r is tic s .
,
Sex
Age. (y r)
.
Wt. ( k g ) ............... H t . (cm)
Group A
1
2.
.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13-
025
038
018
036
031
024
023
019
035
020
040
003
001
M
M
M
F
M
F
M
F
F
M
F
F
F
X
SD
22
93.1
78.4
79.4
23
24
'
26
22
22
22
23
26
22
60.8
160.0
92.3
65.5
79.9
64.9
59.2
73.3
180.3
174.0
182.9
176.5
168.9
179.1
180.3
165.1
180.3
22
65.6
66.3
19
67.3
22.9
69.4
24
1.86
195.6
182.9
193.0
11.02
178.4
9.95
Group B
1
2.
.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
01 1
007
004
002
032
033
029
015
006
030
013
039
027
X
SD
F
M
F
F
M
M
F
F
F
M
F
F
F
18
20
18
27
25
30
19
2
24
2
^
28
23
23.5
4.01
174.0
52.6
163.8
64.9
180.3
174.0
66.6
28
^
49.7
64.7
57.2
%..-- V-
1-
-----r---—r - ' ■i
54.6
44.4
=60:- 3
64.9
58.7
42:4
58.9
56.9
7.87
157-5
160.0
162.6
162.6
166.4
162.6
168.9
147.3
170.2
165.4
8.43
13
every minute u n t i l
i.e .
the subject reached the point of complete exhaustfon,
sign-symptom l im it e d , v o l i t i o n a l
f a tig u e .
Each subject was v e r­
b a lly encouraged to achieve the highest work level p o s sib le.
A cool
down period o f 5 minutes duration followed w ith each subject jogging
at 4 m.p.h.
F a m ilia r iz a t io n with the teth ered swim apparatus (Figure 1)
and swimming protocol was accomplished at le a s t one day p r i o r to the
f i r s t day of swim t e s t in g .
At the time o f the swim o r ie n t a t io n session
the s u b je c t's estimated maximal work load (E max) was also e s ta b lis h e d ,
th is was done by a tta c h in g a b e lt around the w aist o f the swimmer and
allow ing him/her to swim the fro n t crawl
during the actual
te s t.
in the p o s itio n to be assumed
The best was attached to a rope and pulley
system which was weighed to keep the swimmer in a fix e d p o s itio n .
To
e s ta b lis h the maximum weight a subject could p u l l , a 1 kg weight was
added every 15 seconds u n t il the swimmer could no longer maintain the
s ta tio n a r y p o s itio n in the pool w hile swimming a l l out.
which caused the swimmer to lose p o s itio n ,
i.e .
That weight
to be pulled backwards,
was considered E max.
The maximum tethered swimming t e s t began a f t e r a f i v e minute
warm up a t a base weight which was 0.25 E max.
by increasing the resistance to 0.50 E max.
The work period began
This was maintained fo r
60 seconds to allo w f o r metabolic adjustments to the increased work
load.
Every 30 seconds t h e r e a f t e r , predetermined weight increments*
*Unpublished report by Curry et a l . (1979)
Pul leys
Weight
Pon
Figure 1.
Tethered Swimming Apparatus.
Rubber
Brick
15
were added u n t i l the end o f the work period (Appendix C ) .
Just before
reaching exhaustion the subject t y p i c a l l y had d i f f i c u l t y m aintaining
the forward p o s itio n
in the pool and began to be p ulled backward.
When the weights came to rest on the pool deck fo r f i v e consecutive
seconds the swimmer was given a sign that 30 seconds remained in the
work p eriod, a t which time 0.50 kg were removed from the bucket and
the bucket was raised back to the s t a r t i n g p o s itio n .
The subject
continued w ith an a l l - o u t e f f o r t u n t il the te s t was v o l u n t a r i l y termina­
ted.
At the end o f the maximum t e s t the subject cooled down in h is /h e r
p re fe rre d fashion f o r 5 minutes.
Maximum swim and run te s ts were repeated w ith in a period o f 5-10
days a f t e r the f i r s t t e s t .
The highest values obtained between te s ts
o f the same mode were regarded as tru e maximum data.
Physiological Monitoring
A ll metabolic measurements were assessed by means o f open
c i r c u i t spirom etry.
A Hans-Rudolph re s p ir a to r y valve (s e r ie s #2/00)
and low resistance tubing were supported by a headpiece (Figure 2 ) ,
Expiratory gases and v e n t i l a t i o n volume were analyzed by a Beckman
Metabolic Measurement C art.
This instrument has been described and
v a lid a te d by Wilmore, Davis, and Norton (1976).
Before and a f t e r each
t e s t , the 0M-11 oxygen and LB-2 carbon dioxide analyzers were c a l i ­
brated w ith gases o f known co n centration.
C a lib r a tio n gas concentration
was v e r i f i e d by the Scholander microtechnique.
Gas volumes were
measured w ith a biased flow tu rb in e which was c a lib r a te d before t e s t in g ,
using a c a lib r a te d syringe (1.02 l i t r e s ) a t the flow r a te estimated f o r
16
Support Pole
Exhalation Tubing
Inhalation,
Tub fng
F le x ib le Lightweight
Tubing
Mouthpiece
Hans Rudolph
Valve Series
#2700
Adjustable Headgear
Figure 2.
Breathing Apparatus.
' 17
th a t day's t e s t in g .
Metabolic and re s p ir a to r y measurements were calcu­
lated every 30 seconds and included VO2 i VE, and R.
Maximum values
were defined as the highest values obtained during the work p e r io d .
Maximum heart rates were determined by palp atin g the c a ro tid
a r t e r y immediately upon completion o f the exercise bout.
T h ir ty pulse
beats were counted and timed, and were then converted to a pulse rate
per minute (Appendix D ).
The order o f the f i r s t two te s ts was randomly assigned by the
use of a ta b le o f random numbers.
The te s ts were repeated in reverse
ord er.
S ta tis tic a l
Methodology
M u lt i v a r ia t e analysis o f variance w ith repeated measures was
u t i l i z e d to study the d iffe re n c e s between groups, the d iffe re n c e s
between the modes o f t e s t in g , and the in t e r a c t i o n ,
mode and group.
.
i f any, between
.
Each v a r ia b le measured (VO^ L/m in, VO^ ml/kg-min
-]
,
Vg L/min, HR bpm, work tim e-m in, and R) was then examined sep arately
by means o f u n iv a r ia t e a n a ly s is .
The level of s ig n ific a n c e chosen
was the 0.05 l e v e l .
The Pearson product moment c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e la -Atio n was used to determine t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y by d e fin in g the r e la tio n s h ip
between t e s t (T^) and re te s t (Tg)" maximum values f o r a l l
obtained on both modes o f t e s t in g .
varia b le s
Regression analysis was performed
on a l l maximum data and scattergrams were drawn p l o t t i n g TS values
from TM values.
Means, standard d e v ia tio n s , d iffe re n c e s
cent d iffe re n c e s
(% A ) f o r each v a r ia b le f o r both t e s tin g modes were
also determined.
( A ) and per­
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Individu al VO^ max values (L/min and ml/kg-min ^) fo r each t e s t
and r e te s t f o r TS and TM are displayed in Appendix D (N = 2 6 ) , along
w ith group means, t e s t means, mean d iffe re n c e s
ment d iffe re n c e s
(TM-TS/TMxlOO).
(TM-TS) and percent .
T e s t - r e t e s t c o r r e la tio n s
f o r VOg max (r = 0.97 f o r TS, r = 0.99 f o r TM) and
(Table 2)
max (r = 0.90
f o r TS, and r = 0.95 f o r TM), indicated high r e l i a b i l i t y , w h ile HR max
and R max demonstrated low r e l i a b i l i t y .
The sub jec ts' age, weight and tre a d m ill
running (TM) and
tethered swimming (TS) VO^ max values (L/min and ml/kg-min ^) are
summarized by group in Table 3.
The mean TS VO^ max f o r Group A was
13% less than the TM VO^ max (2.99 L/min and 3.45 L/m in, r e s p e c t iv e ly ) ,
and the mean TS VO^ max f o r Group B was 18% less than TM VO^ max (2.16
L/min and 2.64 L/min, r e s p e c t iv e ly ) .
subjects
The mean swimming VO^ max fo r a l l
(N = 26) was 85% o f the mean running VO^ max.
Oxygen consump­
tio n values are expressed in absolute terms (L/min) due to the fa c t
th a t swimming is a non-weight bearing a c t i v i t y .
Figures 3 and 4 are s c a tt e r diagrams r e l a t i n g TS VO^ max with
•
TM VO^ max expressed in L/min and ml/kg-min
su b jec t.
-1
, r e s p e c tiv e ly , fo r each
Linear regression lin e s were p lo tte d f o r each group.
Group A
and Group B TM VO^jnax c o rre la te d h ig h ly w ith t h e i r respective TS VO^
max (r = 0.97 and 0.97) as did TS
max w ith TM
18
max (r = 0.94 and
19-
Table 2.
T es t-R e te s t R e l i a b i l i t y fo r a l l
Subjects
Tethered Swimming
Mean ± SD
. r
. t l ,2
V09 max,
L
_]
ml/kg*min
VO^ max,
Ti
38.2 + 6.54
T2
38.4 ± 5.33
T1
L/min
T2
R
max
T1
T2
HR max,
T1
bpm
T2
Vg max,
T1
L/mi n
T2
Time max,
T1
min
T2
.91
0.46
.97
- 1 .5 0
.23
- 1 .5 0
.21
-1 .42
3.01 ± 0 . 8 9
.99
3 .3 5 *
1.17 ± 0 . 0 6
.47
- 0 .6 4
185.0 ± 8 . 9
.19
- 1 .2 7
.95
0.16
.88
1 .00
1 1 5 .8 ± 2 8 .8
.90
0.14
6.18 + 1.1
7.35 + 2 . 0
3 .2 7 *
188.4 + 10.8
9 1 .0 ± 24.0.
91.3 ± 2 3 .4
.97
1.18 ± 0.06
178.8 ± 13.5
172.8 ± 13.4
46.1 ± 7 . 5 9
2.94 ± 0 . 8 7
1.15 ± 0.09
1.12 + 0.07
Treadm ill Running
. Mean + S D .. . . . r . . '*■1,2
45.0 ± 7 . 8 5
2.50 ± 0.79
2.51 ± 0.70
(N = 2 6 ).
116.1 ± 2 9 . 7
9.66 ± 2 . 0
.53
3 .4 7 A
^Paired Mt M te s t s i g n i f i c a n t at the .05 level
9.90 ± 2 . 4
20
T a b l e 3•
Mean S u b j e c t Data f o r Group A, Group B and t h e T o t a l
Group A a1 = 1 3 )
.
Group B 0 1 = 13).
.X Total
Group3 .
0 i = 26)
Age, yrs
22.9
19
± 1.9
- 26
23.5
18
± 4 .0
- 30
23.2
18
±
Weight, kg
72.8
49.7
± 11.0
- 92.3
56.9
42.4
± 7 .9
- 66.6
63.2
42.4
± 11.4
- 92.3
3.0
30
TM VO. max,
L/min
3.45 ±
2.48 1-
0.81
4.66
2.64 ±
1.54 -
0.81
3.80
3-05 ±
1.54 -
0.97
4.66
TS VO- max,
L/min
2.99 ±
2.19 -
0 .7
4.38
2.16 ±
1 .29 -
0 .6
3:01
2.58 ±
1.29 -
0 .8
4.38
A
(TM-TS)
% Ab
0.46
0.48
0.47
18.2
13.3
15.4
TM VO- max,
^
-1
ml/kg.min
46.9
38.1
± 3.5
- 58.8
46.0
35.7
± 8 .6
- 59.0
TS VO- max,
^
-]
ml/kg-min
41.0
34.9
± 6.0
- 56.2
37.6
30.6
± 5.3
- 46.2
(TM-TS)
>
cr
A
•
46.8
35.7
± 7 .6
- 59.0
39.3
30.6
± 5 .8
- 56.2
5 .9
8 .4
7.5
12.6
18.3
16.0
TM HR max,
bpm
194.5
180
± 10.5
- 214
188.6
178
± 7.0
- 196
191.6
178
± 9.5
- 214
TS HR max,
bpm
178.5 _± 22.2
1 5 0 " - 212
171
150
± 9.5
- 182
175
150
± 20.5
- 212
A
(TM-TS)
16
8 .2
aValues are Mean ± SD, range
b%A = { (TM-TS)/TM}.xl00
17.1
9.1
16
8 .4
21
Group A
Group B
r = . 97
y = 0 . 8 9 ( x ) - 0 .1 0
sxy = 0.54
r = .97
y = 0 . 7 1 ( x ) + 0 .28
sxy = 0.42
TS V(L Max (L/min)
+ Group A
• Group B
TM VO
Figure 3 •
Max (L/min)
R elationship of Maximum Oxygen Uptake (L/min) during Tethered
Swimming and Treadmill Running.
22
Group A
CTi
ii
y = 0 . 8 3 ( x ) + l .45
sxy = 35.84
Group B
r = .91
y = 0 . 5 5 ( x ) + 1 2 . 19
sxy = 42.65
70
-t- Group A
• Group B
z
TM V0o Max (m l/kg.m in
Figure 4.
X
)
Relationship of Maximum Oxygen Uptake (ml /kg - min
Tethered Swimming and Treadmill Running.
)„ during
23
0 .9 4 ).
Scattergrams w ith l in e a r regression lines fo r
s u b je c ts 1 are presented in Figure 5.
max fo r a l l
HR max and R max values and t h e i r
respective regression analyses, are presented in Figures 6 and 7.
Table 4 summarizes the regression analyses o f a l l v a r ia b le s fo r both
groups.
M ulti f a c t o r analyses o f variance w ith repeated measures provided
a means o f eva lu a tin g the e f f e c t o f te s tin g mode on the two groups;
the e f f e c t o f the group on t e s tin g mode; and i f the group and the mode
had an in te ra c tio n e f f e c t .
The e f f e c t by mode was s i g n i f i c a n t
(P < 0.05)
f o r a l l v a ria b le s combined and f o r each v a r ia b le analyzed separately
(Table 5 )•
The e f f e c t of group across mode was not s i g n i f i c a n t when
a l l v a ria b le s were analyzed to g eth er, but when analyzed separately
using the independent " t " t e s t , Group A d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from
Group B in mean VO^ max values f o r both TM and TS and in mean TM
max values (Table 6 ) .
Group A
Group B
r = .94
r = .94
y = 0 .8 7 (x]-12.0
y = 0 .7 9 ( x ) -0.08
sxy = 735 .32
sxy = 6 79 .48
-h Group A
• Group B
155
WO
TM VE Max (L/min)
F i g u r e 5.
R e la t io n s h ip o f Minute V e n t i l a t i o n s
and T r e a d m i l l Running.
d u r i n g T e t h e r e d Swimming
25
Group A
Group B
r = 0.3^
y = (x)+51
sxy = 80
r = 0.30
y = 94
sxy = 20
IS HR Max (bpm)
Group A
• Group B
TM HR Max (bpm)
Figure 6.
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Maximum H e a r t Rate d u r i n g T e t h e r e d Swimming
and T r e a d m i l l Running.
26
Group A
Group B
r = .50
y = 0 . 58 ( x ) + 0 . 49
sxy = 0.00
r = .47
y = 0.63(x
sxy = 0.00
)+0.42
IS R Max
Group A
Group B
.21
1.24
TM Rmax
F i g u r e 7.
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Maximum R e s p i r a t o r y Exchange R a t i o d u r i n g
T e t h e r e d Swimming and T r e a d m i l l Running.
27
Table k .
Mean Slopes, I n t e r c e p t s , and Correlations f o r Group A and
Group B on A l l Variables; TS versus TM.
Correlation
. . I n t e r c e p t . . . . . . . . . Slope
Group A
VOg max,
0.97
-0 .1 0
0.91
1.45
0.83
0.34
51 .00
1 .00
0.50
0.00
0.58
0.94
-12.00
0.87
0.97
0.28
0.71
0.91
12.19
0.55
0.30
94.00
0.00
0.47
0.42
0.63
0.94
-0 .0 8
0.79
‘
0.89
L/mi n
VO, max,
Z
-1
ml/kg-min
HR max,
beats/mln
R max
Vg max,
L/mi n
Group B
V02 max,
L/mi n
VO, max,
ml/kg-min
HR max,
beats/min
R max
Vg max,
L/mi n
28
Table 5•
Dependent " t " Test:
-
Ef fe ct of Mode on Group.
Tethered Swimming
Mean ± SD ..
Treadmill Running
. . . Mean + SD.
t
Group A
VO^ max
L/mtn
V0„ max,
1
. -\
ml/kg-min
HR max,
3.47
6.0
47.5 ± .6.6
- 8.46*
178.5 ± 22.2
194.5 ± 10.5
2.73*
103.9 ± 27.0
132.6 ± 29.0
10.46*
1.18 ± 0.07
1.20 ± 0.07
0.88
6.61*
±
41.0 ±
±
0.78
- 9.24*
0.71
2.99
beats/min
Vg max,
L/min
R max
Group B
VOg max,
2.16
± 0.56
2.63
37.6
±5.3
46.2 ± 8.8
6.80*
171.6 ± 9.5
188.6 ± 7.0
6.19*
86.2 ± 19-5
107.8 ± 24.8
7.42*
± 0.06
1.20 ± 0.06
2.75*
± 0.76
L/mi n
VO- max,
L
-1
ml/kg*min
HR max,
beats/min
max,
L/mi n
R max
1.16
* S i g n i f leant at the 0.05 l e v e l .
29
Table 6.
Independent Mt M T e s t :
E ff ec t of Group on Mode
Group A
Mean ± SD
..
Group B
• Mean ± . SD
t
Tethered Swimming
V02 max,
L/mi n
V0„ max,
z
-1
ml/kg-min
HR max,
beats/min
2.99 ± 0.71
2.16 + 0.56
3. 25 *
41.0 ± 6.0 .
37.6 ± 5.3
1.52
171.5 ± 9.5
1.05
178.5 ± 22.2
Vg max,
L/min
R max
Time max,
min
Treadmill
103.9 ± 27.0
86.2 ± 19.5
1.92
1.18 ± 0.07
1.16 ± 0.06
0.87
8.1 ± 2 . 1
6.9 ± 1.6
1.55,
3.46 ± 0.78
2.65 ± 6 . 7 7
2. 68 *
47.5 ± 6. 6
46.2 ± 8.8
0.43
194.5 ± 10.5
188.6 ± 7 . 0 ,
1.69
134.9 ± 28.6
107.9 ± 24.8
2.5 7*
1.20 ± 0.07
1.20 ± 0.04
0.07
9.9 ± 2.5
1.27
Running
VC>2 max,
L/mi n
VO- max,
z
-}
ml/kg-min
HR max,
-beats/mi n
i
l
R max
Time max,
min
..
10.93 ± 1.7
^ S i g n i fi c a n t at the 0.05 level
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
The physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the swimmers in th is study
(Table 1) are in close agreement with previously reported data on
swimmers (Dixon 1971; Magel et a l . 1975; and Bonen e t a l . 1980).
Group A and Group B d i f f e r e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
(p < 0.05)
in body weight
(72.8 kg and 56.9 kg, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , and height (178.4 cm and 165.4
cm, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
There is no obvious explanation fo r these d i f f e i —
ences in height and w e ig h t .
The t e s t - r e t e s t c o r r e l a t io n s of 0.97 for VO^ max (L/min) during
TS and 0.99 f o r V0^ max during TM (Table 2) compare favorably with the
c o r r e l a t io n of 0.93 obtained by Magel and Faulkner (1967) fo r 17 t e s t , re te st determinations of VO^ max during TS; and with the c o r r e l a t io n
of 0.95 obtained by Ta yl or , Buskirk and Henschel
re te st determinations during TM.
(1955) fo r 69 t e s t -
The lack of a s i g n i f i c a n t di ffe re nc e
between the means of the two t r i a l s for TS also confirms good reproduci­
b ility .
However, there was a s i g n i f i c a n t d iff er en c e between the means
"of the two t r i a l s f o r TM.
values on the TM r e t e s t .
Most of the subjects had higher VO^ max
This may have been due to t h e i r f a m i l i a r i z a ­
tion with the t es t and to a decrease in apprehension to give an a l l out
e f f o r t while running.
I t should be noted that although there were no s i g n i f i c a n t
differen ce s in HR max between Tj and T^ f o r both TS and TM, the
30
31
c o r r el at io n s were very low (r = 0.21 and 0 . 1 9 ,
respectively).
This
poor r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y as indicated by the low t e s t - r e t e s t c or r el at io n s
is most l i k e l y due to the method Of measuring HR max, which in this
case was by palpation of the ca ro ti d a r t e r y immediately upon completion
of the t e s t .
The delay in reaching the subject and in locating the
pulse could have resulted in a v a r i a b l e e r r o r between actual maximum
heart rates and measured maximum heart r a t e s .
Maximum Oxygen Uptake
Examining the e f f e c t of t e s t in g mode f o r each group, there was
a s i g n i f i c a n t d i ff e r e n c e between TS and TM values on a l l
measured
vari abl es for Group A and Group B except f o r the R values in Group A.
The TS VO^ max for Group A averaged 13% below t h e i r TM VO^ max, while
Group B TS VO^ max averaged 18% below t h e i r TM VO^ max (Table 3) .
Other
studies have shown that highly s k i l l e d and highly t ra in e d swimmers can
equal t h e i r TM VO^ max during TS (Magel and Faulkner 1967; Dixon and
Faulkner 1971); achieve Sk% of TM VO^ max during TS (Ho1mer et a l .
Eriksson et a l .
and Magel
1978).
1974a;
1974), or achieve 89% of TM VO^ max during TS (McArdle
Astrand and Sal t i n
(1961) studied subjects in good
physical condition, but not s p e c i f i c a l l y trained in swimming and found
a 19% decrement in TS VO^ max compared to TM VO^ max.
Four less s k i l l e d
subjects described by Magel and Faulkner (1967) ex hi bi te d a 25% decre­
ment during swimming compared to running.
in Group A in the present study was large:
The v a r i a t i o n of s k i l l
level
one subject was an e l i t e
swimmer, seven had been swimming d a i l y on a masters swim team for the
previous 6-14 weeks, and the remainder were p a r t i c i p a t i n g in an aerobic
32
swim class (one hour per day, four days per week) that began several
weeks before data c o l l e c t i o n .
These resu lts demonstrate that the s t a t e
of t r a i n i n g as well as the s p e c i f i c i t y of exercise mode influence the
subsequent VO^ max values.
The larger di fferences between swimming and running VO^ max
values in less w e l l - t r a i n e d swimmers as compared to world class and
Olympic swimmers has been a t t r i b u t e d by others to the f ac t that swim­
ming, although a substantial metabolic and cardiovascular stressor,
is
a ra ther s p e c i f i c form of exercise which is probably dependent upon
local metabolic and c i r c u l a t o r y factors
Astrand and Sal t i n
Magel et a l . 1975).
(Magel and Faulkner 1967;
1961; Dixon and Faulkner 1971; Holmer 1972; and
Therefore, the more one t r a i n s ,
adaptation of the working muscles,
the greater the
i . e . metabolic and c i r c u l a t o r y
changes, to meet the demands of the exer cis e, and increase VO^ max.
Nygaard and Nielsen (1976) a t t r i b u t e d the d i ff e r e n c e in VO^
max between swimming and running to di ffe ren ce s in the ox i d a t i v e
cap acities of the muscles employed.
Holloszy and Booth (1976) docu­
mented that improved c e l l u l a r metabolic capacity in the working
muscles following t r a i n i n g was due to the t r a i n e d : s k e l e t a l muscles'
c a p a b i l i t y to increase aerobic production of ATP.
The untrained i n d i -
vidual would not have these metabolic advantages during exercise.
Another f a c t o r con tribut ing to a lower VO^ max in untrained
subjects during swimming may possible be due to a d i ff e r e n c e in the
size of the working muscle groups (Stenberg et a l .
Faulkner 1971; Holmer 1972; Holmer et a l .
Sal t i n
(1966), Gollnick et a l .
1967; Dixon and
1974; and Magel et a l .
1975).
(1972) and Vrijens et a l . (1975) studied
33
VC>2 max during arm work and leg work.
Each found VO^ max during arm
work to be lower than tha t f o r maximal
leg work.
Their data i l l u s t r a t e
the importance o f the t o ta l muscle mass involved in the work and can be
explained by changes in regional blood flow and by adaptations of siz e
and f i b e r composition in the a c t i v e muscle groups in response to t r a i n ­
ing.
In the present study, TS VO^ max values were s i g n i f i c a n t l y
(p < 0.05) d i f f e r e n t between groups (Table 6 ) .
Group A had a mean TS
VOg max of 2.99 L/min while Group B had a mean of 2.16 L/min.
This
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i ff e r e n c e is in agreement with work done by
Dixon and Faulkner (1971) , and Magel et a l .
male swimmers versus recreational
swimmers.
(1975) who studied trained
The mean VO^ max value f o r
Group A in the present study (the higher s k i l l e d , more highly trained
group)
is s i m i l a r to tha t reported by Holmer (.1972) f o r both males and
females, but lower than values reported by others f o r v a r s i t y and e l i t e
male swimmers (Magel and Faulkner 1967; Dixon and Faulkner 1971;
McArdle e t a l .
1971), and lower than values reported f o r v a r s i t y and
e l i t e male and female swimmers (Holmer et a l . . 1974a; Holmer 1974:; and
Eriksson e t a l .
1974).
The VO^ max values for Group B were lower than
those values previously reported f o r recreational
Faulkner 1971; and Magel et a l . 1975).
swimmers (Dixon and
As stated e a r l i e r ,
VO^ max values are in di c a t iv e of less t ra in e d ,
the lower
lower s k i l l e d subjects.
When comparing TM VO^ max between Group A and Group B, there
was a s i g n i f i c a n t d iff er en c e when expressed in absolute terms,
1iters /m in
( r e f e r to Table 6 ) .
i.e.
TM VO^ max values f o r Group A in the
present study were higher than those reported by Holmer (1972) for 12
34
competitive female swimmers, but lower than other values reported on
v a r s i t y and e l i t e male and female swimmers (Magel and Faulkner 1967;
McArdle et a l . 1971; Dixon and Faulkner 1971; Ho 1mer 1974; Holmer et a l .
1974; Eriksson et a l .
1974).
The TM VO^ max values f o r Group B are
lower than TM VO^ max values previously reported fo r male recreational
swimmers (Dixon and Faulkner 1971> and Magel et a l . 1975).
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , a s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e in TM VO^ max values
between Group A and Group B would not have been expected.
The fa c t th a t
there was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i ff e r e n c e may be due in part to the fac t that
seven of the t h i r t e e n subjects in Group A were t r a i n i n g by running as
well as swimming at the time of the study.
However, when TM VO^ max
values were expressed in r e l a t i v e terms (ml/kg-min
s i g n i f i c a n t d i ff e r e n c e between the two groups.
-1
) there was no
Thus, the s i g n i f i c a n t
d i ff e r e n c e in absolute values is probably the re s u l t of the s i g n i f i c a n t
d i ff e r e n c e in body weight between the two groups.
Maximum Heart Rate
Groups A and B both demonstrated a s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower HR max
during TS than TM (Table 5 ) .
This is in agreement with previous studies
examining subjects swimming in water and running on a tre ad m ill
1972; Holmer et a l .
1974a; Magel e t a l .
(Holmer
1969; Magel and Faulkner 1967).
T u t t l e and Corleaux ( l 935) and Keatinge and Evans (1961) have stated
that a decrease in HR is associated with
pool temperature (2 7 - 3 2 °C ) .
cardia .
immersion in water of swimming
This response is s i m i l a r to diving brady­
T u t t l e and Corleaux went on to st at e that the lower HR response
did not r e l a t e to t r a i n i n g .
The data in the present study supports
35
th a t conclusion (Table 6 ) .
Other fa c to rs th a t may influence the lower
heart rate response to TS as compared to TM include the p o s itio n o f the
body, the a c tiv e muscle mass employed, and the medium in which each
a c tiv ity
is performed.
Maximum Minute V e n t i l a t i o n
' The Vg max f o r a l l
subjects was s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower during TS
as compared to TM (Table 5 ) .
co-workers (1961;
This is in agreement with Astrand and
1963), Magel and Faulkner (1967), and McArdle et a l .
(1971), who each found a lower
max with tra ined swimmers in TS as
compared to TM.
Maximum Respiratory Exchange Ratio
There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e between TS and TM in R max
values f o r subjects in Group A, w h ile there was a s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e
in Group B.
o
The data fo r Group B is in agreement with Astrand and
co-workers (19&3), and McArdle and associates (1971) who found swimmers
to have a lower R at maximum work while swimming as compared with run­
ning or walking.
McArdle e t a l . stated that i t may re s u l t from a lower
alveolar ven tilation
in swimming.
However, Holmer et a l . found
a l v e o l a r v e n t i l a t i o n per breath to be higher, while t o t a l v e n t i l a t i o n
and a l v e o l a r - a r t e r i a l oxygen pressure gradient were, lower during swim­
ming compared to running at maximum work.
36
Regression Analysis of TM versus IS
Regression analyses of TM v ar ia bl es from TS vari abl es were
performed ( r e f e r to Figures 3 - 7 ) .
With each v a r i a b l e , the values from
subjects in Group A, when p l o t t e d , were nearer the l i n e of i d e n t it y
than the values from Group 6.
The greater the swimming and t r a i n i n g
l e v e l , the closer the p l o t te d values w i l l
approach the l i n e of i d e n t i t y .
Predictioh Equations fo r TS Values
from TM Values
TS and TM VO^ max values (L/min) were highly corre lat ed fo r
Group A (r = 0.97) and the equation y = 0 . 8 9 ( x ) - 0 . 10 was developed to
predict TS VO^ max values from TM VO^ max values.
VO^ max fo r Group B
was s i m i l a r l y c o r r e l a t e d , and the equation y = 0 . 7 1 (x)+ 0.28 predicts
TS VO^ max values from TM VO^ max values.
(ml/kg -min ^) and
TS and TM VO^ max values
(L/min) were also highly co rr el at ed and, th ere­
fo re , accurate pred ict ion equations were also derived (Table 4) .
Although the s p e c i f i c i t y of t e s t in g is a cruc ial
f a c t o r in
deriving accurate and true physiological data, often times the
specialized t e st in g devices necessary to e l i c i t the true maximum
values are impractical to use in t hft. ffe-id assessment of large numbers
of i n d iv id u al s .
Tethered swim t e s t i n g , although a much less expensive
device than the swimming flume,
is often times less a v a i l a b l e and
harder to administer than a tre adm ill
test.
The regression analysis
in the present study demonstrates how TM values give an adequate
r e l a t i v e ranking of an i n d i v i d u a l ' s aerobic capacity and can be corrected
(by regression analysis) to provide values equivalent to TS.
37
Exercise Prescription
In th is study i t has been demonstrated that IS VO^ max values
ranged 13-18% lower than TM VC^ max values, and TS HR max values were
8-9% lower than TM values.
The v a r i a b i l i t y was d i r e c t l y dependent upon
the swimming s k i l l and level of t r a i n i n g of the i n d i v i d u a l .
Therefore,
when developing a swim t r a i n i n g program from TM data the differences
in
maximum values between the modes of t e s t i n g must be considered r e l a t i v e
to the individuals swimming a b i l i t i e s .
That is to say, an in te ns ity
of 60-70% VO^ max, as obtained by TM t e s t i n g ,
is equivalent to a value
of 42-52% VOj, max f o r a swim t r a i n i n g program for an individual with
swimming s k i l l s s i m i l a r to those of Group B in this study.
Sim ilarly,
i f a ta r g e t heart rate f o r a swim t r a i n i n g program is desired from TM
d a t a , an in te n s i ty of 61-71% TM HR max would be appropriate f o r an
individual with swimming, s k i l l s s i m i l a r to those of Group B, to ensure
the benefits of cardiovascular t r a i n i n g .
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY
This inv est ig at ion was designed to measure and compare maximum
oxygen uptake and maximum heart rate responses to treadmill
and tethered swimming.
R max.
running
Other va ri abl es measured included
max and
Twenty-six male and female subjects (mean age = 23 yr) were
divided into two groups:
Group A - the higher s k i l l e d , more highly
trained swimmers, and Group B - the lower s k i l l e d ,
swimmers.
less trained
T e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y fo r VO^ max during tethered swim
and the tre adm ill
run were found to be r = 0.97 and r = 0 .9 9,
respec­
tively.
The mean swimming VO^ max f o r a l l
of the mean running VO^ max.
subjects (N = 26) was 85%
The mean TS VO^ max value f o r Group A
was 13% less than the TM (/O^ max, and the mean TS VO^ max fo r Group B
was 18% less than the TM VO^ max.
TS HR max for Group A and Group B
were 8% and 9% lower than TM HR max, r es pe ct ive ly.
Each v a r i a b l e was submitted to regression analysis to determine
the r el at io n s h ip between the swimming values and the running values,
and to derive pr edi ct io n equations from TM values f o r TS values.
was found that TM and TS VO^ max and
for a ll
the subjects (r = 0.97 and 0 . 9 4 ,
It
max were s i g n i f i c a n t l y related
respectively).
Multi f a c t o r analysis of variance with repeated measures evalua­
ted the e f f e c t of t e s t in g mode fo r the two groups and the e f f e c t of the
38
39
group r e l a t i v e to the t e s t in g mode.
significant
The e f f e c t of exercise mode was
(p < 0.05) f o r a l l va ri abl es f o r both subject groups.
VOg max was s i g n i f i c a n t l y
both TS and TM.
(p < 0.05) d i f f e r e n t between the groups on
max was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t between the groups
during TM.
Cone!us ions
Within the scope of this study, the following conclusions may
be made:
1.
Maximum oxygen uptake during tethered swimming was highly
r e l i a b l e and reproducible.
2.
Maximum oxygen uptake during tethered swimming was highly
corre lat ed to, but s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from maximum oxygen uptake
during treadmill
3-
running.
Maximum oxygen uptake during tethered swimming was s i g n i f i ­
cant 1y d i f f e r e n t between Group A and Group B.
Therefore, when measuring
oxygen uptake, the mode of t e s t in g and the st at e of t r a i n i n g of the
individual
influence the maximal value tha t can be a t t a i n e d .
In the
present study, maximum oxygen uptake values were obtained from both
running and swimming t e s t s , but i f an absolute VO^ max value is desired,
it
is b e t t e r to use running on an incline d treadmill
than tethered
swimming because the VO^ max values a t ta in e d by the present subjects
were 13-18% lower than maximal
4.
running values.
The maximal heart rate values f o r swimming are 8-9% or
16-17 bpm less than maximal
running values.
Knowing the magnitude
of d if f er en c e in maximal heart rate and oxygen uptake values can allow
40
the pre diction of maximal values fo r tethered swimming from treadmill
running values.
These can. then be used to more accurately describe
the exercise pr esc rip tio n fo r i nd iv idu als who select swimming as a mode
of exercise t r a i n i n g .
APPENDIX A
SUBJECTS CONSENT
•VZ
41
42
SUBJECT'S CONSENT
UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, EXERCISE AND SPORT SCIENCES LABORATORY
Project T i t l e :
Maximal Oxygen Uptake During Tethered Swimming and
Treadmill Running by Interm ed iate, Advanced and
Competitive Swimmers
I understand th a t I am being asked to v o l u n t a r i ly p a r t i c i p a t e in an
eva lu a tio n o f my performance during maximal swimming and running. The
purpose o f th is p ro je c t is to determine my endurance capacity from a
swim t e s t and a running t e s t so th a t my values may be used, along with
those o f the other volunteer s u b je c ts , to aid in possible fu tu re pre­
d ic tio n o f the swimming endurance c a p a c itie s o f oth ers.
I understand th a t I have been chosen f o r t h is study along w ith 30 other
co llege-age students based on my swimming s k i l l s which f a l l somewhere
w ith in the range o f interm ediate to c o m p e titive.
I also understand th a t
my p a r t ic ip a t i o n is t o t a l l y voluntary and that I may withdraw from the
study at any time w ithout a f f e c t i n g my u n iv e r s ity standing and without
i l l w i l l on the part o f the in v e s t ig a t o r .
I f u r t h e r understand that I
w i l l p a r t i c i p a t e in the fo llo w in g procedures and must complete a Physical
A c t i v i t y and a Medical H istory Questionnaire.
Aerobic Capacity Swim Test
This exercise w i l l be performed in the shallow end o f McKale pool. A
b e l t , placed around my w aist w i l l be attached to a rope and pulley
system, which w i l l allo w me to swim against increasing resistance w h ile
remaining s ta tio n a r y in the w ater.
Every minute a d d itio n a l weight w i l l
bexplaced' on the weighted p u lle y , causing me to swim w ith more force in
order to remain in the same p o s itio n in the pool. This procedure w i l l
be continued every minute u n t il I reach the point where I c a n 't swim
any longer, i . e . fa tig u e or exhaustion. During th is procedure I w i l l
be breathing through a special mouthpiece which allows the c o lle c tio n
o f my expired a i r , p e rm ittin g the measurement of my oxygen consumption.
My heart rate w i l l be monitored by two electrodes placed on my chest and
attached to a heart r a te meter (tele m e try and cardiotacho m eter), which
is b a tte ry operated.
I r e a l iz e the discomfort associated w ith th is
procedure w i l l be s im ila r to swimming a l l - o u t u n til I cannot swim any
more.
43
Aerobic Capacity Running Test
This exercise w i l l be performed in the Exercise and Sport Sciences
Laboratory on a motor-driven t r e a d m i l l .
The amount of e f f o r t required
w i l l increase gradually each minute u n t i l f a ti g u e and exhaustion pre­
vent me from running f u r t h e r .
I w i l l be breathing through a mouthpiece
and my heart rate w i l l be monitored in the same manner as mentioned
above.
I r e a l i z e that 1 w i l l be running to exhaustion and that muscle
f a ti g u e and dizziness may be reasons f o r terminating the t e s t .
Trained technicians w i l l be present during both t e s t procedures and at
least one person has standard f i r s t aid c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
The t es t period
w i l l la s t about 15 minutes f o r each mode of t e s t with 24 hours elapsing
between t e s t s ,
both the swimming and running tests w i l l be repeated
a f t e r one week.
I understand
by the Human
i nv es ti ga to r
tests may be
i . e . my name
others 1 w i l l
that th is consent form w i l l be f i l e d in an area designated
Subjects Committee with access r e s t r i c t e d to the pri nci pal
and her advisor, and t ha t the Information obtained by the
used for pub licatio n with my rig ht of privacy retained;
w i l l be know only to the pr in ci pa l investigatoi— to a l l
be i d e n t i f i e d by a number.
I am also aware t ha t in the event of i n ju r y r es ul tin g from any of the
above procedures, I w i l l receive no compensation f o r wages, time l o s t ,
medical expenses, or h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n ’.
I understand t ha t my involve­
ment in th is study w i l l cost me no money, and that I w i l l receive no
monetary compensation in exchange f o r my p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
The benefits
derived w i l l include learning about my a b i l i t y to perform tests which
r e l a t e to my endurance capacity.
I have read the above "Subject's Consent" form. The nature, demands,
risks and ben efits of the proj ect have been explained to me. A copy of
th is consent form w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e to* me upon request.
I f at any
time I have any questions re lated to t h is study, I am fr e e to contact
Kathy Creighton (Physical Education Building, Room 3, telephone number:
626-3407).
Subject's Signature
__________________
Parent's Signature
_________
( i f subject is under 18 years of age)
Witness' Signature____ D a te '
Date__
Date__
44
I have c a r e f u l l y explained to the subject the nature of the above pro­
ject.
I hereby c e r t i f y tha t to the best of my knowledge the subject
signing t h is consent form understands c l e a r l y the nature, demands,
b e n e f i t s , and risks involved in p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h is study. A medical
problem, or language or educational b a r r i e r has not precluded a cl ea r
understanding of his involvement in t h i s p r o j e c t .
Date
APPENDIX B
MEDICAL HISTORY QUESTIONNAIRE
45
Medical History Questionnaire
NAME______
AGE_______
SEX_______
1.
HEIGHT
2.
WEIGHT
3.
DO YOU HAVE A HISTORY OF CHEST PAIN?
4.
DO YOU HAVE A HISTORY OF HYPERTENSION (blood pressure of 150/100 or
NO___
grea ter )?
YES___
YES'
NO
DOES (DID) ANYONE IN YOUR IMMEDIATE FAMILY (Mother, Father, S i s t e r ,
Brother, or Grandparents) HAVE A HISTORY OF HYPERTENSION?
YES
NO
5.
DO YOU HAVE A HISTORY OF CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE (angina, myocardial
i n f a r c t i o n , or coronary a r t e r y bypass surgery)? YES
NO___
DOES (DID) ANYONE IN YOUR IMMEDIATE FAMILY HAVE A HISTORY OF CORONARY
. ARTERY DISEASE (angina,' myocardial i n f a r c t i o n , sudden death, or
coronary a r t e r y bypass surgery)?
YES___
NO___
6.
DO YOU HAVE DIABETES?
YES
NO
DOES (DID) ANYONE IN YOUR FAMILY HAVE DIABETES?
YES
NO
7.
PLEASE LIST ALL MEDICATIONS YOU ARE CURRENTLY USING
8.
PLEASE LIST ANY OTHER MEDICAL CONDITIONS WHICH MIGHT CONFLICT WITH
A VIGOROUS PROGRAM OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. ALSO, LIST AND EXPLAIN ANY
DISABILITY OR TROUBLE YOU HAVE WITH YOUR FEET, BACK, HIPS, ANKLES,
OR EARS
APPENDIX C
METHOD USED TO CALCULATE STANDARD LOAD PROGRESSIONS
FOR ESTIMATED MAXIMUM LOADS = 4.00 KG
47
48
At Time
Work. Load Calculated as F611ows
0.00
Base work load (Bj ) = 0.2!5 (E max)*
1:00 to
4:00
Base work loads B^ through B^ remain
the same,
5:00
Exercise work load
6:00
Exercise work load (E^) = work load for
E^ plus 35% of A , where A = d i ff er en c e
between work loads f o r E^ and E^**
6:30
Exercise work load
E2 plus 28%o f A * *
7:00
Exercise work load (E, ) = work load fo r
E3 plus 22% of A , * * 4
7:30
Exercise work load ( e 5) -
(E max) -1 .0 0
8:00
Exercise work load
E$ + 0.25 kg
8:30 and each
add itional 30
seconds
Add 0.25 kg
(El) "
-
( e6 ! ■
0.50 (E max)*
work load f o r
AA11 values rounded to nearest 1/4 kg with, values ending m exactly
1/8, 3 / 8 , 5 / 8 , or 7/8 kg rounded to the next higher 1/4 kg,
'^'Cumulative rounding errors occasionally resulted in a si tu a ti o n in
which one of these work loads had to Be a l te re d s u b je c ti v e l y by ±
1/4 kg. A l t e r a t i o n s were based upon: (1) smoothing, progressions
w ith in corresponding load increments across estimated maximum loads,
and (2) smoothing the progression w it h in the given estimated maximum
load across exercise work loads across E. to E_.
I
3
APPENDIX D
CONVERSION OF THE TIME FOR 30 PULSE BEATS
TO PULSE RATE PER MINUTE
v L.;is j jv.'-'y ’
i--- •-
50
Table D- 1 .
Conversion of the Time f o r 30 Pulse Beats to Pulse Rate
Per Minute
2 2 .0 se k .
21.9
21.8
21.7
21.6
21.5
21.4
21.3
21.2
21.1
21.0
20.9
20.8
20.7
20.6
20.5
20.4
20.3
20.2
20.1
20.0
19.9
19.8
19.7
19.6
19.5
19.4
19.3
19.2
19.1
19.0
18.9
18.8
18.7
18.6
18.5
18.4
18.3
18.2
18.1
18.0
17.9
17.8
17.7
17.6
17.5
17.4
8 2 / m in .
82
83
83
83
. 84
84
85
85
85
86 •
86
87
87
87
88
88
89*
89
90
90
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
96
96
97
97
98
98
99
99
100
101
101
102
102
103
103
17.3 sek .
17.2
17.1
17.0
16.9
16.8
16.7
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.3
16.2
16.1
16.0
15.9
15.8
15.7
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.2
15.1
15.0
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.6
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.2
14.1
14.0
13.9
13.8
13.7
13.6
13.5
13.4
13.3
13.2
13.1
13.0
12.9
12.8
12.7
10 4 / m in .
105
105
106
107
107
108
108
109
no
no
111
112
113
113
114
115
115
116
117
118
118
119
120
121
122
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
140
141
142
12.6 sek .
12.5
12.4
12.3
12.2
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.2
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.8
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.2
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.2
9,1
9.0
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.0
.
'
>
14*37 m in .
144
145
146
148
149
150
151
153
154
155
157
158
159
161
162
164
165
167
168
170
171
173
175
176
178
180
182
184
186
188
189
191
194
196
198
200
202
2 05
207
209
212
214
2 17
220
222
2 25
APPENDIX E
INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT VO^ MAX VALUES
51
T a bl e E - l .
Group A VO^ Max ( 1 i t e r s / m l n ) .
Subject
I.D.
Treadmill Run
Test 1
Test 2
X
Tethered Swim
Test 1
Test 2
X
A3
%A b
Group A
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
2.53
, 2.85
4.52
2.47
3.69
2.96
2.63
4.46
4.31
3.00
3.24
4.01
3.34
2.56
2.86
4.66
2.48
—
3.20
2.73
4.52
4.50
3.07
—
4.22
3.19
2.55
2.86
4.59
2.48
3.69
3.08
2.68
4.49
4.41
3.04
3.24
4.12
3.27
2.35
2.21
4.38
2.19
3.21
2.36
2.33
3.84
3.73
2.30
2.73
3.69
2.70
2.36
2.46
4.23
2.13.
2.85
2.85
2.36
3.47
3.66
2.19
2.73
3.47
2.71
2.36
2.33
4.31
2.16
3.03
2.61
2.35
3.66
3.70
2.25
2.73
3.58
2.75
0.20
0.40
0.28
0.29
0.48
0.11
0.37
0.68
0.77
0.70
0.51
0.53
0.63
92.19
86.01
93.99
88.31
86.99
89.06
86.45
84.96
82.89
76.78
84.26
87.44
81.38
X
3.39
3.45
3.42
2.92
2.88
2.91
0.46
86.21
SD
0.74
0.85
0.76
0.75
0.64
0.69
0.20
4.47
08
09
10
11
12
13
3A
= TM - TS
b^ A = (TM-TS)xlOO
i
.
Table E-2.
Group B VO, Max ( 1 i t e r s / m i n ) .
Subject
1.D.
Treadmill Run
Test 1
Test 2
X
Tethered Swim
Test 2
Test 1
X
Aa
*A b
Group B
3.16
1.88
2.14
2.25
3.21
1.96
3.67
3.55
3.65
1.41
2.02
2.04
2.48
3-32 ‘
2.02
2.26
2.33
3.07
,2.04
3.76
3.46
3.80
1.54
1.99
2.04
2.50
3.24
1.95
2.20
2.29
3.14
2.00
3.72
3.51
3.73
1.48
1 .70
1 .88
2.21
2.68
1.57
1.77
1.47
2.40
.1.65
2.89
2.50
3.07
1.29
1.78
1.91
2.15
2.68
1.77
1.91
1.54
2.52
1.80
2.75
2.77
3.01
1.20
X
2.57
2.63
2.60
2.08
SD
0.78
0.73
0.77
0.58
01
02
03
04
•05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
1.95
2.03
2.52
1.74
1.90
2.68
1.67
1.84
1.51
2.46
1.73
2.82
2.64
3.04
1.25
0.24
0.13
0.31
0.64
0.25
0.35
0.79
0.81
0.24
0.87
0.78
0.73
0.25
88.12
93.63
87.70
80.72
87.62
84.51
66.09
78.50
88.24
76.86
78.03
80.79
83.77
2.14
2.11
0.49
82 .66
0.55
0.56
0.28
7.01
2.18
.
aA = TM - I S
b%A = (TH-TS)xlOO
VI
Vs)
T a b l e E~3.
Group A VO^ Max ( m l / k g ' m i n
Subject
I.D.
Treadmi11 Run
Test 1
Test 2
X
)
Tethered Swiro
Test 1
Test 2
X
Aa
b
3.08
91.93
86.23
95.56
91.60
87.65
89.14
86.18
84.96
82.80
76.78
84.30
87.64
Group A
53.71
48.99
37.91
43.03
58.01
38.05
50.44
38.71
41.03
48.30
47.84
50.37
53.32
52.33
50.12
35.06
33.44
56.18
34.91
44.21
29.69
35.60
41.30
40.49
38.92
44.93
46.97
41.25
35.09
37.13
53.39
34.10
38.95
35.88
36.03
37.30
39.80
37.11
44.95
44.20
41.35
35.08
35.22
54.79
34.51
41.58
32.79
39.07
39.30
40.15
38.02
44.94
45.59
41.30
5.93
2.61
3.20
6.23
4.37
5.75
7.31
8.41
11.77
8.37
6.74
9.90
46.51
46.40
46.88
40.23
39.64
40.26
6.44
86.57
6.64
6.67
6.50
6.92
5-31
5.79
2.74
4.97
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
37.65
42.99
57.22
37.98
50.44
37.16
40.24
47.98
46.78
50.69
53.32
50.95
51.25
X
SD
a A = TM - I S
b%A = (TM-TS)xlOO
38.17
43.06
58.79
38.11
—
40.25
41.81
48.61
48.90
50.05
80.68
T a bl e E-4.
Group B VO^ Max ( m l / k g - m i n
Subject
I.D.
Treadmill Run
Test 2
Test 1
')
Tethered Swim
Test 2
Test 1
X
X
k
A a
%A
Group A
37.82
32.43
33.00
36.40
41.51
31.61
30.15
33.22
40.80
30.25
44.70
38.53
46.17
30.62
33.86
33.45
35.71
41.54
35.61
32.66
34.85
43.57
33.03
42.54
42.83
45.28
28.53
33.15
33-23
36.06
41.53
33.64
31.41
34.04
42.19
31.64
43.62
40.64
45.72
29.58
4.66
2.26
5.45
9.90
5.21
7.58
17.62
13.82
4.42
14.31
11.93
10.97
5.37
80.80
85.08
45.17
36.11
37.19
36.65
8.73
82.07
8.71
5.66
5.27
5.35
4.70
7.21
09
10
11
12
13
37-12
35.64
41.85
48.85
37-94
36.60
50.76
54.62
35-91
56.37
54.76
54.92
33.48
38.52
35-71
41.27
51.44
40.82
40.24
52.47
52.48
37.45
59.01
53.37
57.14
35.99
35.68
41.56
50.15
39.38
38.28
51.62
53.55
36.68
57.69
54.07
56.03
34.74
X
44.52
45.84
SD
8.93
8.56
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
a A = TM - IS
b%A = (TM-TS)xlOO
.
87.90
93.67
86.98
80.75
87.24
81.16
66.42
74.70
88.20
75.75
78.21
'
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andrew, G.M., M.R. Becklake, J.S . G u le ria , and D.V. Bates.
Heart and
lung function in swimmers and n on -athletes during growth. J .
Appl■ Ph ysiol.
32:245-251, 1972.
o
Astrand, P.0.
Human physical f it n e s s with special reference to age
and sex.
Physiol. Rev.
36:307-335, 1956.
o
Astrand, P .O ., T. Cuddy, B. Sal t i n , J . Stenberg.
Cardiac output during
submaxima 1 and maximal work.
J. A ppl. P h y s io l. , 19 =268-274,
1964.
o
Astrand, P.O., L. Engstrom, B. Eriksson, P. Karlberg, I. Nylander, B.
Sal t i n , C. Thoren. ' Gi r l swimmers- with special reference to
r e sp ir at or y and c i r c u l a t o r y adaptation and gynaecological and
p s y c h i a tr i c aspects.
Acta Paediat. Su pp l., 147=43-63, 1963.
^strand, P.0, and B. Sa11 i n L Maximal oxygen uptake and heart rate in
various types of muscular exe rcise.
J. Appl. Physiol.
16:
977-998, 1961.
Bonen, A., B.A. Wilson, M. Yarkony and A.N. Belcastro.
Maximal oxygen
uptake during f r e e , tethered and flume swimming. J. Appl.
Ph ysi ol . 48(2)=232-235, 1980.
Carey, P. , M. Stens1and, and L.H. H a rt le y.
Comparison of oxygen
uptake during maximal work on the treadmill and the rowing
ergometer. Med. Sci. Sports 6:101-103, 1974.
ClarkeyvD.H.
Adaptations to strength and muscular endurance res ulting
from exercise.
Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, V o l . I,
J.H. Wilmore, e d . , New York: Academic Press , 2 1973.
Clausen, J.P.
Effe ct of physical t r a i n i n g on cardiovascular adjustments
to exercise in man. Physiol. Rev. 57=779-815, 1977.
Clausen, J.P. , K. Kausen, B. Rasmussen, and J . Trap-Jensen. Central
and peripheral c i r c u l a t o r y changes a f t e r t r a i n i n g of the arms
or legs. Am. J. Physiol.
225=675-682, 1973.
Clausen, J . P . , J . Trap-Jensen, and N,A. Cassen. The e f f e c t s of t r a i n i n g
on the heart rate during arm and leg exercise.
Scan. J. Cl i n.
Lab. Invest.
26:295-301, 1970.
56
57
Consolazio, C . , R. Johnson, and L. Pecora.
Physiological Measurements
of Metabolic Functions in Man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
C o s t i l l , D . L . , J. Daniels, W. Evans, W. Fink, G. Krahenbuhl, and B.
Sal t i n .
Skeletal muscle enzymes and f i b e r composition in male
and female track a t h l e t e s .
J . Appl. Physiol . 40:149-154, 1976.
Craig, A.B.
Heart rate responses to apneic underwater diving to breath
holding in man. J. Appl. P h ys io l. 18:854-862, 1963.
Craig, A.B. and M. Dvorak.
Comparison of exercise in a i r and water
of d i f f e r e n t temperatures.
Med. Sci. Sports
1:124-130, 1969.
Craig, A.B. and D. Pendergast.
Relationships of stroke r a t e , distance
per stroke and v e l o c i t y in competitive swimmers. Med. Sci.
Sports 11:278-282, 1979Cunningham, D.A. and R.B. Eynon. The working capacity of young compe­
t i t i v e swimmers, 10-16 years of age.
Med. Sci. Sports 5:227231, 1973.
Cunningham, D.A., P.B. Goode, and J.B. C r i t z .
Cardiorespiratory
response to exercise on a rowing and bicycle ergometer. Med.
Sci. Sports 7:3 7-4 3, 1975.
Davies, C.M. and A.J. Sargeant.
Effects of t r a i n i n g on the physiologi­
cal responses to one- and two-leg work.
J. Appl. Physiol.
38
13)=377-381, 1975.
Dixon, R.W. and J. Faulkner.
Cardiac output during maximal e f f o r t s
running and swimming. J. Appl. Ph ysi ol . 30:653-656, 1971.
Ekblom, B.
Ef fe ct of physical t r a i n i n g on oxygen, transport system in
man. Acta Physiol. Scan. Suppl. 328, 1969.
Ekblom, B. and L. Hermansen. Cardiac output in a t h l e t e s .
Physiol.
25:619-625, 1968,
J. Appl.
Eriksson, B.O., I. Holmer, and A. Lundin. Maximal oxygen uptake,
maximal v e n t i l a t i o n , and maximal heart rate during swimming
compared to running. Acta P a e d i a c t f i c i a Belgica Suppl. 28:
68-78, 1974.
Faulkner, J.A.
Physiology of swimming.
Research Quarterly
37:41,
1966.
Faulkner, J.A.
Physiology of swimming and diving.
In:
Fa ll s H . Z . ,
Exercise Physiology.
New York, P e d ia t r i c Press, 1968,
pp. 415-446.
58
Faulkner, J . A . , D.E. Roberts, R.L. Elk, and J. F. Conway. Cardiovascular
responses to submaximum and maximum e f f o r t cycling and running.
J. Appl. Physiol.
30:457-461, 1971.
Fr o e l i c h e r , J r . , V . F . , H. Brammel, G. Davis, I. Noguera, A. Stewart,
and M.L. Lancaster. A comparison of three maximal treadmill
protocols.
J. Appl. Ph y s i o l . 36:720-725, 1974.
Gle se r, M.A., D.H. Horstman, and R.P. Mello.
adding arm work to maximal leg work.
104-107, 1974.
The e f f e c t on VO2 max of
Med. S c i . Sports 6:
Goff, L.G. , H.F. Brubach, and H. Specht.
Measurements of respi rat or y
responses and work e f f i c i e n c y of underwater swimmers u t i l i z i n g
improved instrumentation.
J . Appl. Ph y s i o l . 10:197-202, 1957.
G oll ni ck, P.D ., R.B. Armstrong, B. Sal t i n , C.W. Saubert, IV, W.L.
Sembrowich, and R.E. Shepherd.
Ef fe ct of t r a i n i n g on enzyme
a c t i v i t y and f i b e r composition of human ske le ta l muscle.
J. Appl. Physiol.
34:107-111, 1973.
Go llnick , P.D ., R.B. Armstrong, C.W. Saubert, IV, K. P i e h l , and B.
Sal t i n .
Enzyme a c t i v i t y and f i b e r composition in skeletal
muscle of untrained and tra in e d men. J. Appl. Physiol.
33:
312-319, 1972.
Gollnick, P.D. and W.L. Sembrowich. Adaptations in human skeletal
muscle as a re s u l t of t r a i n i n g .
Exercise in Cardiovascular
Health and Disease. Edited by E.A. Amsterdam, J.H. Wilmore,
and A.N. DeMaria, NY: Yorke Medical Books, 1977.
Goodwin, I.B. and G.R. Gumming.
Radiotelemetry of electrocardiogram,
f it n e s s t e s t s , and oxygen uptake of waterpolo players.
Can.
Med. Assoc. J.
95:402-406, 1966.
Hartung, G.H.
S p e c i f i c i t y of t r a i n i n g as indicated by heart rate
response to exercise.
Perceptual Motor S k i l l s
36:639-645,
1973.
Hermansen, L. and B. Sal t i n .
Oxygen uptake during maximal treadmill
and bicycle exercise.
J. Appl. Ph ysi ol . 26:31 -37 , 1969.
Hermansen, L . , B. Ekblom, and B. Salt in.
Cardiac output during submaximal and maximal tre adm ill and bicycle exe rc is e.
J. Appl.
Physiol.
29: 82-86, 1970.
Holloszy, J . 0 . and F.W. Booth.
Biochemical adaptations to endurance
exercise in muscle. Ann. Rev. Physiol.
38:273-291, 1976.
59
Holloszy, J . 0 . , L.B. Oscai, P.A. Mole, and I . J . Don.
Biochemical
adaptations to endurance exercise in skele ta l muscle.
In:
Muscle Metabolism During Exe rcis e, edited by B. Pernow and
B. Sal t i n .
New York:
Plenum, 1971, pp. 51-61
Ho1mer, I .
Oxygen uptake during swimming in man.
33:502-509, 1972.
Ho1mer, I.
Physiology of swimming man.
407 :1-55, 1974.
J 1 Appl. Ph ysiol.
Acta Ph ys io l. Scand. Suppl.
Ho1mer, I. and P.0. Astrand.
Swimming t r a i n i n g and maximal oxygen
uptake.
J . Appl. Ph y s i o l . 33=510-513.
Ho1mer, I . , A. Luden, and B.0. Eriksson. Maximal oxygen uptake during
swimming and running by e l i t e swimmers. J. Appl. Physiol.
36:711, 1974a.
Holmer,
o
I . , E.N. St ein, B. Sal t i n , B. Ekblom, and P.0. Astrand.
Hemodynamic and r e sp ir at or y responses compared in swimming
and running.
J. Appl. Physiol.
37=49-54, 1974b.
i k a i , M. and M. Miyashitu.
An electromyographic study on swimming.
Res. J. Phys. Ed.
7=47, 1964.
Irv in g , L.
Bradycardia in human divers.
1963.
J . Appl. Ph y s i o l .
18:489-491,
Kamon, E. and K.B. Pandolf.
Maximal aerobic power during treadmill
climbing, uph ill running and cycling.
J . Appl. Ph ys io l. 32:
467-473, 1972.
Karpovich, P.V. and N. Mi liman.
Energy expenditure in swimming.
Am. J. Physiol.
142:140-144, 1944.
Katch, F.W. Maximum oxygen uptake in old er male swimmers during fr e e
swim and s t at io n ar y cycling.
In:
Swimming Medicine IV,
edited by B. Eriksson and B. Furberg.
Baltimore:
University
Park Press, 1977, pp. 143-146.
Keatinge, W.R. and M. Evans. The r es p ir at o r y and cardiovascular response
to immersion in cold and warm water.
Quart. J . E x p t l . Ph ys io l.
66:83-94, 1961. .
Lu ft , U. , L. Myhre, and J . Loeppky.
V a l i d i t y of haldane ca lc ul at io n
f o r estimating r e sp ir at or y gas exchange.
J. Appl. Ph ysiol.
34:864-865, 1973.
Magel, J . and J . Faulkner.
Maximum oxygen uptakes of college swimmers.
J. Appl. Physiol.
22:929-933,, 1967.
60
Magel, J . , G. Fog lia, W. McArdle, B. Gutfn, G. Pechar, and F. Katch.
S p e c i f i c i t y of swim t r a i n i n g on maximum oxygen uptake.
J.
Appl. Physiol.
38:151-155, 1975.
'
Magel, J . , W. McArdle, and R. Glaser.
Telemetered heart rate response
to selected competitive swim events. J. Appl. Ph ys io l. 26:
764-770, 1969.
Magel, J . , W. McArdle, M. Toner, and D. Delio.
Metabolic and cardio­
vascular adjustment to arm t r a i n i n g .
J. Appl. Physiol. Respirat.
Environ.
Exercise Physiol.
45: 75-79, 1978.
McArdle, W., R. Glaser, and J. Magel.
Metabolic and ca r di or es p ir at or y
response during fr e e swimming and tre adm ill walking.
J. Appl.'
Ph y s i o l . 30:733-738, 1971.
McArdle, W. and J. Magel.
Physical work capacity and maximum oxygen
uptake in t re ad m ill and bic ycl e exercise.
Med. Sci. Sports
2:118-123, 1970.
McArdle, W. and J . Magel.
S p e c i f i c i t y of run t r a i n i n g on maximum
oxygen consumption and heart rate changes during running and
swimming. Med. Sci. Sports 11:16-20, 1978.
McArdle, W., F. Katch, and G. Pechar.
Comparison of continuous and
discontinuous tre ad m ill and bic yc le tests f o r maximum oxygen
uptakes. Med. Sci. Sports 5:156-160, 1973.
M i t c h e l l , J . , B. Sproule, and C. Chapman. The physiological meaning
of the maximal oxygen intake t e s t .
J . Cl in . Invest. 37=538546, 1958.
Miyamura, M. and Y. Honda.
Oxygen intake, and cardiac output during
maximum tre adm ill and bike exe rcise.
J. Appl. Ph ys io l. 32:
185-188, 1972.
Mygaard, E. and E. Nielsen.
Ske1e t a 1?musc1e f i b e r cap?1l a r i z a t i o n
with extreme endurance t r a i n i n g in man.
In:
Swimming Medicine
IV.
Intern ati ona l Series on Sport Sciences, edited by B.
Eriksson and B. Furberg. ' Baltimore, MD: Univ. Park Press,
1978, V o l . 6, pp. 282-293.
Pate, R . , R. Highes, J . Chandler, and J . R a t c l i f f . , Ef fects of arm
t r a i n i n g on reten tion of t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s derived from leg
training.
Med. Sci. Sports
10:71-74, 1978.
Pechar, G . , W. McArdle, F. Katch, J . Magel, and J . DeLuca. S p e c i f i c i t y
of c a rd io re sp ira to ry adaptation to bicycle and tre adm ill t r a i n ­
ing.
J. Appl. Physiol.
36:753-756, 1974*.
61
P e r r i e r Study:
Fitness in America.
Louis Harris Associates, Inc.
P e r r i e r Great Waters of France, I n c . , 595 Madison Avenue,
New York, New York 10022, January 1979.
Rennie, D . , P. DePranpero, and P. C i n e t i l l i .
Effects of water immer­
sion on cardiac output, heart rate and stroke volume of man
at rest and during exercise.
Medicine d e l l o Sport 24:223228, 1971.
Reybrouck, T . , G. Heigenhauser, and J. Faulkner.
L i m ita tio n to
maximum oxygen uptake in arm, leg and combined arm-leg
ergometry.
J. Appl. Physiol.
38:774-779, 1975.
Roberts, J. and J. Alspaugh.
S p e c i f i c i t y of t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s resu lt ing
from programs of tre ad m ill running and bicycle ergometer r id ing
Med. Sci. Sports 4 : 6 - 1 0 , 1972.
Roberts, J. and W. Morgan.
Ef f e c t of type and frequency of p a r t i c i p a ­
tion in physical a c t i v i t y upon physical working capacity.
Am.
Corr. J.
25:99-104, 1971.
Rochelle, R . , R. Stumpner, S. Robinson, D. D i l l , and S. HorvathPeripheral blood flow response to exercise consequent to t r a i n ­
ing.
Med. Sci. Sports 3:122-129, 1971.
Salt in, B. Aerobic and anaerobic work capacity at 2300 meters.
Schweiz. Z. Sport Med.
14:81-87, .1966.
Sal t i n ,
Saltin,
Saltin,
o
B. and P.0. Astrand.
Maximum oxygen uptake and heart rate in
various types of muscular a c t i v i t i e s .
J. Appl. Physiol.
16:
977-981, 1961.
o
B. and P.0. Astrand.
Maximal oxygen uptake in a t h l e t e s .
J. Appl. Physiol.
23:353-358, 1967.
B . , K. Nazar, D.L. C o s t i l l , E. S te in , E. Janssen, B. Essen,
and P.D. Go lln ic k.
The nature of the t r a i n i n g response:
Peripheral and central adaptations to one-legged exercise.
Acta Physiol. Scand.
96:289-305, 1976.
Secher, N.H. and I. Oddershede.
Maximal oxygen uptake rate during
swimming and b ic yc li ng .
Swimming I I , I nt ern ati ona l Series on
,
Sport Science. 2:137-142, Un iv e rs ity Park Press, 1975.
Secher, N.H., N. Ruberg-Larson, R. Binkhorst, and J. Bonde-Petersen.
Maximal oxygen uptake during arm cranking and combined arm
plus leg exe rcise.
J . Appl. Ph ys io l. 36:515-518, 1974.
o
Stenberg, J . , P.0. Astrand, B. Ekblom, J. Royce, and B. S a l t i n .
Hemodynamic response to work with d i f f e r e n t muscle groups,
s i t t i n g and supine.
J . Appl. Ph ys io l. 22: 61-70, 1967.
62
Stewart,
K.J. and B. Gut in.
re sp ir at or y f it n e s s
Effects of physical t r a i n i n g on cardio­
in chi ld re n.
Res. Quart.
47:110-120, 1976.
Stromme, S . , F. I ng je r , and H. Mein.
Assessment of maximal aerobic
power in s p e c i f i c a l l y trained a t h l e t e s .
J. Appl. Physiol.
42:883-837, 1977.
Sugimoto, T . , K. Sagawa, and A. Guyton.
Effect of tachycardia on
cardiac output during normal and increased venous return.
Am. J. Physiol.
211:288-292, 1966.
Tay lor, H . , E. Buskirk, and A. Hensche1. Maximal oxygen intake as an
observation measure of c a r d i o - r e s p i r a t o r y performance.
J.
Appl. Physiol.
8:7 3-8 0, 1955.
T u t t l e , W. and J. Corleaux. The response of the heart to water of swim
pool temperature. Res. Quart.
6:24- 26, 1935.
V r i j e n s , J . , P. Hoekstra, J. Bouckaert, and P. VanUytvanck.
Effects of
t r a in i n g on maximal working capacity and haemodynamic response
during arm and leg-exercise in a group of paddlers.
Europ.
J. Appl. Physiol.
34:113-119, 1975.
Wagner, J . , S. Horvath, T. Dahmus, and S. Reed. V a li d a t io n of openc i r c u i t method f o r the determination of oxygen consumption.
J. Appl. P h y s i o l . , 34:859-863, 1973.
Wilmore, J.H.
S p e c i f i c i t y of physiological tes ting and a t h l e t i c condi­
t io n in g.
Paper presented at Am Swimming Coaches Association
Tenth Annual World C l i n i c .
Chicago, 111.
Sept. 14-16, 1978.