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Vol 20 | Michaelmas 2013 | University of Cambridge
A Production of The Triple Helix
The Science in Society Review
The International Journal of Science, Society and Law
Genetic Modification:
Monster or Messiah?
Bacteriophages: A Historic
Solution to a Modern Problem?
The Sense Fusion of Synesthesia
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
The curious case of
haemophilia
© National Portrait Gallery, London
15
Light pollution
How does it affect our
everyday lives?
NASA, CC-BY-2.0
Toby McMaster
Comment: Active Denial: The Future of Non-Lethal Weaponry?
Cover Article
5
And how it may be
changing our brains
Wikicommons, CC BY-SA 3.0
Perspectives
4
25
Internet
CAMBRIDGE
8
Genetic diseases
Alison Madgwick, Cambridge
Genetic Modification: Monster or Messiah?
Cambridge Articles
8
Lying in the shadow of family trees: family happiness or eugenic selection? Alessio Strano
12
Bacteriophages: A Historic Solution to a Modern Problem?
Nathan Smith
International Features
Michael Yanagisawa, Brown
15
18
Bright Lights: Are they killing us?
22
The Sense Fusion of Synesthesia
Terrell Jones, CMU
25
The Technology Scare Revisited:
Is the Internet Rewiring Our Brains? Annie Chen, CMU
Considering the Potential of Developing
Environmental Remediation Technologies Elizabeth Perkins, Brown
Front Cover © Victor Emma, September 2013 .
Back Cover designed by Adam Esmail, Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge:
Blue: To Sign a Contract by shho, stock.xchng. ©sxc.hu.
Red: Overpopulation Event. ©The Triple Helix, Cambridge.
Green: Explanation by Harrison Keely, stock.xchng. ©sxc.hu.
Purple: Woman Using Computer by Ariel da Silva Parreira, stock.xchng. ©sxc.hu.
INSIDE TTH
Message from the President
The Queen of the Triple Helix Cambridge welcomes you to the twentieth anniversary edition of
the Science in Society Review!
I don’t have any empirical evidence to support the claim that anyone ever reads the Message from
the President or the Letter from the EIC. I therefore strongly believe that if I was thus inclined, I
could use this space to talk about research into female orgasms or just recount some funny stories
from the last social of the Triple Helix Executive Committee, without enraged readers emailing
the Literary Team asking them to restrain their president.
STAFF AT CAMBRIDGE
EXECUTIVE BOARD
President:
Emilija Emma (Newnham)
Founder of TTH Cambridge:
James Shepherd (Caius)
Junior Treasurer:
Daniel Revere (Magdalene)
Division leaders also sit on the
Executive Board
Instead, I’ll let you know what exciting things we’ve got in this twentieth, anniversary edition
of our wonderful journal – after all, they do say ‘better safe than sorry’, and for all I know, they
might be right!
This issue opens with an insight into the ethics of Active Denial, a pain ray being developed by
the United States of America, probably as we speak (or not – they are in a different time zone after
all). Alison Madgwick will try and clear up the mess that the public opinion on GMOs has been in
because of the conflicting media coverage; Alessio Strano will show us what Leo Tolstoy has to do
with eugenics, and Nathan Smith will consider bacteriophage therapy - the promising technique
of killing little things with even littler things.
LITERARY TEAM
Editors-in-Chief:
Emilija Emma (Newnham)
Rok Nežič (Homerton)
Managing Editor:
Justin Koh (Queens’)
Associate Editors:
Steph Payne (Homerton)
Chris White
Michael O’Neill
Joe Baxter (Jesus)
Pete Davies
Emilija Emma (Newnham)
OUTREACH
Outreach Director:
Raghd Rostom (Christ’s)
Outreach Team:
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Nele Dieckmann (Wolfson)
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EVENTS
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Tom Williams (Pembroke)
Publicity Officer:
Angela Wan (Fitzwilliam)
PRODUCTION
Senior Production Editor:
Angela Wan (Fitzwilliam)
Managing Production Editor:
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As you can see, it’s getting curiouser and curiouser with every issue, and you are very
welcome to join our team of writers, editors, events organisers, magicians, advice-givers, wellwishers and cake-bringers. The latter kind are particularly welcome – so drop an email to
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Happy reading,
Emilija Emma
Queen of the Triple Helix Cambridge
GET INVOLVED
... because at the bottom of
everything that’s ever been
made was once a kernel of
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ACADEMIC ADVISORY BOARD
Dr David Summers
Prof Hasok Chang
Dr Edward Tanner
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Dr Andrew Bell (Senior Treasurer)
SENIOR REVIEWERS
Dr Ian Furner
Dr Damian Crowther
Dr Timothy Blower
Dr Rita Monson
Prof. George Salmond
The above image is the rough sketch of the idea which gave rise to the cover image of this issue, created by Emilija
Emma and based on this image: http://www.flickr.com/photos/calliope/5963405779 under CC-BY 2.0 license.
I (Rok, a.k.a. the Prince Consort) would like to take this opportunity to point out that no royal titles assigned to members of the Triple Helix Cambridge Committee have been approved by any external party whatsoever and therefore
may not be the appropriate form of address in official situations. I mean, the Queen doesn’t even have a crown or at least a tiara, so surely it can’t really be completely official - we at least need to have a coronation ceremony first......
2 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
INSIDE TTH
Message from the CEO
One important mission of the Science and Society Review is to get our readers thinking critically
about the ethical impact of emergent technologies on public policy. There are a number of
organizations that do this, but our efforts are unique because we are an independent, studentrun publication. We offer an unbiased report on the topics that are the most interesting to us, the
young people of this generation. I imagine that years in the future, these articles will serve as a
valuable record of the youth perspective on great scientific debates of our time.
Even as the Triple Helix continues to grow and expand in new directions, the core of what we
do remains the same: creating an open forum for discussion and education. We must embrace
the path forward and expand our readership by broadening our reach. Let us harness the
power of social media to promote our original works so that more people can participate in the
conversation. We are doing well, but I know we can do even better.
It has been a privilege to serve with my dedicated team over the past eight months. Together,
we have laid the foundations for success to build on in the coming months. To our readers and
our Triple Helix Members, I thank you for your continued support and participation. To our
graduating alumni, I look forward to hearing of the accomplishments of our TTH family. Please
keep in touch so that we may celebrate your successes with you! Finally, I want to thank each of
you for a wonderful term.
With best wishes,
Mridula
Message from the EEiC and CPO
Welcome to the flagship forum for The Triple Helix organization: the Science in Society Review, a journal
produced entirely by a network of undergraduate students spread across the world. We dare you to read
on and see what the next generation of thinkers and leaders has identified as the most important issues
that require interdisciplinary solutions.
We want to remind you that part of what makes our product worthy of the time and effort of dedicated
undergraduate TTH members, and worthy of the attention of its readers, is the thoughts behind the words.
Consider one of this issue’s international articles: light pollution has usually been only pointed out by
astronomers looking for dark skies, but Michael Yanagisawa from Brown University points out that city
lights don’t only make nice scenery for overnight flights and a nightmare for the astronomers (as well
as a memorable Charlie Chaplin movie) - they might be ruining all our lives, as well as those of animals.
Suddenly the matter is relevant for a much broader range of people than one might have initially expected.
As the Executive Editor-in-Chief for the past two years, I especially want to thank our TTH members and
long time readers for working with me and enjoying the past four issues of the Science in Society Review.
It has been a rewarding experience, and I am happy to say that this journal will remain in good hands
next year when Harrison Specht will take the reigns. Harrison, a rising senior at Cornell, has been a Senior
Literary Editor for various chapters over the past two years. He will continue to help this journal uncover
the fascinating intersection of science, society, and law.
Cassie Yeh and Dhruba Banerjee
Chief Production Officer and Executive Editor-in-Chief
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 3
PERSPECTIVES
SCIENCE IN SOCIETY REVIEW | COMMENT
Active Denial: The Future of
Non-Lethal Weaponry?
Toby McMaster
T
he military field is full of situations in which the lines
between civilians and terrorists are unclear. This can
have terrible consequences, such as this year’s shooting
of two young Afghan boys by NATO forces [1]. The U.S.
military has therefore been developing a vehicle mounted
non-lethal weapon designed to inflict severe instantaneous
pain, disappearing instantaneously upon removal. The system,
known as Active Denial, uses low frequency microwaves
to penetrate and heat only the very outer layer of skin. It is
designed to leave no permanent damage or signs of use [2].
A journalist exposed to the weapon described it as “similar
to a blast from a very hot oven” [3].
However the lack of an ability to detect the weapon’s use
has been a major issue in its uptake by military personnel.
The potential for undetectable torture using the device, was
likely a big factor in the decision by the U.S. military to
withdraw the weapon from Afghanistan [4]. The weapon
has never been deployed in Iraq, despite requests from some
military personnel on the ground there [5].
Many military technologies eventually find their way into
the hands of police forces and so it is also worth discussing
the ethical implications of any future handheld version of
the device. Could such a firearm eradicate the oxymoron
of ‘death by non-lethal weapon’? According to Amnesty
International, in the U.S. over 500 people have been killed
since 2001 by Tasers used by police officers, a death rate of
around 50 people a year, roughly one individual a week [6].
It is hard to establish a Taser as the sole cause of death
as individuals are often intoxicated with drugs at the time.
However, Tasers were officially recorded as cause of death or
contributing to death in at least 50 of the 500 cases quoted by
Amnesty International. There are also, though less frequently,
deaths caused by rubber bullets another supposedly nonlethal weapon [7].
Active Denial System uses
low frequency microwaves to
penetrate and heat only the
very outer layer of skin
Potentially then, a handheld Active Denial system
could help eliminate these. However most deaths inflicted
by non-lethal weapons arise because of misuse. In the case
of rubber bullets this was described as “abuse … in terms
of range of fire and anatomical area … targeted” [7].
The Active Denial system, as with any other ‘non-lethal’
weapon would be susceptible to the same human misuse.
However the independent assessment of the active denial
system conducted in 2008 by the Human Effects Advisory
Panel (HEAP) concluded that “Researchers… have found a
4 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
wide safety margin between the desired repel response and
injuries” [8]. Therefore even if individuals were to use the
system recklessly, the likelihood of death or serious injury
would be lower than with a Taser or many other non-lethal
weapons currently available.
Active Denial’s impact on society will depend greatly
on how it is used. Naivete and poor judgement could
quickly transform the system into yet another symbol of
Western oppression. In this age of social media and digital
communications news of misuse would quickly enter the public
sphere. Potentially sparking a massive international reaction
against the U.S. army could arise, providing propaganda
material for extremist groups worldwide. However, used
with caution and respect for human rights, whilst being
carefully monitored, the system has the potential to save
many lives each year.
Does this justify the risk of releasing a potential torture
device likely able to cause severe psychological damage
whilst leaving no physical evidence?
There is no simple answer, but I believe that with the
situation as it currently stands Active Denial is not a system
likely to bring net benefits. The undeniable tragedy of death
by non-lethal weapons doesn’t justify releasing a weapon that
could potentially be used for undetectable torture. Methods of
torture, such as sexual or verbal abuses and forced standing
positions, may not leave much physical evidence. However,
I believe Active Denial has the potential to add a much
more powerful option to this horrific arsenal. Whatever our
personal opinions, we – the general public – must make them
heard, whilst there is still a decision to be made.
Research on the system should not stop. Other nations
and organisations will eventually develop similar systems
and understanding their effects will be valuable. Furthermore,
if a method was developed so that the system’s use and
its abuse could be detected, it could be a valuable tool in
reducing death rates.
However for now this futuristic weapon should remain
just that; a weapon for the future.
Toby McMaster is a second year Biological Natural Sciences
student at Jesus College.
1. NATO Accidentally Shoots 2 Afghan Boys, Says Latest Civilian Deaths Were Due
To Mistaken Identity [Internet]. Huffington Post; 2013 Mar 2 [cited 2013 Sep 11].
Available from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/02/nato-accidentally-shootsafghan-boys_n_2796184.html
2. Hambling, D. Pain ray: The US military’s new agony beam weapon. NewScientist;
2013 May 16 [cited 2013 Sep 11]. Available from:
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21829162.300-pain-ray-the-us-militarys-newagony-beam-weapon.html
3. US military unveils heat-ray gun [Internet]. BBC News; 2007 Jan 25 [cited 2013 Sep
11]. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6297149.stm
4. Cairns, D. US withdraws ‘heat ray’ gun from Afghanistan [Internet]. BBC Radio
1 Newsbeat; 2010 Jul 27 [cited 2013 Sep 11]. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/
newsbeat/10765863.
5. Weinberger, S. No Pain Ray Weapon for Iraq (Updated and Bumped) [Internet].
Wired.com; 2007 Aug 30 [cited 2013 Sep 11]. Available from: http://www.wired.com/
dangerroom/2007/08/no-pain-ray-for/
6. Amnesty International Urges Stricter Limits on Police Taser Use as U.S. Death
Toll Reaches 500 [Internet]. Amnesty International USA; 2012 Feb 15 [cited 2013
Sep 11]. Available from: http://www.amnestyusa.org/news/press-releases/amnestyinternational-urges-stricter-limits-on-police-taser-use-as-us-death-toll-reaches-500
7. Death following rubber bullet wounds to the chest: case report. East Afr Med J.
2005 Jul;82(7):382-4.
[8] Dr Kenny, J. M. et al. A Narrative Summary and Independent Assessment of the
Active Denial System. PennState Applied Research Laboratory; 2008 Feb 11 [cited
2013 Sep 11. Available from: http://jnlwp.defense.gov/pdf/heap.pdf
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
PERSPECTIVES
CAMBRIDGE
Genetic Modification: Monster or Messiah?
Alison Madgwick
T
he world is in a food crisis. Although most Europeans
and North Americans have sufficient food, one in
seven people globally suffer from malnutrition (1). In
2050 the population will reach over nine billion and to feed
these extra people adequately, as well as alleviate the hunger
of those who are starving today, current crop productivity
must increase by a daunting 70% (2).
Genetic modification is the
direct and deliberate alteration,
insertion or deletion of genes in an
organism using biotechnology
Much of the farmland used for crops is unsustainable
for the monocultures, fields of a single crop species, which
they support, and there is little suitable land available on earth
to create new fields (3). Land degradation has been caused
by soil erosion, leaching of nutrients and soil salinization of
irrigated fields. Climate change causes further problems, as
unpredictable weather can damage crops which are planted
and harvested according to historic weather patterns (4).
Feeding the growing population is going to be difficult,
but even more so given the resistance of many countries
to new technologies that could help substantially, such as
genetically modified plants.
Genetic modification (GM) is the direct and deliberate
alteration, insertion or deletion of genes in an organism
using biotechnology. Many genetic modifications are possible
in plants which give advantages over unmodified forms,
such as disease resistance, drought tolerance or improved
nutritional value for humans. Genes for these traits are often
obtained from a close relative of the plant to be modified,
but can also be obtained from completely different plant
species, as well as from organisms in other kingdoms of
life, such as fish or bacteria.
The most common way in which plants are genetically
modified takes advantage of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a
bacterium which, in the wild, causes tumours on many plant
species. It carries plasmids that contain genes necessary for
infecting the plant (virulence or vir genes), and DNA for
insertion into the plant genome (transferred- or T-DNA) (5).
This natural system for the insertion of foreign DNA has
been exploited by humans to introduce genes into many
crop plants (6). Plants such as rice, wheat and maize are
difficult to transform using Agrobacterium, but can take up
foreign DNA through other techniques such as microinjection,
electroporation, and particle bombardment (7).
One of the main objections to GM is that the mixing
of genes from different species is unnatural. This concern is
weakened, however, by the fact that cisgenesis, the movement
of genes between closely related species, occurs naturally
between plants. When two animal species are crossed the
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Crop plants such as maize take up foreign DNA through techniques such as
microinjection, electroporation and particle bombardment. Image reproduced
from [21]
offspring produced, if any are produced at all, are usually
infertile and poorly suited to their environment (8). For
plants, however, hybridisation is something which occurs
naturally and is indeed important in maintaining genetic
variation within some species (9).
Given that plants often transfer genetic information
between species completely naturally, what geneticists are
doing is not all that “unnatural”. Indeed, humans have been
breeding plants such as bread wheat for millennia to give
them better characteristics for growth or consumption (10).
Artificially adding or removing genes just speeds up the
process of domestication that has occurred since humans
first started farming. In fact, far from being a dangerous
process, GM is safer and more precise than conventional
plant breeding by hybridisation or mutagenesis, which uses
chemicals or radiation to randomly alter any part of the
genome.
Inserting genes from more distantly-related species,
transgenesis, occurs less frequently in nature than cisgenesis
and so might be viewed as more dangerous. However, it
too is a natural process, one carried out by viruses all the
time. Viruses cannot exist independently and require a
host, whose cellular machinery they use to replicate their
own genetic material and to synthesise their protein coats.
During the process of infection of the host cell and replication
of themselves, they often take up small parts of the host’s
genetic code into their own genome and pass this DNA on
to the next host organism that they infect (11). The most
common vectors for virus transferral between plants are
small insects which feed on sap, such as aphids, whiteflies
and leafhoppers (12).
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 5
CAMBRIDGE
Aphilds (left), whiteflies (middle) and Leafhoppers (right) are common vectors for virus transferral between plants (12). Images reproduced from [22], [23], and [24].
Many oppose GM on ecological grounds, thinking that
it will have negative impacts on the environment. However,
though the GM plants we produce are not naturally occurring,
they can confer advantages over the crops we currently
grow in terms of ecosystem services. Land conversion for
farming is a great source of greenhouse gasses and habitat
loss, so crops that can be grown more efficiently on smaller
areas of land, as many GM crops can be, are ecologically and
economically advantageous. Plants modified to be droughttolerant reduce use of water for irrigation, benefitting the
As well as less fertiliser,
fewer pesticides and
fungicides are needed by
many GM plants
people living in areas of water shortage and the often fragile
ecosystems which this water supports.
Plants modified to metabolise nitrogen more efficiently,
or have longer roots in order to obtain more nitrogen from
the soil could massively reduce the application of fertilisers.
This could decrease the economic inputs required and thus
suit poorer farmers, as well as benefitting the environment,
as nitrogen leaching from soils into rivers and their resulting
stagnation is a source of biodiversity loss in freshwater
ecosystems (13). As well as less fertiliser, fewer pesticides
and fungicides are needed by many GM plants which have
been modified to be resistant to pests and diseases.
Another reason that people are opposed to genetic
modification is that supplies of GM plant varieties are often
monopolised by large companies which can out-compete
smaller independent ones. This is worrying, but is no reason
to be against GM per se, only against its monopolisation by
these companies. Many people are under the false impression
that second-generation genetically modified plants are
sterile, a deliberate modification put in by seed-suppliers
to ensure that farmers must return for more seed, rather than
being able to save seed from year to year. In fact, although
“terminator technology” has been developed, it has never
been commercialised, due to these very concerns (14). Hybrid
6 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
plants, however, which have been bred traditionally for
centuries and are considered acceptable by those who dislike
GM, show undesirable variation when crossed, due to the
random segregation of genes, and so can prevent farmers
from saving quality seed.
A further objection to breeding GM plants is that they
could be unintentionally introduced into the wild, disrupting
ecosystems. “Super plants” outcompeting wild species are
in many most cases unlikely to occur, as genes that are
advantageous in agricultural environments will often not
particularly cause plants to prosper in the wild. Herbicideresistant crops, for example, are only at an advantage in the
presence of herbicide. Plants which have been modified
to be resistant to drought or pathogens, however, may be
selected for in the wild, so this objection to GM could hold
some weight (15).
The way in which GM plants can indisputably have
an effect on biodiversity is by genes that confer pesticidal
properties on plants having a negative impact on non-target
species. An example of this is that of the monarch butterfly,
the larvae of which feed on milkweed, a species often found
near corn fields. Corn transformed with genetic material from
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, known as Bt corn, is toxic
to corn rootworm larvae and is used to control this pest. This
GM corn is not problematic for the pest, which can survive
on other plants, yet hybrid plants often express the Bt toxin
in their pollen, which is transported large distances by the
wind. This toxic pollen, when deposited on milkweed leaves
can cause problems for populations of monarch butterfly,
the larvae of which have been shown to eat less, grow more
slowly and suffer higher mortality rates on milkweed plants
dusted with Bt pollen than on undusted milkweed (16).
It might be concluded that if GM plants can be toxic
to insects, they can also impact human health. As each GM
plant has different genes inserted, each is tested individually
for effects on human health, as these could vary substantially.
All genetically modified foods currently available on the
international market are considered completely safe for
humans. Also, no adverse effects on human health have
been shown as a result of the consumption of GM foods
by the populations of countries where they are freely sold
(17).
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CAMBRIDGE
drought tolerance and greater nutritional value to plants, crops
can be grown more efficiently, as well as being healthier to
humans. More people can be fed with genetically modified
crops than conventional crops using the same amount of
land, giving us the potential to overcome the hunger rampant
in the world today and take a step towards feeding the
nine billion people of 2050. GM plants, rather than being
the evil destroyer of humans and nature that many people
make them out to be, could help us feed millions of people,
as well as be the saviour of many species whose habitats
would otherwise be destroyed to make way for inefficient
non-GM farmland (20).
“Golden Rice”, a genetically modified strain of rice containing β-carotene, has
the potential to cure millions from vitamin A deficiency related illnesses. Image
reproduced from [25].
Indeed, foods are often genetically modified to
be healthier than natural foods, an example being golden
rice. This rice has been modified to contain β-carotene, a
source of vitamin A, and was trialled on volunteer adults
and children (18). Despite the fact that it was proved to
be a valuable source of vitamin A and showed no adverse
side effects, there was a public outcry led by Greenpeace
More people can be fed with
genetically modified crops
than conventional crops
at the research into the crop (19). They argued that the rice
could be dangerous, but failed to mention the fact that it
has the potential to cure millions of people from vitamin A
deficiency-related blindness and death. As well as curing
specific vitamin deficiencies, GM food plants have the
potential to help alleviate the starvation of the 868 million
people that go to bed hungry every night.
By addition of genes that confer disease resistance,
References:
1. The State of Food Insecurity in the World; Food and Agricultural Organisation
2012
2. Food and Agricultural Organisation Progress Report, Rome 2009
3. Agro-Ecological Zones Assessment; G. Fischer, M. Shah, H. van Velthuizen, F.
Nachtergaele; RP-06-003, April 2006
4. Vulnerability to Climate Change Hazards and Risks: Crop and Flood Insurance;
R. Mcleman, B. Smit; The Canadian Geographer Volume 50, Issue 2, Pages
217–226, June 2006
5. The Integration of T-DNA into Plant Genomes; B. Tinland; Trends in Plant
Science Volume 1, Pages 178-184, 1996
6. An Introduction to Genetic Engineering; D.S.T. Nicholl; Science 2002
7. Transforming Plants - Basic Genetic Engineering Techniques; P. Peters; Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, 1993
8. Hybrid Incompatibility and Speciation; N.A. Johnson; Nature Education 2008
9. Speciation, Hybridization and Introgression in Plants; Louise Hathaway;
Introductory Literature Review 2004
10. The Evolution of Wheat; M. Winfield; WheatBP website
11. Integrated Pararetroviral Sequences Define a Unique Class of Dispersed
Repetitive DNA in Plants; J. Jakowitsch, M. F. Mette, J. van der Winden, M. A.
Matzke, A. J. M. Matzke; PNAS Volume 96, Issue 23, Pages 13241-13246, 1999
12. Insect Vector Interactions with PersistentlyTransmitted Viruses; S.A.
Hogenhout, E. Ammar, A.E. Whitfield, M.G. Redinbaugh; Annual Review of
Phytopathology, Issue 46, Pages 327–59, 2008
13. Eutrophication: Impacts of Excess Nutrient Inputs on Freshwater, Marine,
and Terrestrial Ecosystems; V.H. Smith, G.D. Tilman, J.C. Nekola; Environmental
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Due in part to the false image of genetic modification
propagated in the public eye, new GM crops must pass
through miles of red tape before they are allowed to reach
the market. This makes an already expensive technology even
more costly, such that only incredibly large corporations can
afford it, those which ideally would not have a monopoly
over our food supply. The unfounded anxiety about GM
food and distrust in scientists that the general public of most
countries harbours has effectively prohibited a technology
that has so many potential advantages.
There is no disputing that organisations do exploit
GM for profit, but this is true of any market. Genetic
modification itself is not evil and there are many people
out there who are trying to develop plants that could save
us from destroying ourselves and our environment. We
must rid ourselves of the sad habit of dismissing anything
that is not “natural” without reviewing the facts. It is true
that we should proceed with caution, but ultimately we
have a duty to the planet and the people living on it and if
we do not consider genetic modification just because it is
“unnatural”, then we are shooting ourselves in the foot.
Alison Madgwick is a third year at Sidney Sussex college. She
is reading Natural Sciences, specialising in Plant Sciences, and
became interested in genetic modification through one of her second
year Plant and Microbial Sciences modules. She decided to write
about the technology and its implications to society both to provide
scientific information and and to encourage the reader to reach
an objective conclusion on this contentious issue.
Pollution Volume 100, Issues 1–3, Pages 179–196, 1999
14. International Seed Federation Position Paper on Genetic Use Restriction
Technologies; Bangalore, June 2003
15. ICSU, GM Science Review Panel
16. Transgenic Pollen Harms Monarch Larvae; J.E. Losey, L.S. Rayor, M.E. Carter;
Nature Volume 399, Issue 214, Pages 1038-20338, 20 May 1999
17. 20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods; World Health Organisation
website:
18. β-Carotene in Golden Rice is as good as β-carotene in oil at providing vitamin
A to children; G. Tang, Y. Hu, S. Yin, Y. Wang, G.E. Dallal, M.A. Grusak, R.M.
Russell; The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
19. 24 Children used as Guinea Pigs in Genetically Engineered “Golden Rice”
Trial; Blogpost by M. Tan; August 2012
20. The Costs and Benefits of GM Crops on the Environment and Ecology: Is GM
Good for the Environment?; Ash Welch; Eco Piece website, November 2012
21. illuminating9_11 [image on the internet]. http://www.flickr.com/photos/
illuminating9_11/3553723626/ under CC-BY-ND 2.0 licence.
22. Michel Vuijlsteke[image on the internet]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Aphids_on_Helleborus_niger.jpg under CC-BY-SA 3.0 licence
23. Gaucho. [image on the internet]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WeisseFliege.jpg under CC-BY-SA 3.0 licence
24. Gbohne [image on the internet]. http://www.flickr.com/photos/
gbohne/7328409148/ under CC-By-SA 2.0 licence.
25. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) [image on the internet]. http://
www.flickr.com/photos/ricephotos/5516789000/in/set-72157626241604366 under
CC-By-SA 2.0 licence.
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 7
CAMBRIDGE
Lying in the shadow of family trees: family
happiness or eugenic selection?
Alessio Strano
“Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is
unhappy in its own way”.
R
ussian writer Leo Tolstoy used these as the opening
words of Anna Karenina, a novel centred on the values
of families and society in 19th century Russia. This
proposition, later renamed Anna Karenina’s principle, can
also lend itself to a biological interpretation: heritability of
traits can make families unhappy in their own way by causing
successive generations to be affected by a familial disease.
This interpretation may have ceased to hold true due to
advances made in the last two decades in preimplantation
genetic diagnostics (PGD), a procedure that allows embryo
selection based on genetic screening. However, as more and
more genes are linked to human traits, ethical monitoring of
PGD becomes an increasingly pressing task, for scientists,
doctors, and society as a whole.
Genetic disorders are rare, with some having been described in only a handful of families (1). Monogenic genetic
disorders are conditions associated with mutated forms of
one gene which is passed to each new generation according
to a Mendelian pattern of inheritance. Like heritable traits,
genetic diseases are classified as dominant or recessive,
autosomal or X-linked. A recessive trait is manifested only
Queen Victoria and members of the royal family. Image reproduced from [21]
8 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
if both copies of a gene are mutated, whereas one mutated
copy is sufficient to give rise to a dominant trait. X-linked
disorders are caused by mutations in the X chromosome,
whereas autosomal disorders are associated with mutations
in non-sexual chromosomes. X-linked recessive disorders
are more common in males, since they have only one X
chromosome.
Haemophilia is one such X-linked recessive condition.
Famously present in Queen Victoria’s blood line (2), this
disease is characterized by impaired blood clotting and results
in a life-long predisposition for spontaneous haemorrhages.
Prince Leopold, Victoria’s fourth son, often suffered from
severe haemorrhages and died aged 31 after a fall (2). The
pedigrees of Princesses Alice and Beatrice show that they
also carried the disease-causing mutation, as evidenced by
their sons and some of their grandsons suffering from the
disease (2). Due to intermarrying between Royal Houses, the
mutated gene spread to the royal families of Spain, Russia
and Prussia and haemophilia came to be known as “the
Royal disease” (2). Recently, the specific royal mutation was
sought by analysing DNA from skeletal bone specimens of
the Romanov family. It was discovered that the mutation
occurred in F9, a gene coding for blood coagulation factor
IX, and that therefore the royal disease was a severe form
of haemophilia known as haemophilia B (3).
Reproduced from [13]
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CAMBRIDGE
The royal pedigree tracing haemophilia. Image reproduced from [22]
Several European noble families, including the Habsburg,
Medici and Bourbons, are known to have been affected by
another condition known as the Habsburg jaw (4,5). This
condition is characterised by protrusion of the mandible,
often associated with an overlap of lower and upper incisors and a variety of other symptoms such as thickened
lower lips and a prominent nose. These facial malformations
can be observed in paintings of European royalty, which
reveal an inheritance pattern consistent with an autosomal
dominant trait with incomplete penetrance (4). However, the
precise genetic determinant for this trait is not known and
in most cases several genes are thought to contribute to its
development (4). Indeed, susceptibility to most diseases is
thought to be influenced by several genes, making association between genes and disease more challenging than in
monogenic disorders.
Through large-scale genome-wide association studies,
it is possible to associate gene variants with an increased
risk of developing a particular disease (6). Once these associations are made, sequencing the DNA of individuals
with a family history of a particular disease can help as-
Knowledge of predisposition
to a disease can have a profound
impact on an individual’s lifestyle
and the choices he makes
Charles II of Spain showing a visible Habsburg’s jaw phenotype. Image
reproduced from [23]
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
sess the likelihood that they will develop the same disease
in a practice known as genetic counselling. Knowledge of
predisposition to a disease can have a profound impact on
an individual’s lifestyle and the choices he makes. A recent
and much publicised example is that of Angelina Jolie’s
decision to undergo preventive double mastectomy after
discovering that she carried a mutated copy of BRCA1, a
tumour-suppressor gene (7). Family studies have shown that
women carrying a mutated copy of BRCA1 have an 85% risk
of developing breast cancer and a 60% risk of developing
ovarian cancer (8). Having lost her mother to cancer, the
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 9
CAMBRIDGE
actress and film director decided she was going to
minimise the chances that her children would have to go
through the same experience (7).
Preventing one’s children from suffering requires careful consideration when the children have not yet been born.
When planning a family, parents with a history of heritable
conditions traditionally faced an ethical dilemma arising from
the knowledge that their children would inherit the same
trait. However, modern biomedical science has developed
PGD involves egg fertilisation by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (top panel),
removal of a single cell after a number of cell divisions (middle panel, 8 cell
stage embryo) and genetic analysis (middle panel, FISH for chromosomal
rearrangement). Images reproduced from [24], [25], [26].
10 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
ways to prevent a couple’s offspring from developing such
conditions. Prenatal screening was for a long time the only
option available, consisting of the detection of abnormalities after several weeks of gestation and the possibility to
terminate the pregnancy. However, in 1990 Handyside et
al. introduced a new method that would avoid the invasive
diagnostic procedures and termination of pregnancy involved
in prenatal screening (9). Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
(PGD) is based on the genetic analysis of embryos fertilised
in vitro before they are implanted in the uterus; healthy
embryos that will not be affected by a heritable disease can
thus be selected. A single cell is removed for genetic analysis
from each fertilised egg once it has multiplied, usually at
the eight cell stage. Alternatively, polar body biopsy before
oocyte fecundation can be used in the case of maternally
inherited diseases or in countries where the selection of
embryos is forbidden (polar bodies are the “by-products”
of meiosis during oocyte maturation) (9,10). The removed
cell can then be analysed for the presence of a mutated gene
or a chromosomal abnormality that affected the parent(s).
This was traditionally performed by amplifying the mutated
gene or by analysis of the number and integrity of specific
chromosomes (with a technique called fluorescence in situ
hybridisation or FISH). However, in recent years it has become feasible to read every base of genomic DNA within
the time frame imposed by PGD cycles. In July 2013, the first
child who had his entire genome sequenced preimplantation was born (11).
This milestone birth is likely to heat up the ethical
debate around PGD. Although IVF and manipulation of
embryos are not controversy-free topics, it is selection that
shapes family trees and this alone offers plenty of ethical
dilemmas (12). PGD is based on the concept that one gene
or trait is more desirable than another, and this seems altogether acceptable when the gene in question causes a
disease. The most common applications of PGD, such as
avoiding haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis or
chromosomal aberrations are thus largely considered to be
ethically justifiable in order to provide a better-quality life
for a couple’s offspring (12). However, a robust definition
of disease is still to be formulated. For instance, most hearing individuals regard deafness as an obvious handicap
whereas many in the deaf community do not see deafness
as a disability but regard themselves as a linguistic and
cultural minority (13). Coherently with this view, in 2002 a
deaf lesbian couple from Maryland succeeded in having a
deaf child by selecting a sperm donor with a heritable form
of deafness (13). PGD can be used just as well to select for
the presence of a trait that is commonly perceived as a disability, and in a 2006 survey on 190 American PGD clinics 3%
reported having done so upon patients’ request (14). These
episodes seem to call upon society to reassess the definition
of disease and disability; in particular, it would be worth
considering to what extent these definitions are influenced
by deviation from a perceived normality and dependent
on disadvantages created by the way society is organized
to address the needs of ‘normal’ individuals. Moreover,
genetic diversity is essential for selection and evolution to
occur and even disease-associated traits can prove to be
advantageous in particular environmental conditions. For
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CAMBRIDGE
instance, individuals who are homozygous for sickle cell
anaemia or alpha thalassemia will develop severe blood
disorders but heterozygous individuals, while experiencing
minor symptoms, will be protected against infection by the
malaria parasite (15,16). For this reason, the genetic mutations associated with these disorders have been positively
selected in areas where malaria was or still is a prominent
cause of death, such as the Mediterranean region and large
parts of Africa (15,16).
In complex diseases there are many genes that contribute,
sometimes very marginally, to an individual’s predisposition
(6). PGD has already been employed to select embryos with
low predisposition to cancer (17), but an ‘acceptable’ level
of risk is a difficult concept to define. Predisposition is a
continuous variable, so it is hard to separate what is ethically
justifiable from what may not be; perhaps it is sufficient to
consider this type of intervention increasingly less justifiable as lifestyle factors, rather than genetic ones, become
genetic diversity is
essential for selection and
evolution to occur
already have children and would like to experience raising
a child of the opposite sex, so that they would only have
another child if this were of the selected sex (12).
As the human genome is annotated, we start to understand the function of more genes and could soon be able
to select for or against a long list of traits. This has sparked
concerns for the possible rise of ‘designer babies’. Would
selection be ethically justifiable for genes associated with
height, eye colour, intelligence or sexual orientation? Some
propose that couples should select the embryo or foetus
most likely to have the best life, regardless of whether the
advantageous trait is medical or not and even if this increases social inequality (18). This scenario is reminiscent
of eugenic selection programs such as those carried out
in Nazi Germany or post-WWII Sweden, and generally in
vogue in numerous countries during the 20th century (19,
20). Crucially, the use of PGD differs from them in that
selection is not enforced by the state but voluntarily sought
by parents (18). However, the underlying basis of selection
(a trait being more desirable or advantageous than another)
may in some cases still be traced back to cultural prejudices
that are blind to human diversity. Hence, although PGD is
undoubtedly a remarkable procedure allowing the eradication of hereditary diseases from family trees, in the future
we should perhaps try to prove Tolstoy wrong and let all
families be happy, but not all alike.
increasingly important in determining the development of a
disease. Furthermore, selection for non-medically-relevant
traits is already in place in some countries. An embryo can
be selected to be a compatible donor for an elder sibling
in need of stem cell transplantation (a procedure known
as HLA typing) and sex selection can be performed in the
US even in absence of sex-linked diseases (14). The latter
application appears to be based on sexist attitudes but it has
been argued that it may not be so in the case of a couple who
Alessio Strano is a fourth year Biochemist at Magdalene. When
he was first taught about Mendel’s genetic experiments he was
fascinated by the heritability of traits and tried to work out whether
his sister had been adopted based on her eye colour; more recently,
he was motivated to write this piece on family history after several
of his relatives were diagnosed with cancer. The article reflects
and draws upon his long-standing interests in human genetics
and bioethics.
References:
1. “Prevalence of rare diseases: Bibliographic data”. Orphanet Report Series, Rare
Diseases collection June 2013. [Internet] Available from: http://www.orpha.net/
orphacom/cahiers/docs/GB/Prevalence_of_rare_diseases_by_decreasing_prevalence_or_cases.pdf
2. Aronova-Tiuntseva Y, Herreid CF. Hemophilia: “The Royal Disease”. National
Center for Case Study Teaching in Science [Internet] Available from: http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/files/hemo.pdf
3. Rogaev EI, Grigorenko AP, Faskhutdinova G, Kittler ELW, Moliaka YK. Genotype Analysis Identifies the Cause of the Royal Disease. Science 6 November 2009:
Vol. 326 no. 5954 p. 817
4. Wolff G, Wienker TF, Sander H. On the genetics of mandibular prognathism:
analysis of large European noble families. J Med Genet 1993; 30:112-116
5. Chudley AE. Genetic landmarks through philately – The Habsburg jaw. Clin
Genet 1998; 54: 283-284
6. Manolio TA, Collins FS, Cox NJ, Goldstein DB, Hindorff LA, Hunter DJ, McCarthy MI, Ramos EM, Cardon LR, Chakravarti A, Cho JH, Guttmacher AE, Kong
A,Kruglyak L, Mardis E, Rotimi CN, Slatkin M, Valle D, Whittemore AS, Boehnke
M, Clark AG, Eichler EE, Gibson G, Haines JL, Mackay TF, McCarroll SA, Visscher
PM. Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases. Nature 8 October 2009;
461(7265):747-53
7. Jolie A. My Medical Choice. The New York Times 2013 May 14: A25.
8. Brose MS, Rebbeck TR, Calzone KA, Stopfer JE, Nathanson KL, Weber BL.
Cancer risk estimates for BRCA1 mutation carriers identified in a risk evaluation
program. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002 Sept 18; 94(18): 1365-72
9. Basille C, Frydman R, El Aly A, Hesters L, Fanchin R, Tachdjian G, Steffann J,
LeLorc’h M, Achour-Frydman N. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis: state of the
art. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2009 Jul;145(1):9-13
10. Kuliev A, Verlinsky Y. Place of preimplantation diagnosis in genetic practice.
Am J Med Genet A. 2005 Apr 1;134A(1):105-10
11. Long H. ‘Designer babies’: the ultimate privileged elite? The Guardian [Internet] 2013 Jul 9. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/
jul/09/ivf-baby-born-genetic-selection-ultimate-elite.
12. Robertson JA. Extending preimplantation genetic diagnosis: the ethical debate.
Hum. Reprod. (2003) 18 (3): 465-471.
13. Scully JL. What is a disease? EMBO Reports (2004) 5, 650-653
14. Baruch S, Kaufman D, Hudson KL. Genetic testing of embryos: practices and
perspectives of US in vitro fertilization clinics. Fertil Steril. 2008 May;89(5):1053-8.
Accessed at: http://www.dnapolicy.org/resources/PGDSurveyReportFertilityandSterilitySeptember2006withcoverpages.pdf
15. Mockenhaupt FP, Ehrhardt S, Gellert S, Otchwemah RN, Dietz E, Anemana
SD, Bienzle U. α+thalassemia protects African children from severe malaria. Blood
2004 Oct 1; 104(7).
16. Wellcome Trust. Malaria and sickle cell trait. Wellcome Trust website
31/05/2005. Available at: http://malaria.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD023878.html
17. Spits C, De Rycke M, Van Ranst N, Verpoest W, Lissens W, Van Steirteghem A,
Liebaers I, Sermon K. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis for cancer predisposition
syndromes. Prenat Diagn. 2007 May;27(5):447-56
18. Savulescu J. Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children.
Bioethics. 2001 Oct;15(5-6):413-26
19. Spektorowski A. The Eugenic Temptation in Socialism: Sweden, Germany, and
the Soviet Union. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 46, pp 84-106.
20. Black E. Eugenics and the Nazis—the California connection. San Francisco
Chronicle [Internet] 2003 Nov 9. Available from: http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/
article/Eugenics-and-the-Nazis-the-California-2549771.php
21. M.W. Ridley [Image on the Internet] http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/
pga.02489/ under public domain.
22. Wikipedia [Image on the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Haemophilia_family_tree.GIF under public domain.
23. Claudio Coello [Image on the Internet] http://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/asset-viewer/charles-ii/vgES3iV82XhpoQ?projectId=art-project Image under
public domain.
24. Ekem [Image on the Internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Icsi.JPG under
public domain.
25. Ekem [Image on the Internet] http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Embryo,_8_cells.jpg under public domain.
26. Wikipedia [Image on the Internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bcrablmet.
jpg under CC-BY-SA 3.0 licence
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 11
CAMBRIDGE
Bacteriophages: A Historic Solution to a
Modern Problem?
Nathan Smith
W
e are on the verge of a new era in antibiotic treatment. Whilst the majority of bacterial infections
still respond to some form of antibiotic treatment,
a growing number of bacterial strains are no longer sensitive to mainstream antibiotics due to the horizontal transfer
of antibiotic-resistance genes. Some chemical alterations to
existing antibiotics have been successful in extending their
lifetime. Additionally, the development of beta-lactamase
inhibitors (such as Clavulanic acid), which irreversibly bind
to and inactivate antibiotic degrading enzymes, has resulted
in prolonging the use of other antibiotics (1). However, it is
still true that the rate of antibiotic discovery has declined
rapidly since the heyday of the 1950’s, where one-half of the
drugs frequently used today were discovered (2).
To make matters worse, some companies have
stopped investing in antibiotic research— though recently,
the US government has provided financial incentives for
GlaxoSmithKline to continue its research (3). There are some
new drugs in development, such as Type IIA topoisomerase
inhibitors (4), Heteroaromatic Polycycle Antibacterials (5),
and anthracimycin (6). However, despite these novel targets
and/or structures of these drugs, if and when released, they
will be faced with the same pitfall as previous antibiotics—
that somewhere a mutation will occur in the target of a
previously susceptible bacterium, rendering it resistant or
that resistance already exists somewhere within the global
bacterial population. This resistance will be amplified through
selective pressure via drug use and spread throughout the
bacterial world. In short, more time will have been gained
but humanity will eventually be back to square one.
A major problem with phage
therapy is that much of the
literature is out of reach of the
western world.
Interest in future novel treatments seems to be diverging into two main (though not mutually exclusive) camps —
those that favour antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and those
that favour bacteriophages. Antimicrobial peptides-— found
throughout the natural world— are components of the innate
immune system. Usually cationic in nature, they are believed
to work by disrupting the bacterium’s membrane to gain
entry into the cell before eliciting a variety of effects. Whilst
they may seem promising, evidence of resistance is already
being seen and its mechanisms characterised (such as the
alteration of bacterial cell surface charge (7)) and so, at best,
they represent merely a pause to the seemingly inevitable
victory of pathogens against our chemical arsenal.
Bacteriophages (or phages) are the second area being
12 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
Bacteriophage infecting a bacterial cell. Image reproduced from [24]
explored. These are viruses that exclusively infect bacteria,
and come in two main forms: virulent and temperate (although there are always exceptions to the rule— such as the
M13 bacteriophage). Virulent bacteriophages enter the lytic
lifecycle, where they replicate inside a bacterium and cause
the lysis of their host as a necessary part to complete their
lifecycle. Temperate phages can either go through the lytic
lifecycle or enter what is known as the lysogenic lifecycle
by going into a state of dormancy within the cell and (usually) integrating themselves into the host chromosome (8).
It is solely virulent phages that are used in bacteriophage
therapy.
Far from being a recent discovery, bacteriophages
have been known about and used clinically for nearly a
century. Bacteriophages were independently discovered by
Frederick Twort in 1915 and Felix d’Herelle in 1917, the latter
of whom pioneered their use against infectious diseases.
Human phage therapy began in earnest during 1919 and
the next two decades where somewhat of a golden era for
the treatment (9), even though the nature of bacteriophages
was not conclusively determined until 1940 (10-11). Many of
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CAMBRIDGE
Clavulanic acid, a beta-lactamase type antibiotic. Image reproduced from [25]
those involved in production lacked experience or did not
enforce strict biological controls, and it was not uncommon
for preparations to have little to no activity (12). This irrevocably damaged the practice and the view of the therapy
even to this day. Prompted by this, d’Herelle opened his
own laboratory, providing commercial preparations of phage
and advising others on how to prepare phage (9). Despite
the efforts of d’Herelle and others, the practice largely fell
into disrepute in the western world (with the exception of
France), in part due to two damming reviews by the Journal
of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 1934 (13-15)
and 1941 (16-17)and also due to the appearance of penicillin
and other chemical antibiotics.
A major problem with phage therapy is that much
of the literature is out of reach of the western world. This is
principally for two reasons, the first of which is the language
barrier. With much of the research being carried out in France,
Russia, Georgia, and Poland, publications were rarely written
in English and their translation has been a slow process (9).
when they did occur (8-9).
One obstacle that may hinder phage therapy being
introduced in the UK is the opposition to “living” biological
compounds being used in treatment and through a fear that,
as bacteriophages are viruses, they may cause infection.
However, viruses are already being used in other therapies within medicine. An example is their use as vectors in
gene transfer in treating cystic fibrosis (18). In any case, as
bacteriophages (by definition) are capable only of infecting bacteria (which differ markedly in structure from any
form of human cell), any fear of a direct infection is entirely
misplaced.
On the other hand, public anxiety of using bacteriophages medically does have some scientific grounding. Phages
in the lysogenic lifecycle may integrate into the chromosome
of its host bacterium and confer new properties to the host
(now termed a lysogen (19)). This is by no means a small
matter— diphtheria (20), cholera (21), and botulism (22) are
all diseases caused by phage-infected bacteria. One could
imagine the consequences if a new virulent bacterial strain
were to be produced through inappropriate phage therapy.
However, temperate phages are not used therapeutically, and
so, this potential issue would not be clinically relevant. This
being stated, virulent phages are not entirely without risk.
Due to the inaccurate loading of phage DNA, it is possible
for small fragments of host DNA to enter a phage particle
and be transferred to a new cell. Whilst the DNA is usually
destroyed upon entering the new host, there is a chance that
it may be integrated into the host. This is called generalised
gene transduction, and while there exists a near negligible
chance of transferring genes for toxicity or antibacterial
resistance, care should still be taken to only use virulent
phages incapable of general transduction. Another issue
is that bacteriophages, though inherently non-toxic, have
the ability to elicit an immune response (8, 19). This may
lead to phage inefficacy in a patient upon multiple uses,
especially if used intravenously. Local (topical) application
largely circumvents this issue.
phages are inherently
replicative ...effectively
becoming self-dosing
Diagram of the phage lyctic cycle. Image reproduced from [26].
Also, as much of the research into phages was considered to
have military application (i.e. treatment of soldiers); many
of the findings were only privately distributed. The second
issue is that much of the previous research fails to meet the
standards of modern medical trials. As a result, many will
be inclined to treat the evidence gained as invalid. This is
because phages were often used where chemotherapeutic
agents failed to work and were often considered the standard
of care, resulting in blind or double blind trials being a rarity.though results tended to show bacteriophage therapy
as equally if not more effective than traditional antibiotics
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
So what are the benefits of phages? First of all,
there are a plethora of varieties—and they can be found
nearly anywhere that their bacterial hosts are found. Indeed,
d’Herelle used to isolate phages from stools and sewage.
This is beneficial because the major problem with bacteria
is their adaptability, and whilst resistance to phage occurs,
it is known that the phages—being dynamic in nature—
would also be able to adapt. They also have high specificity,
meaning that disruption to normal flora during treatment
is minimised; this in turn makes the risk of subsequent infections by opportunistic pathogens, such as Clostridium
difficile, significantly lower. It also reduces the increase in
resistance, as one species of phage affects at most several
closely related genera of bacteria, and can have specificity up
to being able to differentiate between two different strains
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 13
CAMBRIDGE
of the same species. Finally, phages are inherently replicative and as such they will increase in number at the site(s)
of infection— effectively becoming self-dosing. This is in
contrast to traditional antibiotics and AMPs that will never
exceed the concentration administered and that will diffuse
to all areas possible regardless of location of infection.
Phage therapy has the potential to could be a strong
candidate for a legitimate alternative to antibiotics. Whilst
a lack of production quality, particularly in the early years,
damaged the treatment’s reputation— when properly prepared,
it has shown remarkable effects. Whilst new antibacterials
and antimicrobial peptides are only now reaching human
testing, phage therapy has a long history of human trials
(totalling at just under one hundred years). Treatment at
current is a combination of general cocktails containing a
variety of phage aimed at treating certain bacteria or conditions, such as the product “Intestiphage” that is designed
to target 20 different pathogenic gastrointestinal bacteria
(9), with specifically produced phage to tackle the more
resilient bacteria. In a world where methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and other multi-resistant
bacteria are increasing in occurrence, bacteriophages provide
an attractive and well tested solution. Care must be taken
to not overstate the effects of the therapy, and the mistakes
of the past must be learned from, but bacteriophages may
help us turn the tide in our losing war against infection.
Nathan Smith is a second year natural scientist at Churchill. He
has a slightly disproportionate passion for all things antimicrobial
and wrote this piece in order to share his love of the scientifically
and historically interesting bacteriophages.
Frederick Twort, one of the co-discoverers of bacteriophage. Image reproduced
from [27].
References:
1. Livermore DM. b-Lactamases in Laboratory and Clinical Resistance. Clinical
Microbiology Reviews, Oct. 1995, p. 557–584
2. J Davies. Where have all the antibiotics gone? Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol
2006;17(5):287-290.
3. The Wall Street Journal. U.S. to Fund Glaxo’s Research on Antibiotics
(Internet) 2013 22 May (cited: 2013 August 2) Available from: http://online.wsj.
com/article/SB10001424127887323975004578499324161473326.html
4. Bax, BD. Et al. Type IIA topoisomerase inhibition by a new class of antibacterial agents. Nature. 2010 Aug 19;466(7309):935-40. DOI:10.1038/nature09197. Epub
2010 Aug 4.
5. Gross M. et al. Pharmacology of Novel Heteroaromatic Polycycle Antibacterials. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Nov. 2003. DOI:10.1128/
AAC.47.11.3448-3457.2003
6. BBC. New antibiotic that attacks MRSA found in ocean microbe (Internet) 2013
31 July (cited: 2013 August 1) Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/scienceenvironment-23523507
7. Nizet V. Antimicrobial Peptide Resistance Mechanisms of Human Bacterial
Pathogens. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 8:11-26
8. Harper D. Viruses Biology Application Control. Garland Sciences, 2012
9. Kutter EM. et al. Phage treatment of human infections. Landes Bioscience,
March/April 2011. DOI: 10.4161/BAC.1.2.15845
10. Ruska H. Die Sichtbarmachung der bakteriophagen Lyse im Übermikroskop.
Naturwissenschaften 1940; 28:45–6
11. Pfankuch E., Kausche GA. Isolierung und übermikroskopische Abbildung
eines Bakteriophagen. Naturwissenschaften 1940; 28:46
12. d’Hérelle, F. Preparation of Therapeutic Bacteriophages, Appendix 1 from: Le
Phénomène de la Guérison dans les maladies infectieuses: Masson et Cie, 1938,
Paris—OCLC 5784382
13. Eaton MD., Bayne-Jones S. Bacteriophage therapy: Review of the principles
and results of the use of bacteriophage in the treatment of infections (I). J Am Med
Assoc 1934; 103:1769-76.
14. Eaton MD., Bayne-Jones S. Bacteriophage therapy: Review of the principles
and results of the use of bacteriophage in the treatment of infections (II). J Am
Med Assoc 1934; 103:1847-53.
14 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
15. Eaton MD., Bayne-Jones S. Bacteriophage therapy: Review of the principles
and results of the use of bacteriophage in the treatment of infections (III). J Am
Med Assoc 1934; 103:1934-9.
16. Krueger AP., Scribner EJ. The bacteriophage: Its nature and its therapeutic use
(I). J Am Med Assoc 1941; 116:2160-7.
17. Krueger AP., Scribner EJ. The bacteriophage: Its nature and its therapeutic use
(II). J Am Med Assoc 1941; 116:2269-77.
18. Science Daily Common Cold Virus Efficiently Delivers Corrected Gene To
Cystic Fibrosis Cells. (Internet) 2009 22 July (cited: 2013 August 2) Available from:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090720202603.htm
19. Loc-Carrillo C., Abedon ST. Pros and cons of phage therapy. Landes Bioscience, March/April 2011. DOI: 10.4161/BAC.1.2.14590
20. Mokrousov I. Corynebacterium diphtheriae: Genome diversity, population
structure and genotyping perspectives, 2009. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 9
1–15.
21. CNRS. Cholera : how can a parasite turn bacteria into pathogens ? (Internet)
2005 6 September (cited: 2013 August 2) Available from: http://www2.cnrs.fr/
en/366.htm?debut=24
22. Sakaguchi Y. et al. The genome sequence of Clostridium botulinum type C
neurotoxin-converting phage and the molecular mechanisms of unstable lysogeny, 2005.
23. Brüggemann, H., Lood, R. Bacteriophages Infecting Propionibacterium acnes.
BioMed Research International, vol. 2013, Article ID 705741, 10 pages, 2013.
DOI:10.1155/2013/705741
24. Beards, C. [image from the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phage.
jpg public domain licence
25. Mills, B. [image from the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clavulanicacid-Spartan-HF-3-21G-3D-balls.png under public domain licence
26. DZadventiste [image from the internet] http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Phage_Reproduction_Cycle.jpg under CC BY-SA 3.0 licence
27. Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 7, No. 20. (Nov., 1951),
pp. 504-517. under public domain licence.
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CAMBRIDGE
BROWN
Bright Lights: Are they killing us?
Michael Yanagisawa
S
Image reproduced from [21]
ome view the light emanating from a big city as a magical
aura, the glow and buzz of a thriving metropolis. But
anyone who has ever seen a pitch-black sky bespeckled
with thousands of glimmering gems knows it by another
name: light pollution.
Pollution seems like a strong word for our everyday
lighting habits. We tend to think of pollution as trash suffocating
marine life, debris collecting on highway shoulders, car horns
piercing a symphony of birds, chemicals spilling into a local
river, etc. – light does not seem to fit in. It is the least tangible
of the pollutions, impossible to touch or see. In recent human
memory, light has been a fundamental part of life; to think
that something as basic as light could constitute pollution
is hard to believe. Before electricity, candles illuminated
cities; now, neon signs and streetlights burn throughout the
night. The mushy orange night sky is one that is natural to
modern man, but not to nature. Never before has daylight
shone all night long.
...when whole cities can be
seen from space, we have to
wonder: are all these lights
necessary?
Only in the past decades have scientists begun to
measure the effects of light on the larger environment. Most
studies agree that excessive artificial lighting poses a threat
to animal habitats and health, but such harmful effects may
also extend into human health. While these studies are not
yet widely accepted, the possibility of artificial light harming
us is particularly frightening – a popular, trusted technology
with ulterior motives. Should we fear persistent illumination,
or simply accept it as a cost of modernity?
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF LIGHTING
Before the dawn of electric lighting, there were two
sources of light: the sun and fire. Once the sun went down,
people for the most part remained enveloped in darkness,
prompting a desire for convenient lighting. The Industrial
Revolution ushered gaslights into the public domain, albeit
slowly; the simple lighting allowed the theater to hold evening
performances and the Smithsonian to host evening lectures
[1]. The true thirst for nighttime lighting would soon become
apparent.
In 1879, Thomas Edison lit up the first light bulb.
While at first a novelty, the light bulb quickly became an
imperative, a part of America’s vision of the future [1]. As
cities competed to light their streets, the need for lighting
became insatiable and electric companies responded with
bigger and brighter lights. Soon enough, every community
had its own “White Way,” a brightly-lit stretch of town.
When the Great Depression struck, citizens refused to turn
off their lights for fear of crime, despite the financial savings
that would result [2]. Lighting had become a fundamental
part of urban life, even more valuable than money itself.
The craze for artificial lighting continued to spread.
Lights now illuminate empty parking lots, line driveways,
and illuminate storefronts, amongst infinite other purposes.
The end result: suburban towns feel like ghost towns without
artificial lighting, and cities like Las Vegas and Hong Kong
have become swirls of neon signs. When a street corner is
hardly different by night than by day, when the light spills
beyond its intended target, when whole cities can be seen
from space, we have to wonder: are all these lights necessary?
And, more importantly, are they hurting us?
THE IMPACT OF LIGHT ON ANIMALS
The most obvious harm of lit-up cities is the loss of
stars. Country dwellers lament that the city lights drown
them out; the twinkles in a black sky becomes imperceptible
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 15
BROWN
in the fog of light. Scientists call this astronomical light
pollution. In effect, the stars are a luxury that city inhabitants
can no longer afford.
However, the unintended side effects of artificiallylit night skies may be larger than we think. There is another
form of light pollution – ecological – that scientists have
identified. The damage that light causes makes intuitive
sense. Anyone who has experienced a warm midsummer
night in New England knows that the lights inevitably attract
moths, beetles, mosquitoes etc. These insects then attract
their predators; a patio lamp becomes a new environmental
microcosm. Without patio lights, these micro-environments
would never form; a small amount artificial lighting, it seems,
can create a slightly altered local ecology. It is not hard to
imagine that the compounded effects of global nighttime
lighting may amount to larger problems. Indeed, a review
of the current research suggests that the excessive light
causes a countless species of animals to fall victim not only
to problems such as confusion and disorientation [3].
The studied effects of ecological light pollution may
in fact be fatal. Some birds crash into brightly lit buildings,
and others circle searchlights until they die of exhaustion,
showing the disorientation that city lights may cause [4].
Lighting along beachfronts has also devastated the already
endangered sea turtle. Some turtles cannot find a suitably
dark beach on which to lay their eggs; many of the hatchlings,
attracted to the light, never make it back to sea [6]. The sea
turtles’ confusion and deaths are well-known consequences
of light pollution. In another study, the túngara frog’s mating
patterns were studied in dim and dark conditions. The results
showed that the female frogs became less selective about their
mate choices in artificially-lit conditions, presumably to hasten
the dangerous act of mating [7]. In short, our unnaturallylit nights have a sizeable if subtle effect on other animals
around us [3].
we must critically weigh the
hazardous effects of light and
its necessary uses
The effects of light pollution on a single species
may even cascade into effects on a local ecology. Aquatic
invertebrates, such as zooplankton, rise to the ocean surface
in dark conditions to avoid predation [8]. Thus unnatural
lighting – from oil rigs, fishing boats, etc. – throws off the
natural flow of zooplankton, disrupting not just the single
species but all that depend on it. For example, zooplankton feed
on algae, so with excessive artificial light, algae populations
can grow exponentially [9]. Thus the effects of light pollution
may have effects not only on single species, but on a larger
environment. This domino effect makes the full scope of
light pollution harder to study.
THE HIDDEN HUMAN COST
Artificial lighting is a distinctly human invention
created for our betterment, but recent research has begun
to suggest a possible detrimental side effect of excessive
light. After all, we surround ourselves in light: one study
estimates that only 40% of Americans live where it gets
16 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
Image reproduced from [22]
sufficiently dark at night for the human eye to completely
transition from cone to rod vision, and that 18.7% of the
world’s land is polluted by astronomical standards [10].
These findings suggest that light pollution is both global
and omnipresent. While the research is not yet conclusive,
it points to a hidden human cost of light pollution. The light
that is hurting our environments and animals may harm us
humans, too.
This is not to say that light pollution is the sole
cause of human illnesses. Rather, controlled laboratory
studies have shown that exposure to light can cause health
problems. For example, exposure to light is thought to disrupt
circadian rhythms, which control the human sleep cycle.
This disruption may then affect the balance of hormones
in our body, accelerating tumor growth [11]. Artificial light
inhibits the production of melatonin, a hormone that is known
to regulate the sleep cycle. A recent study has also linked
melatonin and the organ that produces it, the pineal gland,
with cancer-suppressing properties; it posits that one large
factor in the recent epidemic of cancer is excessive lighting
[12]. Thus, light pollution disrupts the human sleep cycle,
which contributes to more serious health concerns [13].
Some studies have explicitly linked nighttime illumination,
both intentional and occupational, with various cancers. One
group reported a 35% increase in risk of colorectal cancer
for nurses who worked night shifts at least three times a
month for 15 years or more [14]. In a similar study, there
was a slight increase in risk of breast cancer for nurses with
20 or more years of night shift work [15]. Some researchers
even suggest that the coinciding increases in cancer and
light pollution are no accident, that these two phenomenon
are somehow intertwined [13,16]. The research continues
to unearth new connections, linking light pollution with
other health problems such as depression, insomnia, and
cardiovascular disease.
Important to note, though, is that the conclusions reached
by such studies are not yet widely accepted. Nevertheless,
new studies continue to point to the potential harm of light
pollution. For example, a 2006 study showed that infant
mice exposed to constant artificial light could not establish
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
BROWN
the effects of light pollution. Such small adjustments will
allow us to see the stars, help animals navigate, and may
even help decrease the human cancer risk.
One proposed solution is to use “smart” light sensors that
decrease wasted light [19]. Office buildings waste energy
and light when they are kept lit after hours. Setting the
lights to turn off when the office closes is a first step towards
eliminating the glow-stick effect skyscrapers have on the
nightscape. In the same vein, sensors can be used in low
These small, simple, and
measureable changes to our
daily lives may be able to
decrease light pollution
Image reproduced from [23].
a regular sleep cycle [17]. The present dearth of research
should serve not as reassurance of the safety of light pollution,
but as an imperative to do more. As we continue to piece
together the growing body of research, we more clearly
see a looming danger that we have the power to prevent.
A SOLUTION?
The solution to light pollution involves balancing the hazardous
effects of light and its necessary uses. This balance hinges on
so many parties – politics, money, ecology, health, safety –
that a solution seems unlikely. Yet the cost of light pollution
in the U.S. alone is estimated at 7 billion dollars a year [18].
Thus environmental and health gains could be linked with
financial savings – that is, more money – perhaps spurring
sensible and immediate action. In looking for a solution to
light pollution, we must realize that there is no quick fix.
Indeed, small changes can go a long way in diminishing
References:
1. Holden A. Lighting The Night: Technology, Urban Life and the Evolution of
Street Lighting. Places Journal. 1992; 8(2): 56-63.
2. Municipal Lighting Operators Point Out Folly of Street Lighting Cuts. The
American City. 1932 Oct; 47(4): 110.
3. Longcore T, Rich C. Ecological Light Pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the
Environment. 2004 May; 2(4):191-198.
4. Klinkenborg V. Our Vanising Night. National Geographic. Nov 2008. [cited
2013 Feb 13]. Available from: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/11/lightpollution/klinkenborg-text
5. Derrickson KC. Variation in repertoire presentation in northern mockingbirds.
Condor. 1988 Aug; 90:592-606.
6. Witherington BE, Martin RE. Understanding, Assessing, and Resolving LightPollution Problems on Sea Turtle Nesting Beaches. St. Petersberg, FL, Florida
Marine Research Institute. 2000.
7. Rand AS, Bridarolli ME, Dries L, Ryan MJ. Light levels influence female choice
in Tungara frogs: predation risk assessment? Copeia. 1997; 1997:477-450.
8. Gliwicz ZM. A lunar cycle in zooplankton. Ecology. 1986; 67:883-897.
9. Moore MV, Pierce SM, Walsh HM, et al. Urban light pollution alters the diel
vertical migration of Daphnia. Verh Internat Verin Limnol. 2000; 27:779-782.
10. Cinzano P, Falchi F, Elvidge CD. The first world atlas of the artificial night sky
brightness. Mon Not R Astron Soc. 2000; 328:689-707.
11. Chepesiuk R. Missing the Dark: Health Effects on Light Pollution.
Environmental Health Perspectives. 2009 Jan; 117:A20-A27.
12. Kerenyi NA, Pandula E, Feuer G. Why the incidence of cancer is increasing: the
role of ‘light pollution’. Medical Hypotheses. 1990 Oct; 33(2):75-78.
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
traffic areas so that streets illuminate only when in use.
Small changes in lighting design can mitigate light
pollution. Streetlight bulbs usually have a bulge hanging
below the metal housing, allowing light to disperse in all
directions, including upwards, sending wasted light into
the night sky. If the bulge were eliminated, light could be
directed to where it is needed. Many outdoor lights are also
too powerful. For example, 500-watt “Rottweiller lights”
line gardens and houses where 100-watts would suffice [19].
By aligning designated use with intensity of light, we can
select appropriate lighting, eliminating the excess light that
accompanies poor design.
The solution requires us to think about what we
really need light for, and where it is used frivolously and
carelessly. Excessive lighting is what spills over into the
surrounding environment, encroaching on a diverse cross
section of ecosystems, including ours. To this end, one dictum
for proper lighting proclaims: “Use the ‘correct’ lighting
level, not too little, not too much” [20]. Perhaps we have
been erring on the side of too much.
Michael Yanagisawa is a graduating senior at Brown University
concentrating in chemistry and biology. He is interested in almost
anything science-related, or anything you can make sound interesting.
13. Anisimov VN. Light pollution, reproductive function and cancer risk. Neuro
Endocrinology Letters.
14. Schernhammer ES, Laden F, Speizer FE, et al. Night-Shift Work and Risk
of Colorectal Cancer in Nurses’ Health Study. Journal of the National Cancer
Institute. 2003 Jun; 95(11): 825-828.
15. Schernhammer ES, Kroenke CH, Laden F, Hankinson, SE. Night Work and
Risk of Breast Cancer. Epidemiology. 2006 Jan; 17(1): 108-111.
16. Stevens R, Blask DE, Brainard GC, et al. Meeting report: the role of
environmental lighting and circadian disruption in cancer and other diseases.
Environmental Health Perspectives. 2007 Sept; 115(9):1357-1362.
17. Ohta H, Mitchell AC, McMahon DG. Constant light disrupts the developing
mouse biological clock. Pediatric Research. 2006; 60(3):304-308.
18. Gallway T, Olsen RN, Mitchell DM. The economics of global light pollution.
Ecological Economics. 2010; 69:658-665.
19. Winterman D. Light pollution: Is there a solution? BBC News Magazine. 2012
Jan 17. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16470744
20. Crawford, DL. Light pollution, an environmental problem for astronomy and
for mankind. Memorie della Società Astronomia Italiana. 2000; 71:11-40.
21. NASA Goddard Photo and Video [image on the internet] http://www.
fotopedia.com/items/flickr-8247975848 under CC-BY-2.0 licence
22. City lights public domain image picture [image on the Internet]. http://www.
public-domain-image.com/objects-public-domain-images-pictures/lamps-publicdomain-images-pictures/city-lights.jpg.html under PD
23. Cestomano [image on the internet] http://www.flickr.com/photos/
cestomano/2222529405/ under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 17
BROWN
Considering the Potential of Developing
Environmental Remediation Technologies
Elizabeth Perkins
I
n 2010, approximately 205.8 million gallons of gasoline
were released into the Gulf of Mexico after the explosion
of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig. Two decades earlier,
the 1989 Exxon oil spill had been similarly devastating, due
largely to its location in the Prince William Sound of Alaska.
This rocky inlet provided a habitat for a diverse array of
wildlife and made it difficult for our traditional technologies
such as the skimmer, designed to skim oil from the surface
of water, to remediate the sight efficiently. (1)
consequences of inaction now
will become harder to ignore
in the approaching future
For decades, most wastes, from disposed foods
to industrial factory metals, have been sent to landfills.
Today, landfills tower all over the world and grow in
size and number along with the global population. The
biggest one in the US sits in L.A. County, California and
accumulated more than 12,000 tons of waste in 2007. These
landfills, home to disposed industrial metals and petroleum
hydrocarbons such as benzene (a known carcinogen), release
gaseous emissions and leachate. Leachate is contaminated
run-off from landfills that seeps into the ground and can
contaminate the groundwater and public water supplies if
not adequately prevented from doing so. The build up of
trash in these landfills is too large to be controlled without
the use of contemporary technologies. Not to mention that
many of these landfills are old and thus not lined below or
covered above to stop the movement of wastes, as is often
done in landfills today. Although emerging technologies are
auspicious, more traditional methods of landfill management
may become less capable of countering the growth in global
waste and pollution. For example, despite the practiced and
improving efforts of landfill management by many countries,
people that live closer to landfills have higher instances
of cancer. As landfills increase in number, an even greater
number of people may become affected (2,3,4).
While society is generally aware of these environmental
concerns, it is difficult to determine to what extent society
is currently both causing and countering these problems.
While some of the most serious of our concerns about the
The Golf of Mexico oil spill. Image reproduced from [26]
18 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
BROWN
Panellus stipticus, a species of fungi capable of breaking down toxic
polyphenols. Image reproduced from [27]
environment may not manifest for a few more decades,
some of the consequences of inaction now will become
harder to ignore in the approaching future. However, the
burden of proof slows the advancements of technologies
designed for this purpose, as many hesitate in face of the
possibly unknowable long-term effects of many modern
environmental remediation technologies. The development
of environmental remediation technologies and research
endeavors, many of which indicate potential environmental
benefits, are encumbered by a lack of money, resources,
political attention, and expertise, as well as slow moving
policy procedures. This stagnancy is also propagated by
disinterest, distractedness and skepticism (e.g. the percent of
Americans that deny global warming has actually increased
within the past few years) (5,6).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has
general criteria for approving the use of environmental
One commonly practiced remediation method is
composting, a timeless staple of waste management, now
practiced by many individuals and families. Composting is a
biotechnology: a technology that involves biological processes.
Recently, bioremediation technologies (biotechnology designed
for environmental remediation purposes) have advanced due
to increased emphasis on environmental sciences, and an
increased understanding of biological variety and function.
Industrial environmental technologies in particular, require
the collaboration of different disciplines, due to the complexity
of the environment and its intimacy with society. Hence,
increased research in other fields such as genetics, biology
and engineering has supplemented the advancement of
bioremediation technologies. (5)
Within the past few decades, bioremediation has
been of increasing interest to scientists and environmental
efforts due in part to its successful and important role in
environmental remediation efforts after the BP and Exxon Oil
Spills. Bioremediation is grounded in the naturally occurring
process of biodegradation. Biodegradation refers to the process
by which microorganisms (such as bacteria) break down or
consume a substance. In many cases, bioremediation takes
advantage of pre-existing microorganisms that have naturally
evolved in the environment. In the type of composting done
by many people, food wastes are covered in soil and dried
leaves to be broken down by microorganisms inhabiting the
soil. Individual composting reduces leachate and methane gas
emissions from landfills, by reducing the amount of organic
wastes that are sent to landfills. (8) But when it comes to
waste management, certain organic and inorganic wastes
(such as metals, plastics, laboratory chemicals, etc.) pose a
greater challenge to biodegradation. These types of wastes
may eventually biodegrade as well, but at an extremely slow
rate (depending on the material, it may take hundreds or
thousands of years). More recently however, bioremediation
science has been successful in hastening this process under
certain conditions (9).
There are numerous bioremediation technologies,
many of them recently developed: from simple techniques
such as composting and tree planting, to the engineering of
genetically modified microbes designed to exploit certain
metabolic functions. Bioremediation has typically involved
In many cases, bioremediation
takes advantage of preexisting microorganisms...
remediation technologies. These include above all: the
efficiency, cost effectiveness, and the risk to the handlers
and communities associated with their use (7). However, in
cases that require an immediate response such as oil spills,
modern technologies are much more likely to be approved
for use due to the acute threat that arises with accidents
like these. Provable technologies are more regularly used
for on-going environmental maintenance, such as waste
management and soil de-contamination.
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Image reproduced from [28]
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 19
BROWN
Soil based microbial
fuel cell
the sight of contamination is not difficult. If the microorganisms
are pre-existing in a contaminated environment, they may
be attracted to the nutrients provided by the wastes. For this
reason, many of these microorganisms are first discovered at
the sight of contamination (13). In a case like this, the task that
remains for humans is to encourage these microorganisms to
thrive. This is achieved by providing and maintaining specific
environmental conditions, which encourages population
growth and maximizes the metabolic processes of organisms,
thus maximizing the speed and efficiency of waste reduction
a microbial fuel cell can
convert protons and electrons from
chemical into electrical energy
(14,15). In the Exxon oil spill for example, workers added a
dispersant to the oiled water in order to increase the available
surface area for biodegradation, as well as a fertilizer to
attract and nourish native microorganisms (1).
Image reproduced from [29]
the use of microorganisms (such as bacteria) in waste
management or remediation of contaminated environments.
Bioremediation efforts have generally been more successful
at harnessing the metabolic abilities of indigenous microbes
(vs. genetically engineered microbes). (5) The reduction of
waste by the organism occurs in varying and specific ways.
In a process called catabolism, the microbe does not benefit
from metabolizing the waste. The microorganism produces
enzymes as metabolites (substances involved in metabolism)
or bi-products, which in turn catalyze the decomposition
or re-arrangement of pollutant molecules into less harmful
or more easily managed molecules or compounds. On the
other hand, sometimes the waste provides metabolic energy
to the active microbe. This is the case with composting, in
which both micro and macro organisms (such as worms)
obtain nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen from organic
food wastes. The organisms use the nutrients for energy, to
build proteins and fuel metabolic processes. (10) Depending
on the type of microorganism and the environmental
conditions, microorganisms are capable of breaking down
many different types of waste materials. For instance, it was
recently determined that certain types of bacteria and fungi
can use mono-aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzene) as
a source of carbon. The extent to which manipulation by
humans is required to make these outcomes possible varies
and is specific to each particular circumstance (11,12).
Often, the initial recruitment of the microorganisms to
20 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
Bioremediation technologies have advanced far
beyond just the simple methods used in the Exxon oil spill.
For example, research revealing the potential of microbial
fuel cells is significant due to the ability of this remediation
method to both reduce waste and function as an energy
source. Microbial fuel cells are devices that can generate
electricity from the anaerobic degradation of organic
wastes. As the microorganism generates CO2, protons
and electrons through metabolic activity, a microbial fuel
cell can convert protons and electrons from chemical into
electrical energy. (18) In addition to treating contaminated
sights, microorganisms can be used to detect pollution. For
example, the fungus Thelephora caryophella can accumulate
arsenic in its membranes. By measuring arsenic levels of
this fungus, arsenic in the environment can be determined
(19). Besides being efficient and promising, compared to
more traditionally used methods, bioremediation is often
less invasive and thus poses fewer risks to handlers. (5)
One task associated with bioremediation is determining
the appropriate environmental conditions for the desired
outcome, which are very specific to each microbe, and the
amount and type of targeted waste. Many factors must be
considered, such as pH level, temperature, availability of
limiting nutrients and the moistness of the environment
in which the remediation is occurring. Another challenge
is to ensure that any intervention on our part (such as the
addition of a fertilizer) is minimally risky to the environment
or society (15,16,17).
Another important concern regarding bioremediation
technologies is the release of metabolic byproducts by
microorganisms that may be harmful to the environment
or people in high concentrations or with long periods of
exposure. Usually, scientists believe these bi-products to
be minimally risky, and the biggest concern is about the
release of methane by microorganisms. Moreover, research
may allow us to increasingly identify and counter the risks
associated with bioremediation while prospering from the
benefits. For example, anaerobic degradation of organic
wastes produces large amounts of methane in landfills. By
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
BROWN
drilling wells into the soil in order to expose it to oxygen,
destroying anaerobic microbes and replacing them with
native aerobic microorganisms, which eliminates methane
and reduces leachate (20,21).
The extent of the diversity of microorganisms in the
soil is only starting to be appreciated. Scientist believe that
one third of all living organisms inhabit the soil, although
we have most likely only identified about one percent of
existing microorganisms (22). A further exploration of the
abundant variety of yet unidentified microorganisms is an
incentive provided by the increasing amount of discoveries
of microbes that can consume various problems wastes, and
may continue to heighten the potential of bioremediation
(19). There have been most recently, discoveries of different,
previously unknown microbes that can reduce problem
pollutants including radioactive waste and industrial metals
(23,24,25).
Despite all of the potential for success implied by
bioremediation research, and the slow decrease in regulations
restricting the use of microorganisms, bioremediation still lacks
qualified labor, funds, and educational emphasis. All of this
requires money, but given that the most of the engineering and
labor involved in bioremediation is already done by nature,
a lot of money could be saved in the long run by increasing
reliance on bioremediation. Moreover, those in control of
References:
1. Yarris L. Lessons Learned from the Two Worst Oils Spills in U.S. History.
(homepage on the Internet). 2011 Aug 18. (cited 2013 May 10). Available
from:, U.S. Department of Energy Web site: http://newscenter.lbl.gov/featurestories/2011/08/18/two-worst-oils-spills/
2. Gunther S, Huge American Landfills and The People Who Live Nearby. Huge
American Landfills and the People Who Live Nearby.(homepage on the internet)
2011 Aug 12. (cited 2013 Apr 20) Available from : http://www.mnn.com/earthmatters/wilderness-resources/stories/6-huge-american-landfills-and-the-peoplewho-live-nearby
3. Helman C, America’s Biggest Landfills. Forbes. 2010 Oct 10. (cited 2013 April 20)
Available from: http://www.forbes.com/2010/10/13/los-angeles-las-vegas-business
-energy-biggest-landfills.html
4. Oyster, (Internet). 2011 (cited 2013 May 10). Available from: http://
hamptonroads.com/2008/10/toxic-chemicals-landfills-seep-creek-near-oyster
5. Boopathy R. Factors limiting bioremediation technologies (Internet). Biosource
Technology; 2000 (cited 2013 May 11). Available from: http://www.dms.ufsc.br /
mip7013/arquivos/5316_Biorremediacao-1.pdf
6. Hanley C. Global warmin: Why americans are in denial, (Internet). 2011 Sep 24
(cited 2013 May 11). Available from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com /2011/09/24/
global-warming-why-americans-deny_n_979177.html
7. Louis Maccarone. Senior Sanitary Engineer, RI Dept. of Environmental
Management. Office of Waste Management. (email correspondance). 20 March
2013. Cited 3 April 2013.
8. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency C. Resource conservation-Composting
for facilities Basics, (homepage on the Internet). 2013 Jan 8 (cited 2013 May 7).
Available from: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Web site: http://www.epa.
gov/compost/basic.htm
9. Burkart, K. Boy Discovers Microbe That Eats Plastic. (Internet). Mother nature
network. 2009. June 12. (cited 2013 March 16) Available from : http://www.mnn.
com/green-tech/research-innovations/blogs/boy-discovers-microbe-that-eatsplastic
10. University of Illinois Extension C. The science of composting-Composting for
the homeowner. (Internet). No date (cited 2013 May 7). Available from: University
of Illinois, Web site: http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm
11. Adeniji, A. Bioremediation of Arsenic, Chrominum, Lead and Mercury.
(Internet). US Environmental Protection Agency. 2004 August. (cited 2013 May 4)
Available from: http://www.cluin.org/ download/studentpapers/bio_of_metals_
paper.pdf
12. Farhadian, M. Vachelard, C. Duchez, D. Larroche, C. In Situ In Situ
bioremediation of monoaromatic pollutants in groundwater. (Internet). Biosource
Technology. 5296-5298. Available from :http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/
article/pii/S0960852407008620
13. Daniel Burd. Plastic Not Fantastic. (lab report). 2008 April 20. 6 p. (cited 2013
Feb 17). Available from: http://wwsef.uwaterloo.ca/archives/2008/08BurdReport.
pdf.
14. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Bioremediation of hazardous
wastes: Research, development and field evaluations. (Internet) United States
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
government spending might be more willing to spend on
bioremediation technologies, if the market opportunities
in bioremediation were considered. For example, in 2000
Elsevier estimated that 1.5 billion of the predicted 30 billion
dollars spent in Europe on soil remediation for the following
year, could be saved if 10% of the soil was treated through
bioremediation. This exceeds the estimated cost of 1 billion
dollars spent in 2011 by the US on soil treatment. (5)
In all likelihood, new environmental remediation
technologies will be necessary in order to maintain both the
health and safety of everyone, as well as the well-established
comforts of consumerism and waste of modern societies.
These technologies will also need to be minimally risky to
the environment or society. With this in mind, society should
encourage political and economic support of technologies
that are both efficient and cost effective in the long run, even
if that requires allocating more money for research now.
Society should also support the development of high-potential
environmental remediation technologies by promoting these
areas of research in jobs, education, and political discussions.
Elizabeth is a Junior at Brown studying Science and Society.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1995 September. (cited 2013 Mar 20) . Available
from: http://www.ep a.gov/tio/d ownload/rem ed/biosym.pdf
15. United States Environmental Protection Agency. A citizen’s guide to
bioremediation.(Internet). United States Environmental Protection Agency.
2012 September. 1-2. (cited 2013 Mar 20) Available from: http://www.epa.gov/
superfund/community /pdfs/suppmaterials/ treat mentt ech/bioremediation.pdf
16. Regenises. Bioaugmentation. (Internet). Regenises. 2009. Available from: http://
www.regenesis.com/contaminated-site-remediation-products/bioaugmentation/
17. Vidali, M. Bioremediation. An overview. (Internet). IUPAC. 73(7). 11631171. 2001. Available from: http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2001/
pdf/7307x1163.pdf
18. Greenman J, Galvez A, Giusti L, Ieropoulos I. Electricity from landfill leachate
using microbial fuel cells: Comparison with a biological aerated filter. (Internet).
Elsevier. 2009. 44. 112-119. (cited 2014 May 9). Available from: http://www.
microbialfuelcell.org/publications/ecobot/317.pdf
19. Baker Environmental Inc. Treatability study work plan. (Internet). Department
of the Navy. 09 January 1995. (cited 2013 May 8) Available from: http://www.tftptf.
com/CERCLA/01534.pdf
20. Maurice C. Bioindication and bioremediation of landfill emissions, (Internet).
No date (cited 2013 May 10). Available from: Lulea University of Technology,
Department of Environmental Engineering Web site: http://epubl.ltu.se/14021544/2001/29/LTU-DT-0129-SE.pdf
21. Global Earth Products. Global earth products: Aerobic landfill solutions,
(Internet). No date (cited 2013 May 10). Available from:, Web site: http://www.
globalearthproducts.com/aerobic-landfill.html
22. Dey, U. Mondal N. K., Das K., D. Shampa. An approach to polymer
degradation through microbes. Journal of Pharmacy.(Internet) 2012 May-June. 2
(3). 1-3. (cited 8 May 2013). Available from : http://www.iosrphr.org/papers/v2i3/
G023385388.pdf
23. Robbins J. The hidden world of soil under our feet. (Internet). 2013 May 11
(cited 2013 May 12). Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/12/opinion/
sunday/the-hidden-world-of-soil-under-our-feet.html?pagewanted=1&ref=opinion
24. Emery, C. Genetic diversity of cleanup microbes. (Internet). Frontiers in
Ecology and Evolution. 2009 October. 7(8). 403. (cited 6 May 2013) Available from:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25595188
25. Gadd, G.M. Microbial influence on metal mobility and application for
bioremediation.(Internet).Elsevier 2004; 122(2-4):109-119 (cited 2013 May
11). Available from : http://www.scienc edirect.com/science/ar ticle/pii/S0
016706104000060
26. Reuters/Daniel Beltra. [image on the Internet] http://www.flickr.com/
photos/48953776@N02/4616660816/ under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 licence.
27. Chaz. [image on the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panellus_
stipticus_67572.jpg under CC BY-SA 3.0 licence
28. Mikuzu. [image on the internet] http://www.flickr.com/photos/53364658@
N00/424143362 under CC BY 2.0 licence
29. MCFGuy2010. [image on the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:SoilMFC.png under CC BY-SA 3.0 licence
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 21
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The Sense Fusion of Synesthesia
Terrell Jones
T
he composer Franz Liszt saw colors when musical
notes were played. He was even known for instructing
orchestra members to make the sound, “a little bluer,
if you please,” or “not so rose.” What does it feel like to
involuntarily see colors when you listen to music, associate
tastes with words, or see numbers as having personalities?
This is what people with synesthesia, a neurological condition
present in roughly four percent of the population, experience. Synesthesia occurs when a stimulus in one sensory
modality, such as vision, involuntarily generates a sensory
experience in a distinct modality, such as hearing. There
are many different types of synesthesia. The most common
type is grapheme-color, where one involuntarily associates a
particular letter with a particular color; for instance, the letter
“q” might involuntarily and consistently appear a vibrant
lime green. Other types are lexical-gustatory synesthesia, in
which a word, such as, “knock” might involuntarily elicit a
taste, such as that of Granny Smith apples. Ordinal-linguistic
personification occurs when a synesthete involuntarily associates a personality, such as grumpy, with a number, month,
letter, or day. These multi-modal sensory experiences can be
creatively inspiring, causing many synesthetes to be drawn
to the arts.
What causes synesthetic experiences to occur?
Many neuroscientists believe that most neonates experience
synesthesia, and they argue that it continues into childhood
and adulthood if the excessive neural connections between
cortical areas in the brain that exist during infancy are not
Synesthesia occurs when
a stimulus in one sensory
modality involuntarily
generates a sensory experience
in another
eliminated. This suggests that an underlying neural framework
for synesthesia exists in babies, but is typically modified
during normal development. Functional MRI studies indicate
that the limbic system, which mediates emotional responses,
as well as brain areas that process sensory input, are active
Example of a synesthetic number form. Reproduced from [6].
22 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
© 2013 The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CMU
during synesthetic experiences. By exploring neurological
Image reproduced from [7].
and cognitive studies about synesthesia, we can gain a better
understanding of the roots of the condition, as well as some
possible evolutionary advantages of synesthesia.
Neurological and cognitive studies have linked
synesthesia to neural connectivity. The neonatal synesthesia
hypothesis states that babies that are newly born have
synesthetic experiences [3]. The result of neonatal synesthesia
is that neonates “‘mix sights sounds, feelings, and smells into
a sensual bouillabaisse’ in which ‘sights have sounds, feelings
have tastes,’ and smells can make a baby feel dizzy” [3]. This
might either be because the neural pruning and inhibition
that occurs in adults hasn’t occurred yet or because the
limbic system is more mature that the cortex in neonates [3].
Ramachandran and Hubbard support the former hypothesis,
arguing that synesthesia results from increased neuronal
connectivity between brain areas devoted to different sensory
modalities [1]. They assert that this increased connectivity
is a result of decreased neural pruning, or elimination of
synaptic connections between neurons, which is normally a
process that occurs during fetal and postnatal development
[1]. Data seems to support the pruning hypothesis; imaging
studies of adult synesthetic brains have indicated greater
white matter and greater gray matter volume, as well as
increased connectivity between cortical areas compared to
normal adult brains [1].
Besides the neurological studies, there have been efforts
to identify a genetic basis for synesthesia. A whole-genome
scan and linkage study performed by Asher et al. indicates that
there is no single gene that can be attributed to synesthesia
[2]. It is likely that the condition is inherited in a polygenic,
heterogenous fashion, in which many genes are involved and
there are multiple ways of inheriting the synesthesia trait
[2]. The study indicates a linkage between synesthesia and
a genetic locus associated with autism-spectrum disorders.
In many cases, synesthesia is reported as a symptom of
autism. Brain imaging studies of autistics indicate abnormally
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
elevated levels of neural connectivity [2], as is the case with
synesthetes. Candidate genes in this locus include the TBR1
gene, which codes for a transcription factor that regulates
the expression of genes such as RELN, which is involved in
the development of the cortex [2]. The study also revealed a
possible link between synesthesia candidate genes and genes
associated with dyslexia, including KIAA0319 and DCDC2,
which are implicated in neuronal migration [2]. Involvement
of these genes in synesthesia seems plausible, since neural
connectivity is modified in synesthetes and changes in neural
migration might be involved in this modification. Another
noteworthy synesthesia gene candidate is DPYSL3, which
is implicated in axonal growth, guidance, and in neural
differentiation [2]. This gene is primarily expressed in the
late-fetal and early-postnatal brain and spinal cord, but not
in the adult brain [2], which reflects the time course of neural
pruning, and consequently appears to support the neonatal
synesthesia hypothesis.
Many hypotheses exist for why synesthesia has been
evolutionarily conserved [1]. The synesthesia genes may have
been maintained because they provide an epiphenomenal
advantage – an evolutionary advantage for an unrelated
purpose [1]. It is also possible that synesthesia might exist as
one of the extremes of a normal distribution of communication
between the senses in humans [1]. Evidence for this hypothesis
lies in the fact that hallucinogenic drugs can cause synesthetic
experiences [1]. Individuals who are not synesthetes associate
high auditory frequencies to light colors and low frequencies
to dark colors and similar patterns have been observed with
grapheme-color synesthesia [2]. This evidence seems to indicate
that the underlying neural framework for synesthesia exists
in the non-synesthetic human brain.
Many hypotheses exist for
why synesthesia has been
evolutionarily conserved
Ramachandran and Hubbard have suggested a
hypothesis for the evolutionary advantage of synesthesia:
synesthesia genes might confer the evolutionary advantage of
creativity and metaphor [4]. The connection of synesthesia to
creativity and metaphor seems intuitive because multi-modal
sensory information allows one to describe experiences in
unique ways, such as describing a Monday as sky blue. This
might explain the increased incidence of synesthesia exists
among artists [1]. Composer and pianist, Duke Ellington,
associated color with timbre [5]. The writer Vladimir Nabokov,
had grapheme-color synesthesia [5]. In his autobiography,
Nabokov describes the letters that generate the colors of the
rainbow for him: “The word for rainbow, a primary, but
decidedly muddy, rainbow, is in my private language the
hardly pronounceable: kzspygv [5].” Marina Diamandis, Welsh
singer-songwriter for Marina and the Diamonds, associates
colors with music and days of the week [5]. However, an
issue with the creativity and metaphor hypothesis is that
synesthesia involves connecting two unrelated objects, like
the number 5 and aquamarine, whereas metaphors generally
link two objects that have some similarities, such as anxiety
being metaphorically described as a “bush shaking in the
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 23
CMU
advantages synesthesia confers is memory. Savants with
synesthesia have been known to have superior memories
as a result of their synesthetic experiences: Daniel Tammet,
a grapheme-color synesthete, memorized pi to 22,514 digits
using his synesthesia. This link to memory seems to be the
most compelling hypothesis for the evolutionary advantage
of synesthesia, where these multi-modal sensory experiences
“may serve as cognitive and perceptual anchors to aid in the
detection, processing, and retention of critical stimuli in the
world” [1]; indeed, Daniel Tammet put his synesthetic color
associations to use to remember the order of the digits of pi by
remembering the ordering of the colors. However, there are
drawbacks to synesthesia: synesthetic experiences can result
in a sensory overload and might become so overwhelming
that these experiences affect their everyday lives [2].
synesthetes experience
increased communication between
their senses even when they are not
having a synesthetic episode
Number-color associations for one of the subjects participating in [1].
wind” [1]. Even though creativity and metaphor may not
be considered evolutionary advantages of the condition,
they are aspects that many synesthetes cite as advantages
of their unique sensory experiences.
Another hypothesis for the evolutionary advantage
of synesthesia is that it may confer sensory processing and
cognitive benefits. Synesthesia appears to be implicated
in enhanced sensory processing. For instance, numbercolor synesthetes can more easily discriminate similar
colors than can those without number-color synesthesia.
It should be noted that this enhanced discrimination could
either be the result of their synesthesia, or simply because
they have more experience with viewing colors than their
non-synesthetic counterparts. However, synesthetes also
experience increased communication between their senses
compared to non-synesthetes, even when they are not having
a synesthetic episode. This appears to indicate that the benefits
from synesthesia can generalize to increase communication
and processing between the senses. One of the cognitive
It seems that the neurological basis for synesthesia is
the maintenance of enhanced neural connectivity past infancy.
There also appears to be a genetic basis for synesthesia that
involves many genes and allows the condition to be inherited
in many fashions. Although there are many hypotheses
that indicate the evolutionary advantage of synesthesia,
the hypothesis that addresses the memory advantage
conferred by synesthesia is most compelling. Despite the
possible disadvantage of sensory overload, there can be many
advantages to synesthesia, including creative inspiration as
well as enhanced memory and sensory processing.
Regardless of whether we feel synesthesia is beneficial,
we should celebrate different ways of seeing and perceiving
the world. At first, orchestra members would make fun of
Franz Liszt’s comments to make the sound, “a deep violet,”
but soon they learned to accept that great musicians saw
colors where there only appeared tones.
Terrell Jones is a student at Carnegie Mellon University.
References:
1. Brang, D, & Ramachandran, V. S. “Survival of the Synesthesia Gene: Why Do People Hear Colors and Taste Words?” PLOS [Internet]. Available from: http://www.
plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001205.
2. Asher J. et al. A Whole-Genome Scan and Fine-Mapping Linkage Study of Auditory-Visual Synesthesia Reveals Evidence of Linkage to Chromosomes 2q24, 5q33,
6p12, and 12p12. The American Journal of Human Genetics. 2009;84:285. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2668015/.
3. Mauerer D. and Mondloch C. J. Neonatal Synesthesia: A Reevaluation. Available from: http://psych.mcmaster.ca/maurerlab/Publications/Maurer_
NeonatalSynesthesia.pdf
4. Ramachandran V.S. and Hubbard.E.M. Synaesthesia -- A window into perception, thought and language. Journal of Consciousness Studies. 2001;8:3–34. doi: 10.1098/
rspb.2000.1576.
5. Wikipedia. List of People with Synesthesia. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_synesthesia
6. Synesthetic number form. Richard E. Cytowic, from Cytowic & Eagleman (2009), “Wednesday is Indigo Blue: Discovering the Brain of Synesthesia.” MIT Press.
[image from the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Number_Form--colored.jpg under CC BY-SA 3.0 licence
7. Synesthesia. Rice University Department of Visual and Dramatic Arts: Theatre. [image from the internet] http://theatre.rice.edu/uploadedImages/Theatre/
Synesthesia2close.jpg under CC-BY 2.0 license
24 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
© 2013 The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CMU
The Technology Scare Revisited: Is the Internet
Rewiring Our Brains?
Annie Chen
A
topic of heated debate has been whether technology
has become too invasive to the point where it is
changing the way we think. We become, neurologically, what we think. So is the Internet changing who we are?
Some say that the Internet is unhealthily addictive, while
others say the Internet is a great source of information that
makes us smarter. If the medium through which information
is acquired is damaging to its user, should steps be taken
to reassess the amount that we rely on and use these tools?
The brain, which was once thought to be unchanging
past adulthood, was discovered to be “plastic” (1). Regardless
of age, new connections can be made between neurons that
are used more consistently, and old connections between
neurons that are neglected fade with time. Due to the plasticity
of the brain, “every time we perform a task or experience a
sensation, whether physical or mental, a set of neurons in our
We become, neurologically,
what we think
brains is activated. If they’re in proximity, these neurons join
together through the exchange of a synaptic neurotransmitter,
such as the amino acid glutamate. As the same experience
is repeated, the synaptic links between the neurons grow
Image reproduced from [9] and [10].
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 25
CMU
stronger and more plentiful (2)” The type of information
that we expose ourselves to, therefore, has a great possibility
of rewiring our brains.
What it comes down to is that the medium through
which we get our information is influencing our thoughts.
According to the philosopher Nietzsche, who was going
blind, a typing machine rescued him for a short time. But
after resuming his writing activities, he reported that the
device had a subtler effect on his work, saying that his “prose
had become tighter, more telegraphic…its iron was, through
some mysterious metaphysical mechanism, being transferred
into the words it pressed into the pages” (1).
It has been seen in extreme cases of self-proclaimed
Internet addicts who report a “struggle to turn off anything,”
how the Internet can take over your life and make you lose
sight of what’s important in “real” life. Submerging yourself
into a digital world can also change the connections in your
brain (2). The brains of Internet addicts, it turns out, look like
the brains of drug and alcohol addicts” according to a study
done by Gary Small of UCLA. In a parallel study, there was
a reported “shrinkage of 10 to 20 percent in the area of the
brain responsible for processing of speech, memory, motor
control, emotion, sensory and other information (2).”
But is Internet addiction real or is it just a fluke?
According to a psychiatry review published in 2012,
“Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) ruins lives by causing
neurological complications, psychological disturbances,
and social problems.” And while countries such as China
and South Korea have identified Internet addiction as a
significant public health threat and both countries support
education, research, and treatment, there has been no formal
governmental response to the issue of Internet addiction in
the United States (3)
countries such as China and
South Korea have identified
Internet addiction as a significant
public health threat
Some researchers have even linked the rising numbers
of diagnoses in OCD and ADHD diagnoses with the Internet.
We are becoming fidgety, constantly jumping from link to
link, and with this new way of accessing information, comes
a new way of processing what we read. We “power browse,”
and put efficiency and immediacy above all else; some argue
then that we are unable to make rich mental connections
that form when we read deeply and without distraction (4)
So how shall we cope with these fears of “information
overflow”? One party, including the advocates for the Waldorf
schools, has shied away from integrating technology into the
classroom. While schools nationwide have rushed to supply
their classrooms with computers and many policy makers
say it might be foolish to do otherwise, the 160 Waldorf
schools around the nation take a different approach to
teaching, subscribing to a teaching philosophy “focused
on physical activity and learning through creative, handson tasks,”claiming “computers inhibit creative thinking,
movement, human interaction and attention spans (5)”.
26 THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013
An internet cafe in China. Image reproduced from [11]
But is this technology scare as old as time itself? Isn’t
it just a natural response, to question whatever is new? It is
good—even necessary—to question? But this may just be
another recurring trend in history. For example, Socrates
famously warned against writing because it would “create
forgetfulness in learners’ souls, because they will not use
their memories (6)”. What seems to happen is that the older
generation warns against a new technology and bemoans
that society is abandoning the “wholesome” media it grew
up with, unaware the this same technology was considered
to be harmful when first introduced.
Similar trends were seen with the change from
getting news from the printed page, arguing that it socially
isolated readers. And later, when literacy became essential
and schools became more prevalent, some turned against
education for being “unnatural and a risk to mental health,”
that “exhaust[ed] children’s brains and nervous systems
with complex and multiple studies (6).” After its invention,
the radio was accused of distracting children from reading
and diminishing performance in school. The radio is now
considered appropriate and wholesome.
To date, there have been many media articles that
have raised issues about the Internet and its effects on mental
health, such as “Warning: brain overload” from the Times of
London or “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” in the Atlantic.
However, there is a lack of concrete evidence and research
(7). Because of the unprecedented speed at which technology
is advancing, it is understandable why there has yet to be
conclusive findings on long-term effects of Internet usage.
This rapidly evolving change is demanding that we
adapt. According to the neurophysiologist William Calvin,
modern human cognition, including sophisticated language
and the capacity to plan ahead “evolved in response to the
demands of this long age of turbulence” and the reason
why we survived is that our brains changed to meet new
challenges (8). The focus of this technological evolution,
therefore, should not be how we put on the brakes, but how
we manage and adapt to the immense amount of knowledge
that we have created.
With inventions such as the written language,
the printing press, the telegraph, and the radio, we have
© 2013 The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
CMU
significantly increased our functional memory and ability to
share insights and knowledge across time and space. Some
scientists have described this as “fluid intelligence” –that we
now have this ability to “find meaning in confusion and to
solve new problems, independent of acquired knowledge
Are the brains of Internet
users really different from readers,
and if they are—is that necessarily
a bad thing?
(8).” As digital systems become faster, we are co-evolving:
learning to adapt our thinking and expectations, process and
filter information, and determine priorities instantaneously.
Is Google making us dumber? Are we losing our
ability to focus and digest complex information? Are the
brains of Internet users really different from readers, and if
they are—is that necessarily a bad thing? Skeptics associate
change with negative outcomes. But it doesn’t have to be
that way. Technology is advancing at a pace that will leave
non-users behind in the dust. It is important to remain wary
and cautionary, but foolish to think that it won’t change
us or that it shouldn’t. So far, there has been insufficient
evidence regarding specific neurological changes that occur
due to Internet use, and more research on this topic needs
to be done. But even if the Internet is affecting our ability
to focus and think in ways that reading long texts require
us to, is this skill demanded of us in the future? We are coevolving with the very technology that we are producing.
With these new technologies, expectations of the way that
we think will have changed and to look back and resist new
ways of thinking may be impractical for future generations.
Annie Chen is a student at Carnegie Mellon University.
Initial reception of writing, newspaper and radio were all considered harmful
to cognition or memory. Images reproduced from [12, 13, 14]
© 2013, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
References:
1. Carr, Nicholas. “The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains”
Norton and Company. 2011.
2. Dokoupil, Tony. “Is the Web Driving Us Mad?” Newsweek. Jul 2012.
3. Cash, H et al. “Internet Addiction A Brief Summary of Research and Practice.”
Current Psychiatry Reviews. Nov 2012.
4. Bell “Don’t Touch That Dial.” Slate Magazine.
5. Richtel, Matt. “A Silicon Valley School that Doesn’t Compute” Oct 2011
6. Crain, Caleb. “Twilight of the Books.” The New Yorker. Dec 2007.
7. Carr, Nicholas. “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” The Atlantic. Jul 2008.
8. Cascio, Jamias. “Get Smarter.” The Atlantic. 2013.
9. Eric. [image from the internet] http://www.flickr.com/photos/
illuminaut/3723710203/ under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 licence.
10. Pérez, M. [image from the internet] http://www.flickr.com/photos/
marianoreal/6656360457/ under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 licence.
11. Chrislb. [image from the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Chinesisches_Internetcafe_Lijiang.jpg under CC BY 2.5 licence
12. Valentin de Boulogne, Saint Paul Writing His Epistles. 1618 - 1620. Museum of
Fine Arts, Houston. Oil on Canvas.
13. ShironekoEuro. [image from the internet] http://www.flickr.com/photos/
shironekoeuro/4040697914/ under CC BY 2.0 licence
14. Dondo, C. [image from the internet] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Women_
of_the_Radio_Listening_Clubs_in_Seke_Zimbabwe_receive_Radios.jpg under CC
BY-SA 3.0 licence
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THE TRIPLE HELIX Michaelmas 2013 29
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