Geotechnical
Environmental
Water Resources
Ecological
To:
Ken Kytta, P.E.
Leggette, Brashears, and Graham, Inc. (LBG)
200 Michigan Street, Suite 411
Hancock, MI 49930
From: Stu Kogge, PWS, Sr. Wetland/Aquatic Biologist, GEI Consultants of Michigan, P.C.,
and Grant De Jong, Aquatic Biologist, GEI Consultants, Inc.
Date: November 12, 2014
Re:
Enbridge Line 5 – Straits of Mackinaw – Assessment of Attached Aquatic Organisms
GEI Consultants, Inc. (GEI) was requested to conduct a literature review of aquatic biota
expected to attach to submerged pipes within the Great Lakes, including a review of:
• how the biota attach to the pipes and what effect these attachments may have,
• a discussion of known repellants or mechanical means of preventing attachment to
the pipes, and
• other pertinent information on these biota.
The predominant species of organisms in the Great Lakes that attach to submerged pipes and
under-water infrastructure are zebra and quagga mussels (collectively called dreissenids).
These species are well-studied due to their status as invasive species, so much literature is
available.
Additionally, mussel samples from nine sites, plus a piece of pipe coating with mussels
attached, were provided to GEI for specimen identification. These samples were collected in
gallon-size zipper-locking plastic bags and shipped to the GEI laboratory in Denver,
Colorado. Samples were preserved in 95% ethanol. The organisms present in the samples
were identified to the species level and counted. A subsample of 10 whole specimens was
removed for mass determination by wet weighing, drying in an oven for up to three hours at
105°C to stable weight (± 0.0005 g), and dry weighing. Dry weights were calculated because
the water load of the organisms is approximately that of the ambient water load at depth, and
the dry weight represents the additional weight of the shells and other organic matter in the
organisms. These data were extrapolated to the community to estimate the total weight.
1.1
Literature Review
The species most likely to attach to submerged pipes in the Great Lakes include two nonnative, invasive species: the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, and the quagga mussel, D.
rostriformis bugensis. These two species are originally from the Black, Caspian, and Azov
seas in central and western Asia (Mackie and Schlosser 1996; Therriault et al. 2004). The
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KEN KYTTA, LBG
zebra mussel was first identified in Lake St. Clair in 1986 and the quagga mussel in Lake
Erie around 1989, and both species have since spread to many areas across the United States
and southern Canada (Mills 1996; Therriault et al. 2004; Benson 2014a,b). The third North
American dreissenid mussel species, Mytilopsis leucophaeata, is restricted to higher salinity,
estuarine habitats, so is not likely to occur in the Great Lakes (Therriault et al. 2004;
Verween et al. 2007). Several other species of mollusks can occur in deep waters of the
Great Lakes, but they do not have anatomical or morphological abilities to permanently
attach themselves to the substrate.
Quagga mussels generally out-compete the zebra mussel wherever they co-occur, so the
dreissinid mussel populations in the Great Lakes have shifted to a community dominated by
quagga mussels (Mills et al. 1996, 1999; Wilson et al. 2006). The quagga mussel apparently
has a much greater tolerance for water depth, even though other ecological requirements are
similar between the two species (Mills et al. 1996; Matthews et al. 2012). The zebra mussel
rarely out-competes the quagga mussel (Zhulidov et al. 2013).
Both mussel species attach to the substrate using a plaque and byssal threads, altogether
called the byssus, secreted by the organisms themselves. The byssal threads are composed
primarily of six proteins, generally fashioned from 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, or DOPA,
and are secreted by the foot of the mussel (Anderson and Waite 1998, 2000; Merten 2013).
The proteins do not have a corrosive effect on substrates to which they are attached, and
have, in fact, been studied as a potential anti-corrosive covering for underwater pipes;
however, the technology at this time is cost-prohibitive (Merten 2013).
Enhanced microbial communities have been identified with both mussel species, particularly
those that can cause Type E botulism in birds (GLEAM 2014), and those associated with
decaying blooms of Cladophora and blue-green algae. GEI did not find literature which
reported increased bacterial loads on pipes or increase in corrosion rates due to higher
bacterial loads. Conversely, Kavouras and Maki (2004) isolated bacteria from zebra mussels
and another mussel species, Pyganodon grandis, and found that extracellular products
secreted by these bacteria actually can have an inhibitory effect on mussel attachment on
some surfaces such as polystyrene. Additionally, a strain of the ubiquitous soil bacterium,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, has been found to be lethal to dreissenid mussels while being
fairly benign to other organisms, and is being developed and tested as a potential biological
control agent for these mussel species (Molloy et al. 2013a,b,c)
Instead of causing physical damage to underwater pipes as a result of increased rates of
corrosion, both zebra and quagga mussels cause damage by clogging intake equipment,
particularly on small diameter pipes, through sheer numbers. Economic costs of damage,
control, and management for these mussels in the Great Lakes exceeds hundreds of millions
of dollars annually.
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KEN KYTTA, LBG
1.2
Samples collected in the Straits of Mackinaw, Michigan
1.2.1 Community
Nine mussel samples and a piece of pipe coating, were submitted to GEI for analysis. Of
these, eight samples contained only quagga mussels and some filamentous algae (Table 1).
The ninth sample included two empty snail shells along with quagga mussels.
Table 1:
Counts of organisms in samples collected from the Straits of Mackinaw, Michigan.
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
DZ
Piece of pipe
Quagga
mussels
26
21
>147
>181
164
116
>247
>268
11
Zebra mussels
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Filamentous
algae
Present
Absent
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
3
0
Absent
Other
organisms
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 empty snail
shells
0
Samples 3, 4, 7, and 8 contained many broken quagga mussel shells, which were once viable
organisms; however, only those shells that could be associated with a single organism were
counted. Site DZ had many empty quagga mussel shells in addition to 11 viable shells.
These empty shells represented organisms that had died prior to collection.
Examination of the specimens under a microscope validated the literature cited that the
mussels were attaching to the pipe coating through the use of byssus. More importantly, the
mussels, the excreted byssal substances, and the bacterial associates of these animals were
not penetrating or adversely impacting the protective coating of the pipe.
1.2.2 Biomass
A subsample of ten whole, intact mussels was extracted for mass analysis (Table 2). Wet
weights ranged from 0.8 to 2.3 gram (g), averaging (±S.D.) 1.5 ± 0.4 g; dry weights ranged
from 0.3 to 0.8 g, averaging 0.5 ± 0.2 g. Based on these averages, the additional dry mass of
mussels in the above samples ranged up to >134 g (sample 8).
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KEN KYTTA, LBG
Table 2:
Mass of Quagga Mussels Subsampled
Individual
Wet Weight (g)
Dry Weight (g)
1A
1B
1.1824
0.8248
0.3277
0.2883
1C
2A
2B
2C
2D
2E
1.3102
1.9143
1.6568
2.3247
1.6600
1.0529
0.4128
0.6553
0.5777
0.7863
0.4800
0.3516
2F
3A
1.4173
1.6146
0.4470
0.5697
1.3
Management
Because the zebra and quagga mussels are invasive species, much research has been
conducted on their biology to identify potential control or management strategies. However,
despite the application of many different approaches to management of zebra and quagga
mussels, most have resulted in limited success, and none have provided 100% effectiveness
in eliminating the mussels from underwater pipes (Matthews et al. 2012). Methods have not
been developed for open-water application for control of either species (Benson et al.
2014a,b). The most frequent methods for elimination of mussels within pipes is by flushing
the pipes periodically with hot water, metals, or chlorine, although mussels are capable of
protecting themselves from the latter by shutting their valves. The metal and chlorine
treatments also introduce problems with water quality and toxicity to non-target organisms,
such as fish (Matthews et al. 2012). External treatments involve scraping the organisms from
the pipes when mussels have accumulated. As mentioned above, a strain of Pseudomonas
fluorescens has been discovered that is lethal to dreissenid mussels and is being investigated
as a potential biological control for these organisms (Molloy et al. 2013a,b,c).
Quagga mussels can use the shells of other mussels as well as natural and artificial substrates
for attachment and can accumulate to a depth of several centimeters on a surface. Benson et
al. (2014a) reported accumulated thicknesses of zebra mussels up to 1 foot (30 cm) on some
surfaces in Lake Erie. Such accumulations may increase mass loading on structures. Wilson
et al. (2006) estimated that 6.32 x 1012 quagga mussels had accumulated on near shore Lake
Ontario habitat in Canada, and the estimated 8.13 x 1011 g dry weight indicates a dry weight
mass of approximately 7.8 g/mussel.
This weight value is much greater than the mass GEI determined from the specimens
collected on the pipe under the Straits of Mackinaw. Examination of the videos taken during
collection of samples from the pipe showed only a single layer of mussels and not a stacking
or thick accumulation of mussels as referenced above for Lake Erie and Lake Ontario.
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KEN KYTTA, LBG
Perhaps the difference can be attributed to the greater depth at which the samples were
collected in comparison to the near shore depths in Wilson et al. (2006) and the colder
temperatures of these more northern waters. Lower concentrations of calcium in the water
can lead to thinner shells and lower unit weights. It was noticed that many of the quagga
mussel shells in the samples examined were thin and fragile. It is GEI’s professional opinion
based on the literature and examination of these mussels that this relatively thin layering of
mussels over the pipe beneath the Straits of Mackinaw result in negligible additional load on
the pipe should have no adverse impact on the pipe.
1.4
Literature Cited:
Anderson, K. E., and J. H. Waite. 1998. A major protein precursor of zebra mussel
(Dreissena polymorpha) byssus: deduced sequence and significance. Biology Bulletin
194: 150-160.
Anderson, K. E., and J. H. Waite. 2000. Immunolocalization of Dpfp1, a byssal protein of the
zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. Journal of Experimental Biology 203: 3065-3076.
Benson, A. J., D. Raikow, J. Larson, A. Fusaro, and A. K. Bognadoff. 2014a. Dreissena
polymorpha. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL.
http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?speciesid=5
Benson, A. J., M. M. Richerson, E. Maynard, J. Larson, A. Fusaro, and A. K. Bognadoff.
2014b. Dreissena rostriformis bugensis. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species
Database, Gainesville, FL. http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?speciesid=95
Great Lakes Environmental Assessment and Mapping Project (GLEAM). 2014. Zebra and
quagga mussels. http://www.greatlakesmapping.org/great_lake_stressors/2/zebra-andquagga-mussels .
Kavouras, J. H., and J. S. Maki. 2004. Inhibition of the reattachment of young adult zebra
mussels by single-species biofilms and associated exopolymers. Journal of Applied
Microbiology 97: 1236-1246.
Mackie, G. L., and D. W. Schloesser. 1996. Comparative biology of zebra mussels in Europe
and North America: An overview. American Zoologist 36: 244-258.
Matthews, J., G. van der Velde, A. bij de Vaate, and R. S. E. W. Leiven. 2012. Key Factors
for Spread, Impact and Management of Quagga Mussels in the Netherlands. Radboud
University Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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Merten, B. J. 2013. Review of Mussel Adhesion Mechanism and Scoping Study. Tech.
Memorandum MERL-2013-43, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO.
Mills, E. L., G. Rosenberg, A. P. Spidle, M. Ludyanskiy, Y. Pligin, and B. May. 1996. A
review of the biology and ecology of the quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis), a second
species of freshwater dreissenid introduced to North America. American Zoologist 36:
271-286.
Molloy, D. P., D. A. Mayer, M. J. Gaylo, J. T. Morse, K. T. Presti, P. M. Sawyko, A. Y.
Karatayev, L. E. Burlakova, F. Laruelle, K. C. Nishikawa, and B. Griffin. 2013a.
Pseudomonas fluorescens strain CL145A – A biopesticide for the control of zebra and
quagga mussels (Bivalvia: Dreissenidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 113: 104114.
Molloy, D. P., D. A. Mayer, L. Giamberini, and M. J. Gaylo. 2013b. Mode of action of
Pseudomonas fluorescens strain CL145A, a lethal control agent of dreissenid mussels
(Bivalvia: Dreissenidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 113: 115-121.
Molloy, D. P., D. A. Mayer, M. J. Gaylo, L. E. Burlakova, A. Y. Karatayev, K. T. Presti, P.
M. Sawyko, J. T. Morse, and E. A. Paul. 2013c. Non-target trials with Pseudomonas
fluorescens strain CL145A, a lethal control agen of dreissenid mussels (Bivalvia:
Dreissenidae). Management of Biological Invasions 4: 71-79.
Therrieault, T. W., M. F. Docker, M. I. Orlova, D. D. Heath, and H. J. MacIsaac. 2004.
Molecular resolution of the family Dreissenidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia) with emphasis on
Ponto-Caspian species, including first report of Mytilopsis leucophaeata in the Black
Sea basin. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30: 479-489.
Verween, A., M. Vincx, and S. Degraer. 2007. The effect of temperature and salinity on the
survival of Mytilopsis leucophaeata larvae (Mollusca, Bivalvia): The search for
environmental limits. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 348: 111120.
Wilson, K. A., E. T. Howell, and D. A. Jackson. 2006. Replacement of zebra mussels by
quagga mussels in the Canadian nearshore of Lake Ontario: the importance of substrate,
round goby abundance, and upwelling frequency. Journal of Great Lakes Research 32:
11-28.
Zhulidov, A. V., A. V. Kozhara, T. F. Nalepa, T. Y. Gurtovaya, and D. A. Zhulidov. 2013.
Relative abundance of two dreissenid species, Dreissena polymorpha and Dreissena
rostriformis bugensis in the Lower Don River system, Russia. Aquatic Invasions 8: 311318.