TEACHING AND LEARNING SOCIAL STUDIES AND CITIZENSHIP IN
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
HISTORICAL THINKING RESEARCH PROJECT
Marissa King-Farrell
Annette Chanicka-Beharrylal
Avril Look Tow
Betty Ann Chandler
TITLE
Educational Reform in Trinidad and Tobago, (1960-1969)
HYPOTHESIS
During this past year, there have been numerous occurrences of conflict involving teachers of
denominational schools and their respective Boards of Management that have been highlighted
in the media. In light of this, we decided to explore the original significance of the Concordat to
teachers in Trinidad and Tobago.
How did the Concordat change the Education system in Trinidad and Tobago?
INTRODUCTION
A concordat is an agreement made between the Holy See of the Catholic Church and a
sovereign state on religious matters. Legally, they are international treaties that have often
included recognition as well as privileges for the Catholic Church in a particular country. Such
privileges might include exemptions from certain legal matters and processes or even issues such
as taxation, as well as the right of a state/government to influence the selection of bishops within
its territory. In this instance, it deals specifically with the control over schools formerly run by
religious organizations being transferred to the government of Trinidad and Tobago in an attempt
to make education free and otherwise available for the general population.
(Source: http://www.wikipedia.com)
DISCUSSION OF SOURCES
a.
PRIMARY
The National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago
o A copy of the Concordat of 1960 was sourced at the Archives. This
document, the original of which was signed by the then Minister of
Culture Mr. John S. Donaldson in December 1960, provided information
that specified terms of teaching in 1960.
Rudranath Capildeo Learning Resource Centre (RCLRC)
o Copies of past newspaper articles were made available at the RCLRC
which is a resource center for matters relating to teachers.
Daily Newspapers of Trinidad and Tobago in the way of editorials, columns and general
news via:
o Trinidad Daily Express
o Trinidad Guardian
o Trinidad Newsday
o George Alleyne, “Government must rethink the 1960
Concordat”, Newsday, 12 March
2003.http://www.newsday.co.tt/commentary/0,1952.html
o
o “The Concordat on Education”, Trinidad and Tobago Express, 6 April
2006.
Interview
o A group member, Annette Chanicka-Beharrylal was interviewed as she
was a student that made the transition from paid to free education during
the period of this study.
b.
SECONDARY
Carl C. Campbell, Endless education: main currents in the education system of modern
Trinidad and Tobago 1939-1986, Press of the University of the West Indies, 1977, p.
102. Google reprint
Case, R. & Clark, P. The Anthology of Social Studies: Issues and Strategies for
Elementary Teachers. Vol. 1, 2008.
o Chapter 27 Using Artifacts to Foster Historical Inquiry by Linda Farr
Darling
o Chapter 11 Information Gathering and Reporting by Penney Clark
Derren Joseph, “Postcolonial Education and Afro-Trinidadian Social Exclusion”
in Merete Falck Borch, ed., Bodies and voices : the force-field of representation and
discourse in colonial and postcolonial studies, 2008, Google reprint, p. 295
c.
IMAGES AND MEDIA
Appear throughout the work in accompaniment to the image provided.
Old time days-Trinidad. Everything must change, but we love the old time ways
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BfdyLtjgFL8&feature=related
The Last Train to San Fernando 1965
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdkz-rZs3s0&feature=related
Dr. Eric Williams: Independence Day Address 8_31_1962.flv
Excerpts from Dr. Eric Williams' address to the citizens of Trinidad and Tobago on
Independence Day (8/31/1962)
http://www.encyclopedia.com/video/uPMTtiZEyTs-dr-eric-williams-independenceday.aspx
EVALUATION OF THE CONCORDAT OF 1960
A copy of this Historical Document was made available at the National Archives of Trinidad and
Tobago but a copy of the text can also be accessed at:
http://www2.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/Legislation/TheConcordatof1960/tabid/302/Def
ault.aspx
Signed by Hon. J.S. Donaldson
Minister of Education & Culture
on behalf of Cabinet on 22 December 1960
Published on 25 December, 1960
 Part 1: The first part of the Concordat is set out for the Primary Schools.
The Introduction affirmed that the Education Ministry wanted to elucidate some proposals on
Education that would impinge on Denominational Bodies and Principals of Assisted Secondary
Schools. In the sixties the Ministry of Education as we know it today was identified as the
Ministry of Education and Culture.)
Article 1 of the Concordat assured Denominational Bodies, that “In relation to property” the
denominations have the rights to ownership, direct control and management of their property
(schools). Property as we understand it, refers to material goods; taken in this context would
mean land and buildings, not teachers or principals.
The Denominational Boards do not pay teachers. They recommend individuals for vacant posts
yes, but confirmation comes from a government body called the “Teaching Service
Commission”. We make this point because as we see it, they are not the employers, and some
Denominational Boards here in Trinidad and Tobago are over powering themselves when in
truth and in fact the clause we refer to clearly states “so far as property is concerned”. And we
plead this case because it is affecting and has affected too many of us and this is the plight that
bases our research. Take the Catholic Board for example, board members “call the shots”; they
judge individuals unfairly only when they apply for promotion.
The Second Article clearly, this has to do with religion and not the curriculum. It gives the
assurance that, no introduction or imposition of new ‘books or apparatus’ adverse to the religious
beliefs and teachings of these religious bodies will be used in the schools. And that is exactly
what is done. In the Roman Catholic Primary Schools for example the religious texts used in all
the classes have to be purchased within the school, and of course at the end of the term a
representative from the Board visits and reports on each class to ensure that the religious texts
were used .
The Third Article confirmed that respective religions will be taught exclusively by teachers
professing to belong to the faith of the denominational body and that in Government Schools; all
accepted religions are to be taught by their accredited representatives. Pupils who are of a
different faith will not be obligated to do religious lessons. For example a Muslim or Hindu child
attending an Anglican school cannot be compelled to take part in a religious exercise
Yet, we have parents of other faiths who “beg” for their children to be enrolled or transferred
into a denominational school, only to be faced later with indiscipline and total disrespect for the
prayers. The parent begins to interject and oppose the child’s participation in the school prayers.
Children are not compelled to say school prayers, but they ought to show respect when prayers
are said.
Some parents deliberately “drop off’ their child or children to school late every day. The child
become a habitual late comer and learns nothing of punctuality. One recalled; when a persistent
late comer was questioned, the child replied: “Miss my mother brought me late because she
doesn’t want me to take part in the prayers.” Children of other faiths are not compelled to say the
school’s prayers, but they must respect each other’s religious beliefs. We live in a multicultural,
multiethnic society here. As we examined the use of the phrase, “teachers professing to belong
to” we immediately recalled the many teachers who had converted to another faith and were still
teaching under the guise of the faith of the school.
A group member’s sister who was a Roman Catholic became a follower of the ‘Spoken Word’
faith. She then approached the Catholic Board of Management and asked to be released so that
she could enter a Government run school where there are no restrictions on a person’s religious
persuasion. This was granted and she acknowledged a transfer to a Government School.
There are also instances where Hindus and Muslims have left behind their forefathers traditional
beliefs and have turned to Jesus. In other instances, there are those who are not active or
practicing church members. Never the less, all continue with be employed as teachers in
Denominational Schools. A couple years ago, one “Board” said that it was not going to release
any teacher because they are losing their good teachers. Good teachers yes but when it comes to
promotion they are suddenly unsuitable.
The Fourth Article pertaining to Primary Schools is the cause of the existing controversy. It
affirmed: “The right of appointment, retention, promotion, transfer and dismissal of teachers in
Primary Schools will rest with the Public Service Commission. A teacher shall not be appointed
to a school if the denominational board objects to such an appointment on moral or religious
grounds. Similarly, if a teacher be found unsatisfactory on these very grounds, moral or religious,
the denominational authority shall have the right to request his removal to another school after
due investigation. For these reasons it is proposed (provided the legal and constitutional
arrangements allow) "that vacancies as they occur in all schools should be advertised and
applications submitted in the first instance to the respective Board of management which will
examine them and forward them all, with their recommendations, to the Public Service
Commission for final action."
The first sentence of this clause unmistakably states that the right of appointment rests with the
Public Service Commission, which is the governing body for appointments, retention,
promotion, transfer and dismissal of teachers. Yet it goes on to say that when vacancies are
advertised, applications must be submitted to the respective Boards of management for approval
and recommendations, who then forward its commendation to the Teaching Service Commission
for ‘final action’.
(Source:http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/5998/Monograph1.pdf?seque
nce=1)
Why does the Board have so much authority and jurisdiction over teachers’ appointments,
transfers and promotions? They do not even consider the School’s Principal “Special Report”.
(This is a special report which assesses the suitability of a teacher applying for promotion.) The
Board has no first hand information on the teacher’s past and present performance or how he/
she has selflessly given his/her lunch hours, after school hours, even Saturdays to pursue cocurricular and extra-curricular activities with the children of this nation. Teachers who apply for
promotion are teachers with 30+ years of service. These high ranking seniors are the pillars of
the nation’s primary schools. When Denominational Board members recommend junior teachers
to these senior positions, we question the criteria used for selection. This has caused many
teachers to “throw in the towel”. This is the root of the problems which we are investigating.
The Fourth Article also gives the Board the right to request a teacher’s or principal’s removal
on the grounds of moral or religious (strong words) unacceptability after due investigations.
What happens then to a person’s “freedom of choice” and their “Rights” as enshrine in the
Constitution?
“The right of freedom of religion includes the freedom to adopt any religion or belief or to
change one’s religion or belief and freedom either alone or in community with others and in
public or in private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, teachings, practice and
observance.” This is our Constitutional Rights. We live in a Democratic Country. .
We now draw attention to an example where a “Senior Teacher” in a “Central School” rarely
attended church, was never an active member (and still is not); did not possess a Bachelor of
Education Degree therefore was unqualified and unsuitable for the post yet was appointed
Principal 1 (The individual was advised afterwards that she should pursue the course. This she
did through Roytec and the University of New Brunswick.) Can the Clergy and the Teaching
Service Commission trust these Board members recommendations?
 Part 2: The second part of the Concordat is set out mainly for the Secondary Schools
The Fifth Article of the Concordat was specifically addressed to Secondary schools. It stipulates
Denominational Secondary School in Trinidad and Tobago. The remaining 20% enrolment
choice remains in the hands of the Principal.
Through an interview with a parent while doing research, it was revealed that some years ago, a
sum of $10,000 was paid towards school funds (as a donation perhaps) to ensure a place for her
child at a more prestigious denominational secondary school known for its high success rates.
Should the Minister of Education require placing a child in such a school; it can be done from
forms two and upward.
The Sixth and Seventh implies what should be done when dealing with indiscipline in
secondary and primary schools. It gives the Principal the right to suspension pending
investigation but the “…authority to expel a pupil is vested solely in the Cabinet.” It goes on to
the government where 100 % enrolment is decided on by the government. Here children of any
religion may be placed therein.
The Eighth Article specifies that the selection of teachers for entry into the Teachers’ Training
College remains exclusively with the Ministry of Education.
Denominations had Training Colleges for people of their faith.
1. Naparima Training College for teachers was founded by the Canadian Presbyterian
Mission in 1894.
2. Catholic Women Teachers’ College (1895)
3. The Seventh Day Adventist Teachers’ College (1947)
4. Only one person taught the trainees, that was the Principal.
5. Government also conducted a Teachers’ College for all nationals. Altogether their output
was too small.
1. (Source: Overview of the Education System
School of Education Faculty of Humanities and Education University of the West Indies
St. Augustine. A Base line Study of the Teaching Education System in Trinidad and Tobago
Compiled by Lynda Quamina-Aiyejina, Jennifer Mohammed, Balchan Rampaul, June George,
Michael Kallon, Carol Keller and Samuel Lochan - School of Education 2001)
2.(Source:http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/5998/Monograph1.pdf?sequ
ence=1)
PROFESSOR SPENCE’S EVALUATION OF THE CONCORDAT OF 1960.
 A well published review and interpretation of the Concordat has been noted by Professor
John Spence’ now a retired professor from the University of West Indies and former
Senator.
“A distinguished Trinidadian, Senator Professor John Spence, objects to the concordat giving the
religious interests a veto over teaching materials in the denominational schools: “In a multireligious democracy such as ours this is an untenable imposition in schools that receive public
funding and which cater for students of all faiths.”
This is a concordat in the British sense. That is to say, it is a memorandum of
understanding between one or more parties, rather than an international treaty. Missing from
this copy is the signature of Fr. Pedro Valdez, a priest of the missionary Vincentians and a Holy
Ghost Father, who served as principal of St. Mary’s College in the capital, Port of Spain. He is
said to have led the negotiations on behalf of the denominational schools.
The concordat was published quietly on Christmas Day.”
“The prospect of independence for Trinidad and Tobago threatened to end the tradition of
mission schools. These were state subsidized, but “totally controlled” by each religion’s
Denominational Board. Just before a crucial election the religious interests pressured the
government to accept an education “concordat” which hampered government plans for school
reform.”
(Source: http://www.concordatwatch.eu/showtopic.php?org_id=911&kb_header_id=40781)
CONTEXT OF EDUCATION IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Education in this country developed from our Colonial History and saw itself being something
for the privileged. Those who gained access to an education were of the upper levels of the social
strata. Ownership changed hands many times through several wars. Through the Cedula of
Population in 1783, the educated and uneducated Europeans colonized the Caribbean and in turn
Trinidad and Tobago.
(Source: National Library and Information System Authority
http://www2.nalis.gov.tt/Research/SubjectGuide/EmancipationDay/tabid/189/Default.aspx?Page
ContentID=224)
Poverty and slavery existed. Those stricken by poverty had limited education opportunities and
the enslaved were denied an education. Schooling existed for the slave owners and their families.
With the emancipation and further abolishment of slavery, those now free individuals embraced
being able to be educated and attend school to learn to read and write, even though, this too was
limited in its scope.
In Trinidad and Tobago, education was an expensive commodity. Schools were set up and ran by
the more prominent religious sectors such as the Roman Catholic, Presbyterian Anglican, Hindu,
Muslim and Baptist Churches. The primary and secondary schools were constructed, staffed and
maintained by these religious bodies. Their main focus besides providing an education was
spreading religion thereby maintaining some form of control within society.
In the late 1960s, through research in the form of an interview, revealed that primary education
up to the age of twelve was compulsory and free but secondary school education was not. An
entrance examination was the criteria used to obtain a place in a secondary school run by the
churches. If one passed the examination, tuition fees were paid by parents. Government at that
time only financed two or three secondary scholarships from each primary school.
As such, many people fell through the cracks with the education system, as parents were unable
to pay for their children’s secondary education.
Many primary students stayed in school,
completed Standard 6 and 7 and acquired a School Leaving Certificate which permitted them to
gain employment. Others went on to trade, agriculture and other forms of employment.
Teaching being a prominent profession during that era absorbed many of the better students of
this nature through the Monitor System where they worked alongside a teacher in the primary
school as “monitors” during the first year, and after passing the first examination they were
called “pupil teachers.” In the following years, they wrote competitive examinations in subjects
normally taught in the primary school, but at a progressively more advanced level, together with
elementary educational theory. At the end of approximately five years, they were deemed
qualified to enter a teacher training college.”
(Source: The Pupil Teacher System - P 10 available at
http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/5998/Monograph1.pdf?sequence=1)
ENTRY INTO THE TEACHING PROFESSION
“During the period 1946-66, there were two channels of entry into the profession and into
training college:
• persons holding a Primary School Leaving Certificate were eligible for appointment as pupil
teachers. Thereafter, they took Part I and, later, Part II of the Teachers' Lower Certificate. At a
later stage, they took the Provisional Certificate which qualified them for entrance to a training
college.
• secondary school graduates holding a Grade III Cambridge School Certificate were required to
write the Teachers' Provisional Certificate and pass, in order to become eligible for entry into a
training college. Candidates with a Grade II or I, or Higher School Certificate were automatically
eligible, but usually taught for a few years before being admitted, because of limited space at the
training colleges.”
(Source:http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/5998/Monograph1.pdf?seque
nce=1)
Recruitment into Training College P. 14
The education of the pupil teacher P. 10 – 11
During that decade, employment in the field of teaching was also gained on a permanent basis if
one attended church regularly. A person with the required G.C.E. passes may have been hired
by the Priest on behalf of the church’s school Board which was headed by a priest not a lay
person. But this too was few and far between and many citizens lacked a proper secondary
education.
With the signing of the Concordat in 1960, reform began and change eventually occurred. There
was increased student intake. The Indo-Trinidadians and Afro-Trinidadians gained access to
secondary education which before saw mostly the rich whites enrolled (Spaniards too who came
to the island to learn English and obtain a secondary education were boarded at some Port of
Spain schools).
And so for the first time, “blacks and whites’, Europeans, Africans and Indians were permitted
for to mingle in the classrooms of these Denominational Secondary Schools.
After Independence in 1962, the country’s first Premier and Prime Minister, Dr. Eric Williams
was an integral factor in ensuring that more children accessed secondary education by making it
free to those who qualified. Monies that were paid by parents as tuition fees to Denominational
Boards were refunded to parents.
Dr. Eric Williams’ theory was - “To educate is to emancipate”.
“When the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago was a lad, his country was a British
Crown Colony, and its government offered one university scholarship a year to the entire
population. Young Eric Williams won it. Years later, on the eve of his country’s independence
from Britain, he told the islands’ young people: “Yours is the great responsibility to educate your
parents…you carry the future of Trinidad and Tobago in your school bags.”
Unfortunately, the religious groups, led by the Catholic Church, wanted to retain their grip on
the country's educational system. They tried to hinder what they called “Godless schools” - the
state schools where Dr. Williams hoped to bring together the young people of the new nation.
(Source: http://www.concordatwatch.eu/showsite.php?org_id=911)
BROADER SOCIAL AND SCIENTIFIC CONTEXT
A Population Census is taken every 10 years in Trinidad and Tobago.
Trinidad: The 1960 Census taken for Trinidad showed a population of 794,624. This figure
rose to 892,317 by 1970.
Tobago: The Census count for Tobago in 1960 revealed that the island had a population of
33,333 and by 1970 it had risen to 38,754.
Primary Schools:
The total number of primary schools
in 1960 was 411, of which 65 were
Government schools and 345 Government Assisted (Denominational Schools) Primary school
enrolment at those schools in 1959 was 173,846, comprising 87,997 boys and 85,849 girls. Of
that number 18,745 were enrolled in Standards VI and VII, the post primary classes. The
teaching staff numbered 5,024, with 2,425 male teachers and 2,599 female teachers.
Secondary Schools: Given that secondary enrolment in 1960 was 12,097 (6,523 boys and 5,574
girls), for the vast majority of students, primary level was the final level of formal education,
with only 7 percent moving on to the secondary level.
Untrained Teachers: In 1961 there were 3 221 untrained teachers.
Data obtained from:
http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/5998/Monograph1.pdf?sequen
ce=1
http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-3207.html
http://www.cso.gov.tt/census-2011/the-history-of-census-taking
“In the early 1960s, Trinidad and Tobago's tremendous growth spurt slowed, and the economy
entered a ten-year period of sluggish growth. By the 1960s, the islands' labor force was highly
unionized and urbanized, many belonging to the middle class, a situation unknown in most
developing countries. As economic growth slowed, increased demands were voiced for adequate
housing, better labor rights, more jobs, improved living and working conditions, more equitable
distribution of wealth, and national ownership of resources. Despite these demands, the
socioeconomic problems present in Trinidad and Tobago were hardly as acute as in other
Caribbean countries; … The key sectors of the economy--oil, sugar, and banking--were
dominated by multinational corporations. Growing resentment over foreign control of national
resources intensified as the economy deteriorated in the late 1960s. The high unemployment rate
of 15 percent tended to increase the number of industrial disputes and fortify union militancy.
These events, culminating in the Black Power movement of 1970, set the stage for increased
nationalization of resources during the 1970s.”
This table below shows events related to education that took place during the period covered in
this study. Data was gathered from:
http://www.clunycarib.org/castory.htm
http://www.undp.org.tt/Publications/Local/United%20Nations%20System%20in%20Trin
idad%20and%20Tobago.pdf
https://www.ttbizlink.gov.tt/trade/tnt/cmn/pdf/Food%20and%20Drugs%20Act-30.01.pdf
http://www.natt.gov.tt/load_page.aspx?id=67
Table #1
YEAR
1960
EVENT
Signing of the Concordat
Mr. Enos Sewlal was appointed Government Archivist in 1960. The
Archives came under the Office of the Prime Minister and was located in
the basement of the Prime Minister’s Office at White Hall. Later the
building at 105 St. Vincent Street, Port of Spain became the main
repository
1961
First funding for Trinidad and Tobago: Loan 0293 - Electricity
Commission Project by the World Bank.
First funding for Trinidad and Tobago: Loan 0293 - Electricity
Commission Project by the World Bank.
The village of Toco received its first supply of electricity in 1961 when
T&TEC's 50-kilowatt generator, housed in a mobile van, went into action.
Primary Education up tom the age of 12 was made compulsory and free
UNDP- United Nations Development Programme became a development
partner with the Government
Full electoral Self - Government launched
1962
Trinidad & Tobago granted Independence from England
Trinidad and Tobago became a Member State of the United Nations
UNESCO:
United
Nations
Educational,
Scientific
and
Organization established in March 1962
1964
PAHO/WHO-Pan American Health Organization/World Health
Organization established its Country Office
The "Maria Regina" Grade School blessed and formally opened.
1965
Trinidad and Tobago became a member of the ITU- International
Telecommunication Unit
The Last Passenger Train ran on Monday August 30th 1965
Cultural
(Source: http://www.ask .com)
Blessing of new Mucurapo Girls' R.C School constructed through efforts
of Sr. Gabriel Gaston-Johnston.
Food and Drugs Act was established on the 1st January 1965
The first submarine cable, measuring 23 miles long, was laid between
Trinidad and Tobago in 1965.
1966
The Boarding School of St. Joseph's Convent, Port of Spain was closed.
The [Education Act of 1966] Act enshrines compulsory, free education for
all children aged 6-12 in public schools
1967
St. Xavier's Private School founded in St. Joseph.
New Convent and Secondary School blessed in Scarborough, Tobago by
Bishop Fitzgerald.
Express Newspaper launched
1969
ILO-International Labour Organization Regional Office set up in Trinidad
Abandonment of the Monitorial System
WORLDWIDE
This table highlights important events that occurred throughout the world during the period of
investigation (1960-1969).
The information can be accessed at http://www.infoplease.com
Table #2
Year
1960
World Event
American U-2 spy plane, piloted by Francis Gary Powers, shot down over
Russia (May 1).
Khrushchev kills Paris summit conference because of U-2 (May 16).
Top Nazi murderer of Jews, Adolf Eichmann, captured by Israelis in
Argentina (May 23) - executed in Israel in 1962.
Powers sentenced to prison for 10 years (Aug. 19) - freed in February
1962 in exchange for Soviet spy. Communist China and Soviet Union split
in conflict over Communist ideology.
Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria, Madagascar,
and Zaire (Belgian
Congo)
gain
independence.
Cuba begins confiscation of $770 million of U.S. property (Aug. 7).
There are 900 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam.
1961
U.S. breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba (Jan. 3).
Robert Frost recites “The Gift Outright” at John F. Kennedy's inauguration
as president of U.S. (Jan. 20).
Moscow announces putting first man in orbit around Earth, Maj. Yuri A.
Gagarin (April 12).
Cuba invaded at Bay of Pigs by an estimated 1,200 anti-Castro exiles aided
by U.S.; invasion crushed (April 17).
First U.S. spaceman, Navy Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., rockets 116.5 miles
up in 302-mile trip (May 5).
Virgil Grissom becomes second American astronaut, making 118 mile-high,
303-mile-long rocket flight over Atlantic (July 21).
Gherman Stepanovich Titov is launched in Soviet spaceship Vostok
II: makes 171/2 orbits in 25 hours, covering 434,960 miles before landing
safely (Aug. 6).
East Germans erect Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin to halt flood
of refugees (Aug. 13).
USSR fires 50-megaton hydrogen bomb, biggest explosion in history (Oct.
29). There are 2,000 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam.
1962
Lt. Col. John H. Glenn, Jr., is first American to orbit Earth - three times in 4
hr 55 min (Feb. 20).
France transfers sovereignty to new republic of Algeria (July 3).
Cuban missile crisis USSR to build missile bases in Cuba; Kennedy orders
Cuban blockade, lifts blockade after Russians back down (Aug. - Nov.).
James H. Meredith, escorted by federal marshals, registers at University of
Mississippi (Oct. 1).
Pope John XXIII opens Second Vatican Council (Oct. 11) - Council holds
four sessions, finally closing Dec. 8, 1965. Cuba releases 1,113 prisoners of
1961 invasion attempt (Dec. 24).
Burundi, Jamaica, Western Samoa, Uganda, and Trinidad and Tobago
become independent. William Faulkner wins Pulitzer for The
Reivers. Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.
1963
France and West Germany sign treaty of cooperation ending four centuries
of conflict (Jan. 22).
Michael E. De Bakey implants artificial heart in human for first time at
Houston hospital; plastic device functions and patient lives for four
days (April 21).
Pope John XXIII dies (June 3) - succeeded June 21 by Cardinal Montini,
who becomes Paul VI. U.S. Supreme Court rules no locality may require
recitation of Lord's Prayer or Bible verses in public schools (June 17).
U.K.'s Profumo scandal (June). Civil rights rally held by 200,000 blacks and
whites in Washington, D.C.;
Martin Luther King delivers “I have a dream” speech (Aug. 28).
Washington-to-Moscow “hot line” communications link opens designed to
reduce risk of accidental war (Aug. 30).
President Kennedy shot and killed by sniper in Dallas, Tex. Lyndon B.
Johnson becomes president same day (Nov. 22).
(Source: http://www.infoplease.com)
Lee Harvey Oswald, accused assassin of President Kennedy, is shot and
killed by Jack Ruby, Dallas nightclub owner (Nov. 24). Kenya achieves
independence.
Betty Friedan publishes The Feminine Mystique. There are 15,000 U.S.
military advisers in South Vietnam.
1964
U.S. Supreme Court rules that congressional districts should be roughly
equal in population (Feb. 17).
Jack Ruby convicted of murder in slaying of Lee Harvey Oswald; sentenced
to death by Dallas jury (March 14) - conviction reversed Oct. 5, 1966; Ruby
dies Jan. 3, 1967, before second trial can be held.
Three civil rights workers—Schwerner, Goodman, and Cheney - murdered
in Mississippi (June). Twenty-one arrests result in trial and conviction of
seven by federal jury.
Nelson Mandela sentenced
to
life
imprisonment (June
11). Congress
approves Gulf of Tonkin resolution (Aug. 7).
President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy
issues Warren Report concluding that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. The
Beatles appear on The Ed Sullivan Show.
1965
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and more than 2,600 other blacks arrested
in Selma, Ala., during three-day demonstrations against voter-registration
rules (Feb. 1).
Malcolm X, black-nationalist leader, shot to death at Harlem rally in New
York City (Feb. 21).
(Source: http://www.infoplease.com)
U.S. Marines land in Dominican Republic as fighting persists between
rebels and Dominican army (April 28).
Medicare, senior citizens' government medical assistance program,
begins (July 1).
Blacks riot for six days in Watts section of Los Angeles: 34 dead, over
1,000 injured, nearly 4,000 arrested, fire damage put at $175 million (Aug.
11–16).
Power failure in Ontario plant blacks out parts of eight states of northeast
U.S. and two provinces of southeast Canada (Nov. 9). Ralph Nader's Unsafe
at Any Speed.
1966
Black teenagers riot in Watts, Los Angeles; two men killed and at least 25
injured (March 15). Supreme Court decides Miranda v. Arizona.
1967
Three Apollo astronauts—Col. Virgil I. Grissom, Col. Edward White II, and
Lt. Cmdr. Roger B. Chaffee - killed in spacecraft fire during simulated
launch (Jan. 27).
Biafra secedes from Nigeria (May 30).
Israeli and Arab forces battle; six-day war ends with Israel occupying Sinai
Peninsula, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, and east bank of Suez Canal (June
5).
Red China announces explosion of its first hydrogen bomb (June 17).
Racial violence in Detroit; 7,000 National Guardsmen aid police after night
of rioting. Similar outbreaks occur in New York City's Spanish Harlem,
Rochester, N.Y., Birmingham, Ala., and New Britain, Conn. (July 23).
Thurgood Marshall sworn in as first black U.S. Supreme Court justice (Oct.
2).
Dr. Christiaan N. Barnard and team of South African surgeons perform
world's first successful human heart transplant (Dec. 3)—patient dies 18
days later.
1968
North Korea seizes U.S. Navy ship Pueblo; holds 83 on board as spies (Jan.
23).
Tetoffensive, turning point in Vietnam War (Jan.–Feb.)
.
My Lai massacre (March 16).
President Johnson announces he will not seek or accept presidential renomination (March 31).
Martin Luther King, Jr., civil rights leader, is slain in Memphis (April 4)
James Earl Ray, indicted in murder, captured in London on June
8. In 1969 Ray pleads guilty and is sentenced to 99 years. Sen. Robert F.
Kennedy is shot and critically wounded in Los Angeles hotel after winning
California primary (June 5)—dies June 6. Sirhan B. Sirhan convicted 1969.
Czechoslovakia is invaded by Russians and Warsaw Pact forces to crush
liberal regime (Aug. 20).
1969
Richard M. Nixon is inaugurated 37th president of the U.S. (Jan. 20).
Stonewall riot in New York City marks beginning of gay rights
movement (June 28).
Apollo 11 astronauts-Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., and Michael
Collins—take man's first walk on moon (July 20).
Sen. Edward M. Kennedy pleads guilty to leaving scene of fatal accident at
Chappaquiddick, Mass. (July 18), in which Mary Jo Kopechne was
drowned—gets two-month suspended sentence (July 25).
Woodstock Festival (Aug. 15–17).
Sesame Street debuts. Internet (ARPA) goes online
(Source: http://www.infoplease.com)
THE DECADE OF CONCORDATS
During the decade of investigation, several concordats were signed and adopted throughout the
world. This timeline highlights all agreements, final or modified made during this period. This
data attempts to show that Concordats were seemingly commonplace during this era where
religion was of integral importance.
1960
23 June.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria regulating Relations under
Property Law.
23 June.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria on elevating the Apostolic
Administration of Burgenland to the status of a diocese.
9 July.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria on setting up educational
ordinances.
26 November.
An agreement and supplementary protocol between the Apostolic See and the Republic of
Paraguay for the establishment of a Military Vicarship.
22 December.
An agreement for the Assurances for the Preservation and Character of Denominational Schools
signed in Trinidad and Tobago.
.
1962
5 April.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Spain on the recognition of the civil
effects of the study of non-ecclesiastical sciences carried out in the University of the Church.
9 July.
An agreement and final protocol between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria to regulate
questions pertaining to the educational system.
1964
6 March.
A general agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Venezuela.
27 June.
A working agreement (Modus Vivendi) between the Holy See and the Republic of Tunisia.
Supplementary Protocol, Attached Lists and Exchange of Letters.
7 July.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria on setting up the Apostolic
Administration of Innsbruck-Feldkirchen.
1965
26 February.
A Concordat between the Holy See and Lower Saxony (Germany).
1966
25 June.
A protocol relating to conversations which had taken place between representatives of the Holy
See and representatives of the Government of the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia.
15 August.
A Protocol relating to Article 4 of the Concordat on the appointment of bishops, between the
plenipotentiaries of his Holiness Pope Paul VI and the plenipotentiaries of his Excellency Dr.
François Duvalier, life-long President of the Republic of Haiti.
2 September.
An agreement between the Holy See and the State of Bavaria (Germany) concerning the
Faculty of Catholic Theology at the University of Regensburg.
2 September.
An agreement between the Holy See and the State of Bavaria (Germany) concerning the
dissolution of the Higher School of Philosophy and Theology at Freising and the scholarly
training of students of Catholic theology attached to the University of Munich
10 October.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Argentina concerning ecclesiastical
organization.
1967
20-29 December 1967.
An exchange of (Diplomatic) Notes between the Holy See and the State of North-Rhine
Westphalia (Germany) concerning the founding of the Department of Catholic Theology in the
University of the Ruhr in Bochum.
1968
11 March.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of El Salvador concerning the
ecclesiastical jurisdiction of military bases and pastoral care to the Armed Forces and the
Security Corps.
9 April.
The Saar (Germany). An agreement about the establishment of a chair of Catholic theology at
the University of the Saar.
24 July.
An agreement between the Holy See and the Federal Council of Switzerland concerning the
separation of Apostolic Administration of the Canton of Ticino from the diocese of Basel and the
setting up of dioceses in the latter.
7 October.
An agreement between the Holy See and the State of Bavaria (Germany) in which changes and
amendments have been made to Articles 5 and 6 of the Concordat with Bavaria of 29 March
1924.
17 October.
An agreement was made between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria to set up dioceses in
Feldkirchen.
1969
29 April.
An agreement and final protocol between the Holy See and the State of North RhineWestphalia (Germany) in which changes and modifications have been made to the concordat
agreements in force in North Rhine-Westphalia.
29 September.
A supplementary agreement to the Agreement of 23 June 1960 made between the Holy See and
the Republic of Austria concerning land relations.
12 November 1969.
The Saar (Germany). An agreement and additional protocol about the formation of teachers.
RELATION OF SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY FOR EDUCATION IN
TRINIDAD TODAY
CHURCH SCHOOLS SECURE PRIVILEGES
The prospect of independence for Trinidad and Tobago threatened to end the tradition of mission
schools. These were state subsidized, but “totally controlled” by each religion’s Denominational
Board. Just before a crucial election the religious interests pressured the government to accept an
education “concordat” which hampered government plans for school reform. The government
had four good reasons for wanting to curb the religious interests which had “totally controlled”
education in the Colony.
● Firstly, there is the need to meld the diverse population into a functioning state and not to
continue separating children along religious lines (which, in Trinidad and Tobago, also tend to
follow ethnic ones).
● Secondly, there was the desire to give the children the best curriculum and the best teachers,
rather than letting the religious schools force both to conform to their doctrines. Yet, in the end,
the government was forced to cede control to the Denominational Boards in articles 2 and 4 of
the concordat. Another concern was teacher qualifications and in articles 8 and 9 there is a
compromise about teacher training and certification. Prof. Spence points out that this still obliges
the state to subsidize neither “unqualified” teachers in the denominational schools, some of
whom have neither university degree nor teacher training.
● Third, the government realized that the new nation needed more varied skills than the
denominational schools could impart. These had concentrated on educating a small elite
primarily through courses in the arts. By contrast, the government promised to provide secondary
education of some type for every child who would benefit. To this end it introduced “Central
Schools” which included courses in the agricultural, technical and commercial fields. The
Denominational Boards, both then and since, have shown no interest in doing likewise. Yet they
feared that the government would do it for them by taking over some of their secondary schools
in order to offer a more practical curriculum. Articles 1 and 7 serve to prevent this. Thus even
today the “prestige schools” which focus on an academic curriculum are mainly denominational.
● Fourth, the government wanted to give equal opportunity to all. Yet the religious schools are
better endowed and cater to higher-income pupils. They receive government subsidies and, at the
same time, are more successful than the state schools in raising private funds, and thus can afford
better facilities. Furthermore, article 5 of the Concordat lets the Denominational Boards hand
pick the ‘best’ i.e. smartest pupils for 20 percent of the places. According a columnist of a
newspaper, the concordat has meant that many children of lower-income families have
been nudged aside, “which has deprived many a bright schoolchild of a deserved chance at
upward mobility”. He concludes: “Taxpayers' money should not be employed to fund and
maintain privilege”. In the light of this situation, Prof. Spence ends his commentary with a
beautifully-phrased proposal: “If indeed education is better in denominational schools then we
must ensure that government schools are brought up to the best level. In the meanwhile the
denominational schools should be allocated at least fifty percent of candidates from the lower
end of the SEA (Secondary Entrance Assessment) pass list and such students must be given
special attention. I am basing this proposal on the fact that religious denominations are
concerned with the good of society as a whole and in particular with helping the disadvantaged
and so I am certain this proposal will have the full support of the denominations”.
(Source: http://www.concordatwatch.eu/showtopic.php?org_id=911&kb_header_id=40781)
CONCORDATS PROMOTE AUTHORITARIANISM
Authoritarianism concentrates power in one man or group. This pattern of subordination tends to
replicate itself to create a hierarchy. Blind obedience comes to be seen as the necessary glue for
keeping society together, and it is applauded by the mini-dictators throughout such a
society. However, a lack of power is deeply damaging to the individual.
A concordat helps to promote authoritarian structures throughout society. It fosters a system of
state-funded religious schools which instill a culture of obedience.
It is a form of dictatorship when present, is not usually just limited to the top of the political pyramid
but is often seen throughout society, at local, social and regional levels as well as national ones. It makes
most people powerless. The powerless passively accept their lot. They are guided by situational
constraints and circumstances, rather than by their own goals and values, and view themselves as the
means for other people’s goals.
But the main point of a concordat is to remove Church privileges from democratic control. It does this by
means of a contract which cannot be altered except by mutual consent. All other laws are under
parliamentary control and can be amended by it. However, in a concordat, because one of the parties is
the Church, it is hardly going to be willing to give up any of its privileges. A cardinal frankly admits that
the advantage of concordats resides precisely in this independence from democratic control.
(Source: http://www.concordatwatch.eu/showtopic.php?org_id=871&kb_header_id=876)
Government must rethink the Concordat which the Roman Catholic Church, then headed by the
powerful Archbishop Count Finbar Ryan, pressured it to agree to in 1960. Dr Eric Williams, then
Premier of Trinidad and Tobago, smarting under the six-four defeat his Party, the People's
National Movement, had received from the Democratic Labour Party in the March 25, 1958
Federal Elections, feared that opposition from the Church may have led to a further defeat in the
1961 General Election…….
Finbar Ryan wanted to continue the old British and European custom of maintaining the
Church's commanding position in education, even when that position was funded by taxpayers'
money.
Many children of lower income families were nudged aside in the application of the powers
conferred by the State-Church arrangement, and those receiving the Head Start under the
Concordat were instead sons and daughters of far better positioned middle and upper middle
income families. It was clearly unjust and deprived many a bright schoolchild of a deserved
chance at upward mobility. Government should and must move with dispatch to deal with this
cruel absurdity of privilege conferred. There must be a rethink of the Concordat, not to see in
what way it can be improved, but rather how quickly it can be consigned to the dustbin of
history.
(Source:http://www.trinidadandtobagonews.com/selfnews/viewnews.cgi?newsid1047457908,74
990,.shtml)
MODERN DAY CONCERNS
In our school system several prevalent problems exists. Religious school boards have taken
drastic actions against staff members. One such example is the prevention of a teacher from
entering the school building by a prominent member of a Muslim school board supported by
parents. This incident occurred at a government assisted school in south Trinidad. This action
was taken due to accusation of “non- performance” by the teacher and her alleged role causing
suspension of the principal. This matter was resolved due to effective communication amongst
administrative personnel at the school, Trinidad & Tobago Unified Teachers Association and the
school’s supervisor.
Another pressing problem occurred between the school board and the principal of a school. In
East Trinidad a principal was prevented from entering the compound by members of a Hindu
school board with mass support by the parents of the school. Parents reportedly called for the
transfer of the principal due to “her poor administrative decisions”. They were supported by the
school board who requested that the principal be transferred immediately. A transfer was granted
however it was not one of the schools requested by the principal. To date this matter has not been
resolved.
Problems also existed in school where harsh disciplinary measures have resulted in court related
charges against administrative personnel. One such incident occurred in North Trinidad where a
principal of a prominent private primary school was charged with cruelty to children, under the
Children’s Act, Chap 46:01, Section 3(1). She reportedly placed the head of two students on two
different occasions in the toilet bowl and flushed. This was one method of discipline in her
school. This matter is presently before the court and the students were transferred from the
school.
These are simply examples of some problems in our school system, many more exists from
documented and others dealt with internally and not reported. The Ministry of Education plays
an active role in dealing with these issues, at times, being mediator and investigating fully
reports of these incidents.
Data was obtained from:
http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/tuesday-january-10-2012/teacher-blocked-asja-school
http://www.lifeistrinidad.com/2012/01/11/calm-at-asja-girls-as-teacher-returns-to-classes/
http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/2011/11/24/principal-claims-harassment-maha-sabhaboard
http://www.tntmirror.com/2011/11/25/tunapuna-hindu-school-race-row
http://www.tntmirror.com/2011/09/09/hindu-school-principal-locked-out-of-school
http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,155349.html
http://www.trinidadexpress.com/news/Sita_staying_put-139135884.html
http://www.trinidadexpress.com/news/Sita_should_be_punished-135633193.html
http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/0,154753.html
http://www.trinidadexpress.com/news/Principal_in_court-138690634.html
CONCLUSION
We were indeed surprised when we saw that the cause of the controversy was a mere two page
document that was signed “secretly” and “published quietly” on Christmas Day.
“The Education Concordat (1960) was "approved by cabinet" (not, it seems, the House of
Representatives), it was published quietly on Christmas Day, and the Government is not
revealing the other signatory (reportedly, "Fr. Pedro Valdez"). Since then this concordat has been
extended to other religions.”
(Source: http://endrtimes.blogspot.com/2009/07/trinidad-and-tobago-concordat-of-1960.html)
What exactly was the cause of this ’hush, hush’ and hurry? Is it as Dr. Williams himself had said
from the platform “to educate is to emancipate”? Was it because he was the sole recipient of a
scholarship from the British to Oxford University that he wanted to give others a similar chance
at education?
Dr. Williams had just emerged from a long, controversial, and unpleasant series of debates with
Dom Basil Matthews on the subject of Church and State in Trinidad and Tobago. The idea had
been spread, that being in favor of birth control, Williams was against what the Church stood for.
Or, was this a political tactic used to mobilize the nation for the 1961 General Elections? The
Catholic Church controlled a major section of the society then. Priests were attacking Dr.
Williams from the pulpit. One newspaper had already posted a photograph of him along side
Adolf Hitler on the front page. Was the fear of losing the elections to Albert Gomes’ Political
Party the price citizens were expected to and continue to pay?
“A large section of the middle class, mainly teachers had become disenchanted with the then
Minister of Education, Roy Joseph, who had altered the education code to their disadvantage—as
they claimed.” General elections were forthcoming and the teachers were willing to support
anyone who sought to overthrow Gomes’s political party, the Party of Political Progress Groups
(POPPG).”
FROM OXFORD SCHOLAR TO FATHER OF A NATION
Dr. Eric Williams
(Source: Courtesy Michael Anthony at
http://www.trinicenter.com/Peopleofthecentury/EricWilliams2.htm)
If the Concordat of 1960 is a legal and binding document that confers authoritarian power on
Denominational Boards in Trinidad and Tobago, why then was there no other signatory? The
answer is simple. That one individual was acting as a representative for the citizens of this
country. Through research, there are some questions that we found of great importance:
Is it still agreed upon by the parties concerned of today’s society?
Was this” bogus” document signed in 1960, a ploy to quiet the Catholic Church?
Why too were there no witnesses?
Is the Concordat of 1960 really a legal and binding contract?
Of crucial importance to all mankind is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United
Nations (Source: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml). It was signed in 1948, several years
prior to the signing of the concordat in 1960. This document brought about change in many aspects of life
throughout the world.
It was hereby recognized and declared that in Trinidad and Tobago, there have existed and shall
continue to exist without discrimination by reason of race, origin, colour, religion or sex, the
fundamental human rights and freedoms.
Article 18 states that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and
religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom,
either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his
religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article 23 states:
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if
necessary, by other means of social protection.
Article 12 provides that no one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
privacy, family, home or correspondence, or to attacks upon his honor and reputation.
Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
At the time of the signing of the Concordat in Trinidad, there were also important changes
taking place especially in terms of the rights of human beings. America saw etched in its
history the Civil Rights Movement where blacks were fighting to be recognized and likewise
in Trinidad significant changes were being made. This was probably as the country itself saw a
new leader and now no longer being ruled by the Queen as it sought independence. This
concordat could be viewed by some as a way of keeping some measure of control over the
‘church schools”.
Through an interview held with Annette Chanicka-Beharrylal, it was revealed that someone she knew
at one time, herself was a victim a circumstance. After having acquired different religious persuasions,
she herself approached the Board and requested release from the Roman Catholic Board to the
Government Board where freedom of religion and change of one’s religious beliefs does not threaten
an individual’s professional standing. She was ‘deployed’ to a Government School but not before
encountering “control games” meted out by the Board which left her highly stressed and uncomfortable
and ultimately relieved to now not be bound by religious beliefs.
Today, there several teachers who have changed religious beliefs and fear what consequences
transparency holds for their future. Some may choose to ‘bite the bullet’ and request transfers,
and others quietly decide to sit-it-out for fear of the hornet’s nest they might open should they
decide to do so.
Many professionals have submitted articles and commentaries to the newspaper yet to no avail.
Generating awareness is key at this point and we do believe that eventually, enough controversy
will be sparked to ignite that change that many teachers so crave. We do hope that in the near
future the present Government and the Minister of Education will come to our rescue and review
this ever so important document.
The Concordat needs to be revisited. Almost 50 years have passed since its signing, and so much
has changed during this time. It would only make sense to return to the document and re-
examine its use, misuse and abuse as it would seem to have different meanings to different
people.
Times have changed drastically throughout the years, as is evidenced by changes that may range
from man first walking on the moon to now having cell phones that function as computers. Time
has also seen changes occur in the education system, in Trinidad and Tobago as well as
throughout the world. It would seem that this country still exists in a mindset of the 1960’s of
when the concordat was first put into effect. As teachers of denominational primary schools, we
have come to wonder about many things that take place with regards to promotion, class
assignment for instance and sadly, it all still is closely aligned to the religion of said schools.
We all agree that the time has come to review and redefine the document, and if possible ‘throw out’ the
document altogether. In the meantime, however, the choice lies solely with the teacher in question
whether they are going to exercise their rights first as humans, then as citizens of a country and finally as
teachers.